UNIT-5
BASIC ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
5.1 Block diagram description of a dc power supply:
Today almost every electronic device needs a DC supply for its smooth operation and
they need to be operated within certain power supply limits. This required DC voltage or DC
supply is derived from single phase ac mains.
A regulated power supply can convert unregulated an AC (alternating current or
voltage) to a constant DC (direct current or voltage). A regulated power supply is used to
ensure that the output remains constant even if the input changes. A regulated DC power
supply is also called as a linear power supply, it is an embedded circuit and consists of various
blocks.
The basic building blocks of a regulated DC power supply are as follows:
1. A step down transformer
2. A rectifier
3. A DC filter
4. A regulator
A step down transformer:
A step down transformer will step down the voltage from the ac mains to the required
voltage level. The turn’s ratio of the transformer is so adjusted such as to obtain the required
voltage value. The output of the transformer is given as an input to the rectifier circuit.
Rectification:
Rectifier is an electronic circuit consisting of diodes which carries out the rectification
process. Rectification is the process of converting an alternating voltage or current into
corresponding direct (DC) quantity. The input to a rectifier is ac whereas its output is
unidirectional pulsating DC. Usually a full wave rectifier or a bridge rectifier is used to rectify
both the half cycles of the ac supply (full wave rectification). Figure below shows a full wave
bridge rectifier.'
DC Filtration:
The rectified voltage from the rectifier is a pulsating DC voltage having very high
ripple content. But this is not we want, we want a pure ripple free DC
Regulation:
This is the last block in a regulated DC power supply. The output voltage or current
will change or fluctuate when there is change in the input from ac mains or due to change in
load current at the output of the regulated power supply or due to other factors like
temperature changes. This problem can be eliminated by using a regulator. A regulator will
maintain the output constant even when changes at the input or any other changes occur.
5.2 PN JUNCTION DIODE AS RECTIFIER
The process in which alternating voltage or alternating current is converted
into direct voltage or direct current is known as rectification. In our country domestic
supply has a voltage 220V (rms) varying at a frequency 50Hz. For operating most of the
electronic equipment, dc voltage is required. Hence it is necessary to convert ac voltage
of main power supply to dc voltage.
The device used for this conversion process is called as rectifier. The junction
diode has the property of offering low resistance and allowing current to flow through
it in the forward biased condition. This property is used in the process of rectification.
A PN junction diode can be used as:
• Half wave rectifier
• Full wave rectifier
• Bridge rectifier.
5.2.1 HALF WAVE RECTIFIER:
Fig: Half wave rectifier
• Half Wave Rectifier is a circuit which converts ac signal to dc signal by
employing a single PN junction diode for rectification purpose as shown in
figure.
• In half wave rectifier circuit, an alternating voltage is applied to a single
diode connected in series with a load resistor RL.
• An ac signal full wave consists of half positive and half negative wave.
PN junction diode conducts during only one half cycle of the input ac
cycle.
• During a positive half cycle, diode D is forward biased hence conducts
and transfers the half wave. Diode offers low resistance hence a large
current IL flows through the load resistor RL. Output voltage Vo develops
across RL and transfers the half wave.
• During a negative half cycle, diode D is reverse biased hence does not
conduct. Therefore, IL=0 and hence gives no output (Vo=0).This implies
that negative half cycle of input voltage is not utilized for delivering
power to the load.
• As the output contains only positive half cycles i.e., unidirectional half
waves, the circuit is called as half wave rectifier.
5.2.2 FULL WAVE RECTIFIER:
Fig: Full wave rectifier
• Full Wave Rectifier is a circuit which converts ac signal to dc signal by
using two PN junction diodes for rectification purpose as shown in figure.
• In full wave rectifier circuit, diodes conduct (One diode conduct during
each half cycle) during both the half cycles of input ac voltage.
• A full wave ac signal input consists of half positive and half negative wave.
It is provided to the full wave rectifier from a transformer with a centre -
tapped secondary winding. (A center-tap transformer is designed to
provide two separate secondary voltages, VA and VB with a common
connection. This type of transformer configuration produces a two-phase, 3-
wire supply. The secondary voltages are the same and proportional to the
supply voltage, VP, therefore power in each winding is the same).
• During a positive half cycle of secondary voltage, diode D 1 is forward
biased hence conducts and transfers the half wave. Current IL flows
through diode D1, the load resistor RL and the upper half-winding of the
secondary. Output voltage Vo develops across RL. D2 is reverse biased.
• During a negative half cycle, diode D2 is forward biased hence conducts
and transfers the half wave. Current IL flows through diode D2, the load
resistor RL and the lower half-winding of the secondary. Output voltage
Vo develops across RL. D1is reverse biased.
• The direction of current flows through the load resistor RL in both cases is
same.
• During the both half cycles, current IL passes through the load resistor RL
and produces output voltage Vo. Thus, in Full wave rectifier, both the half
cycles are utilized to produce the output.
• As the output contains only positive continuous series of positive half
cycles of alternating voltage i.e., unidirectional waves for each input
half wave, the circuit is called as Full wave rectifier. The input and
output wave forms are as shown in figure.
5.2.3 FULL WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER:
Fig: Bridge rectifier
• The bridge rectifier is constructed by using four individual rectifying diodes
connected in a closed loop “bridge” configuration to produce the desired
output.
• The main advantage of this bridge circuit is that it does not require a special
centre tapped transformer, thereby reducing its size and cost.
• The single secondary winding is connected to one side of the diode bridge
network and the load (RL) to the other side as shown in fig.
• The four diodes labelled D1 to D4 are arranged in “series pairs” with only
two diodes conducting current during each half cycle.
• During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D3 conduct in
series while diodes D2 and D4 are reverse biased and the current IL flows
through the load (RL) is as shown in fig.
• During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D2 and D4 conduct in series,
but diodes D1 and D3 are switched “OFF” as they are now reverse biased.
The current IL flowing through the load (RL) is in the same direction as
before.
• As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage
developed across the load is also unidirectional, the same as for the previous
two diode full- wave rectifier.
5.3 Block diagram of Public Address system:
A public Address System or PA system is an electronic system that includes acoustic signal
converting, mixing, amplifying, and playing. A PA system has microphones, amplifiers, and
loudspeakers as its main components or equipment. We know that the intensity of the sound
decreases with the distance. Also, a particular sound can be affected or distorted by the other sound
if the level or volume of the sound is the same. So, if we want to deliver sound energy over a long
distance or highlight a particular sound or voice in a large crowd or gathering then we need a PA
system. Because the PA systems provide the amplification of the sound for comfortable listening
Components of a PA System:
There are so many devices or components are used in PA system that depends upon their
applications and other factors. But the main three components of any public address system are
explained below.
1. Microphone:
The microphone is a very important part or component of a PA system. The microphone
basically is a transducer that converts acoustic energy or sound energy into electrical energy. It
continuously generates the pulsating electrical voltage according to the frequency of the sound
energy applied to it. Various types of microphones are used in the PA system. The main basic two
types of microphones are,
1. Handheld Microphone
2. Lapel Microphone
Other different types of microphones are,
• Wired Microphone
• Wireless Microphone
A wired microphone can be connected by a wire to the mixer or amplifier. It is very simple.
But the wireless microphone needs a battery and the frequency of its signal is also a very important
factor. The wireless microphone cannot be connected directly to the mixer or amplifier. A receiver
is required that can receive the signals sent by the microphone. This receiver is to be connected to
the amplifier.
2. Amplifier:
The amplifier is the second part of a PA system. The main function of the amplifier is to
amplify or increase the volume level of the audio signal that can drive a loudspeaker. The
requirement or size of the amplifier depends upon the number and size of the loudspeaker. If the
size of the loudspeaker is very large or so many loudspeakers are to be connected then a very
powerful amplifier is required. The output of the amplifier is measured in watts or kilowatts.
3. Loudspeaker:
Loudspeakers play a very important role in the PA system. It converts electrical energy
into acoustic energy or sound energy. The loudspeakers are generally connected to the amplifier
and it generates sound according to the audio signal provided by the amplifier. There are different
types of loudspeakers are available according to their operating frequency.
1. Woofer - it operates at the lowest frequency audio signal such as Bass
2. Subwoofer - it also operates with low frequency but more than the woofer such as
bass and deep vocals.
3. Squawker - it operates with medium-frequency audio signals such as vocals
4. Tweeter - it operates with high-frequency audio signals such as tone
4. Mixer:
A mixer is not a necessary part of a PA system. But if there are multiple audio sources or
multiple microphones used in the PA system then a mixer is must require. The mixer is an
electronic device that can control multiple sound sources simultaneously. It can mix all the sound
sources together and play with a single loudspeaker with the help of an amplifier. So the mixer is
generally connected before the amplifier. Nowadays, there are so many amplifiers are available in
the market that already have an inbuilt mixer. So there is no need for an external additional mixer.
All the microphones or sound sources can be connected directly to the amplifier.
5.4 RC Coupled Amplifier:
Due to its low cost and excellent audio fidelity over a wide range of frequencies, an RC
Coupled Amplifier is the most popular type of coupling used in a multi stage amplifier.
The figure below shows two stages of an RC coupled amplifier.
As you can see in the fig above, a coupling capacitor CC is used to connect the output of
first stage to the base i.e. input of the second stage and this continues when more stages are
connected.
Since here the coupling from one stage to next is achieved by a coupling capacitor followed
by a connection to a shunt resistor, therefore, such amplifiers are known as resistance-capacitance
coupled amplifier or simply RC coupled amplifier.
The resistances R1, R2 and RE form the biasing and stabilisation network. The emitter
bypass capacitor offers a low resistance path to the signal. Without this capacitor the voltage gain
of each stage would be lost.
The coupling capacitor CC transmits a.c. signal but blocks d.c. This prevents d.c.
interference between various stages and the shifting of operating point.
Working of RC Coupled Amplifier
When a.c. signal is applied to the base of the first transistor, it is amplified and appears
across its collector load RC.
Now the amplified signal developed across RC is given to the base of the next transistor through a
coupling capacitor CC .
The second stage again amplifies this signal and the more amplified signal appears across
the second stage collector resistance.
In this way the cascaded stages amplify the signal and the overall gain is considerably increased.
However, the total gain is less than the product of the gains of individual stages. It is
because, when a second stage follows the first stage, the effective load resistance of first stage is
reduced due to the shunting effect of the input resistance of second stage. This reduces the gain of
the stage which is loaded by the next stage.
To explain it better, let us take an example of 3-stage amplifier. The gain of first and
second stage will be reduced due to loading effect of the next stage. But the gain of the third stage
which has no loading effect due to subsequent stage, remains unchanged.
The overall gain is equal to the product of the gains of three stages.
Frequency Response of RC Coupled Amplifier:
The figure below shows the frequency response of a typical RC coupled amplifier.
You can notice from the above fig. that the voltage gain drops off at low (< 50 Hz) and high (> 20
KHz) frequencies. However, it is uniform over the mid-frequency range i.e. 50 Hz to 20 KHz.
This behaviour of the amplifier can be explained as follows :
(i) At Low Frequencies:
At low frequencies i.e. below 50 Hz, the reactance of coupling capacitor CC is quite high
and hence very small part of the signal will pass from one stage to the next stage.
Again CE can not shunt the emitter resistance RE effectively because of its large reactance at low
frequencies.
These two factors cause the dropping of voltage gain at low frequencies.
(ii) At High Frequencies:
At high frequencies i.e. above 20 KHz, the reactance of coupling capacitor CC is quite
small and hence it behaves as a short circuit. This increases the loading effect of next stage and
results in decreased voltage gain.
Again at high frequencies, capacitive reactance of base-emitter junction is low which in
result increases the base current. This causes decrease in current amplification factor β.
These two factors cause the dropping of voltage gain at high frequencies.
(iii) At Mid Frequencies:
At mid frequencies i.e. between 50 Hz to 20 KHz , the voltage gain of teh ampifier is
constant.The effect of coupling capacitor in this frequency range is such that the voltage gain
remains uniform.
As the frequency increases in this range, reactance of CC decreases which in result increases
the gain. However, at the same time lower reactance means higher loading effect of first stage to
the next one and hence gain decreases.
Thus, these two factor almost cancel each other, resulting in an uniform gain at this mid frequency.
Advantages of RC Coupled Amplifier:
1. It has a great frequency response. The gain is uniform over the audio frequency range which
is important for speech, music etc.
2. It employs only resistors and capacitors which are cheap, hence, it has low cost.
3. The circuit is very compact due to the small size and light weight of resistors and capacitors.
Disadvantages of RC Coupled Amplifier:
1. The RC coupled amplifiers have low voltage and power gain. Because, the low resistances
presented by the input of each stage to the subsequent stage decreases the effective load
resistance and hence decreases the gain.
2. These amplifiers become noisy with age, particularly due to moist.
3. Impedance matching is poor because the output impedance of RC coupled amplifier is several
hundred ohms whereas the input impedance of a speaker is only few ohms.
