DC REGULATED POWER SUPPLY

Starting with an ac voltage, we obtain a steady dc voltage by rectifying the ac voltage, then filtering to a dc level,
and, finally, regulating to obtain a desired fixed dc voltage. The regulation is usually obtained from an IC voltage regulator
unit, which takes a dc voltage and provides a somewhat lower dc voltage, which remains the same even if the input dc
voltage varies or the output load connected to the dc voltage changes.
A block diagram containing the parts of a typical power supply and the voltage at various points in the unit is shown

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF POWER SUPPLY

FULL EXPLANATION:
The ac voltage, typically 120 V rms, is connected to a transformer, which steps that ac voltage down to the level
for the desired dc output. A diode rectifier then provides a full-wave rectified voltage, which is initially filtered by a basic
capacitor filter to produce a dc voltage. This resulting dc voltage usually has some ripple or ac voltage variation. A regulator
circuit can use this dc input to provide a dc voltage that not only has much less ripple voltage, but also remains at the same
dc value even if the input voltage varies somewhat or the load connected to the output dc voltage changes. This voltage
regulation is usually obtained using one of a number of popular voltage regulator IC units.

▪ TRANSFORMERS

A transformer is a device which uses the phenomenon of mutual induction to change the values of alternating
voltages and currents. Losses in transformers are generally low and thus efficiency is high. Being static they have a long
life and are very stable.
Transformers range in size from the miniature units used in electronic applications to the large power transformers
used in power stations; the principle of operation is the same for each.

A transformer is represented as consisting of two electrical circuits linked by a common ferromagnetic core.

Transformer principle of operation

When the secondary is an open-circuit and an alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary winding, a
small current—called the no-load current I0 —flows, which sets up a magnetic flux in the core. This alternating flux
links with both primary and secondary coils and induces in them e.m.f.’s of E1 and E2 respectively by
mutual induction.
 The induced e.m.f. E in a coil of N turns is given by E=−N(d(ϕ)/dt) volts, where d(ϕ/)dt is the rate of change
of flux. In an ideal transformer, the rate of change of flux is the same for both primary and secondary and thus
E1/N1 =E2/N2 i.e. the induced e.m.f. per turn is constant.
Assuming no losses, E1 =V1 and E2 =V2

(V1/V2) is called the voltage ratio and (N1/N2) the turns ratio, or the ‘transformation ratio’ of the
transformer. If N2 is less than N1 then V2 is less than V1 and the device is termed a step-down transformer. If
N2 is greater then N1 then V2 is greater than V1 and the device is termed a step-up transformer.
When a load is connected across the secondary winding, a current I2 flows. In an ideal transformer losses
are neglected and a transformer is considered to be 100 percent efficient. Hence input power=output power, or V1I1
=V2I2 i.e. in an ideal transformer, the primary and secondary ampere-turns are equal

Combining equations (1) and (2) gives:

The rating of a transformer is stated in terms of the voltamperes that it can transform without overheating.
The transformer rating is either V1I1 or V2I2, where I2 is the full-load secondary current.

▪ TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION

(i) There are broadly two types of single-phase double-wound transformer constructions — the core type and
the shell type, as shown in the figure below. The low and high voltage windings are wound as shown to
reduce leakage flux.

(ii) For power transformers, rated possibly at several MVA and operating at a frequency of 50 Hz
in Great Britain, the core material used is usually laminated silicon steel or stalloy, the laminations reducing
eddy currents and the silicon steel keeping hysteresis loss to a minimum. Large power transformers are
used in the main distribution system and in industrial supply circuits. Small power transformers have many
applications, examples including welding and rectifier supplies, domestic bell circuits, imported washing
machines, and so on.
 (iii) For audio frequency (a.f.) transformers, rated from a few mVA to no more than 20VA, and operating at
frequencies up to about 15 kHz, the small core is also made of laminated silicon steel. A typical application
of a.f. transformers is in an audio amplifier system.
(iv) Radio frequency (r.f.) transformers, operating in the MHz frequency region have either an air core, a ferrite
core or a dust core. Ferrite is a ceramic material having magnetic properties similar to silicon steel, but
having a high resistivity. Dust cores consist of fine particles of carbonyl iron or permalloy (i.e. nickel and
iron), each particle of which is insulated from its neighbour. Applications of r.f. transformers are found in
radio and television receivers.
(v) Transformer windings are usually of enamel insulated copper or aluminium.
(vi) Cooling is achieved by air in small transformers and oil in large transformers.

▪ REGULATION OF A TRANSFORMER
When the secondary of a transformer is loaded, the secondary terminal voltage, V2, falls. As the power
factor decreases, this voltage drop increases. This is called the regulation of the transformer and it is usually
expressed as a percentage of the secondary no-load voltage, E2. For full-load conditions:

The fall in voltage, (E2 −V2), is caused by the resistance and reactance of the windings. Typical values of
voltage regulation are about 3% in small transformers and about 1% in large transformers.
▪ TRANSFORMER LOSSES AND EFFICIENCY
There are broadly two sources of losses in transformers on load, these being copper losses and iron losses.
(a) Copper losses are variable and result in a heating of the conductors, due to the fact that they possess
resistance. If R1 and R2 are the primary and secondary winding resistances then the total copper loss is I12R1 +
I22R2
(b) Iron losses are constant for a given value of frequency and flux density and are of two types —
hysteresis loss and eddy current loss.
(i) Hysteresis loss is the heating of the core as a result of the internal molecular structure reversals which
occur as the magnetic flux alternates. The loss is proportional to the area of the hysteresis loop and thus low loss
nickel iron alloys are used for the core since their hysteresis loops have small areas.
(ii) Eddy current loss is the heating of the core due to e.m.f.’s being induced not only in the
transformer windings but also in the core. These induced e.m.f.’s set up circulating currents, called eddy currents.
Owing to the low resistance of the core, eddy currents can be quite considerable and can cause a
large power loss and excessive heating of the core. Eddy current losses can be reduced by increasing the resistivity
of the core material or, more usually, by laminating the core (i.e. splitting it into layers or leaves) when very thin
layers of insulating material can be inserted between each pair of laminations. This increases the resistance of the
eddy current path, and reduces the value of the eddy current.

Transformer efficiency,
 and is usually expressed as a percentage. It is not uncommon for power transformers to have efficiencies of between
95% and 98%

▪ RESISTANCE MATCHING
Varying a load resistance to be equal, or almost equal, to the source internal resistance is called matching.
Examples where resistance matching is important include coupling an aerial to a transmitter or receiver, or in
coupling a loudspeaker to an amplifier, where coupling transformers may be used to give maximum power transfer.
With d.c. generators or secondary cells, the internal resistance is usually very small. In such cases, if an
attempt is made to make the load resistance as small as the source internal resistance, overloading of the source
results.
A method of achieving maximum power transfer between a source and a load, is to adjust the value of the
load resistance to ‘match’ the source internal resistance. A transformer may be used as a resistance matching device
by connecting it between the load and the source.
The reason why a transformer can be used for this is shown below.

For an ideal transformer,

Thus the equivalent input resistance R1 of the transformer is given by:

Hence by varying the value of the turns ratio, the equivalent input resistance of a transformer can be
‘matched’ to the internal resistance of a load to achieve maximum power transfer.
▪ RECTIFICATION
The process of obtaining unidirectional currents and voltages from alternating currents and voltages is
called rectification. Semiconductor diodes are commonly used to convert alternating current (a.c.) to direct current
(d.c.), in which case they are referred to as rectifiers.
The simplest form of rectifier circuit makes use of a single diode and, since it operates on only either
positive or negative half-cycles of the supply, it is known as a halfwave rectifier. Four diodes are connected as a
bridge rectifier – and are often used as a full-wave rectifier. Note that in both cases, automatic switching of the
current is carried out by the diode(s).

BRIDGE RECTIFIER

▪ HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION
Using a single diode, D, as shown in the figure below, halfwave rectification is obtained.

When P is sufficiently positive with respect to Q, diode D is switched on and current i flows. When P is
negative with respect to Q, diode D is switched off. Transformer T isolates the equipment from direct connection
with the mains supply and enables the mains voltage to be changed.
Thus, an alternating, sinusoidal waveform applied to the transformer primary is rectified into a
unidirectional waveform. Unfortunately, the output waveform shown is not constant (i.e. steady), and as such, would
be unsuitable as a d.c. power supply for electronic equipment. It would, however, be satisfactory as a battery charger.

▪ FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION USING A CENTER-TAPPED TRANSFORMER

Two diodes may be used as shown in the figure below to obtain full-wave rectification where a centre-
tapped transformer T is used. When P is sufficiently positive with respect to Q, diode D1 conducts and current flows
(shown by the broken line). When S is positive with respect to Q, diode D2 conducts and current flows (shown by
the continuous line).
 The current flowing in the load R is in the same direction for both half-cycles of the input. The output waveform is
thus as shown in the figure. The output is unidirectional, but is not constant; however, it is better than the output
waveform produced with a half-wave rectifier.
A disadvantage of this type of rectifier is that centre-tapped transformers are expensive.

▪ FULL-WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFICATION

Four diodes may be used in a bridge rectifier circuit, as shown in the figure below to obtain full-wave
rectification. (Note, the term ‘bridge’ means a network of four elements connected to form a square, the input being
applied to two opposite corners and the output being taken from the remaining two corners). As for the rectifier
shown in the figure using center-tapped transformer, the current flowing in load R is in the same direction for both
half cycles of the input giving the output waveform shown.

Following the broken line:

When P is positive with respect to Q, current flows from the transformer to point E, through diode D4 to
point F, then through load R to point H, through D2 to point G, and back to the transformer.
Following the full line:
When Q is positive with respect to P, current flows from the transformer to point G, through diode D3 to
point F, then through load R to point H, through D1 to point E, and back to the transformer. The output
waveform is not steady and needs improving; a method of smoothing is explained in the next section.

▪ FILTERING PROCESS/CAPACITOR FILTER

The pulsating outputs obtained from the half- and full wave rectifier circuits are not suitable for the
operation of equipment that requires a steady d.c. output, such as would be obtained from batteries. For example,
for applications such as audio equipment, a supply with a large variation is unacceptable since it produces ‘hum’ in
the output. Smoothing is the process of removing the worst of the output waveform variations.
To smooth out the pulsations a large capacitor, C, is connected across the output of the rectifier, as shown
in the figure below

The improved waveforms for halfwave and full-wave rectifiers are shown in more detail in the next figure
 During each pulse of output voltage, the capacitor C charges to the same potential as the peak of the
waveform, as shown as point X in the figure above. As the waveform dies away, the capacitor discharges across
the load, as shown by XY. The output voltage is then restored to the peak value the next time the rectifier conducts,
as shown byYZ. This process continues as shown in above. Capacitor C is called a reservoir capacitor since it
stores and releases charge between the peaks of the rectified waveform. The variation in potential between points
X and Y is called ripple, as shown in the figure above; the object is to reduce ripple to a minimum. Ripple may be
reduced even further by the addition of inductance and another capacitor in a ‘filter’ circuit arrangement, as shown
in the figure below.
The output voltage from the rectifier is applied to
capacitor C1 and the voltage across point sAA is shown in the figure below, similar to the waveforms of the figure
above. The load current flows through the inductance L; when current is changing, e.m.f.’s are induced. By Lenz’s
law, the induced voltages will oppose those causing the current changes.

As the ripple voltage increases and the load current increases, the induced e.m.f. in the inductor will
oppose the increase. As the ripple voltage falls and the load current falls, the induced e.m.f. will try to maintain
the current flow. The voltage across points BB in the figure and the current in the inductance are almost ripple-
free. A further capacitor, C2, completes the process.

RIPPLE
Ripple is defined as
THREE-TERMINAL VOLTAGE REGULATORS
The figure below shows the basic connection of a three-terminal voltage regulator IC to a load. The fixed
voltage regulator has an unregulated dc input voltage V i applied to one input terminal, a regulated output dc
voltage V o from a second terminal, and the third terminal connected to ground.

FIXED POSITIVE VOLTAGE REGULATOR

The series 78 regulators provide fixed regulated voltages from 5 V to 24 V. Figure shows below shows how
one such IC, a 7812, is connected to provide voltage regulation with output from this unit of positive 12 V dc. An
unregulated input voltage V i is filtered by capacitor C 1 and connected to the IC’s IN terminal. The IC’s OUT
terminal provides a regulated positive12 V, which is filtered by capacitor C 2 (mostly for any high-frequency noise).
The third IC terminal is connected to ground (GND). Whereas the input voltage may vary over some permissible
voltage range and the output load may vary over some acceptable range, the output voltage remains constant within
specified voltage variation limits. These limitations are spelled out in the manufacturer’s specification sheets.

FIXED NEGATIVE VOLTAGE REGULATOR

The series 7900 ICs provide negative-voltage regulators, similar to those providing positive voltages.