According to Pasco, et al.

, (2018), ethics originated from the Greek word ethos, which means the custom, characteristic, or habitual way of doing things, or
actions that are properly derived from one’s character. Furthermore, they added that the Latin word mos or moris (plural mores), the origin of the adjective
moral is equivalent to ethos. Therefore, by etymology, ethical and moral are synonymous. It is also connected with another Greek word ēthikos, which means
characteristic, customary, or habitual.

DEFINITION OF ETHICS FROM VARIOUS AUTHORS

For Lilie(1957), ethics is a normative science of the conduct of human beings living in societies. It judges conduct as right or wrong, good or bad.

For Mackenzie (1901), ethics is concerned with men’s habits and customs. It seeks the underlying principles behind these habitual acts and investigates what
constitutes the rightness or wrongness of these principles, the good or evil of these habits.

For Montemayor (1994), ethics is both a normative and practical science that is based on reason. It studies human conduct and provides norms for its natural
integrity and honesty.

For Pasco, et al., (2018), ethics for Filipino students is a philosophy of human action that enables them to learn the art of living.

BRANCHES OF ETHICS

▪ NORMATIVE- concerned with the various theories that serves as the basis of moral rules that govern behavior. Its scope of inquiry includes asking
the reasons behind why or why not a particular act should be committed.
▪ METAETHICS- attempts to answer non-moral questions about morality. Its primary concern is the study of meanings and the various epistemological
foundations of moral statements.
▪ APPLIED ETHICS- the field that deals with clear and specific moral questions. It is the branch of ethics that primarily deals with ethical situations and
questions such as abortion, cloning, and other moral issues.

WHY STUDY ETHICS?

The moral situation of today is very confusing and difficult to resolve. Our sense of morality, which stems from traditionally accepted and established
ethical norms is being questioned, scrutinized, and undermined. The ethical problems that we encounter are very relevant because they affect our
day-to-day lives. Because of this, there is an urgency to not only know what or how it is to think morally but to actually live it. A truly moral life requires a deep
understanding of the basic principles that govern and guide human action and living a life that is responsible for everyone’s welfare. Ethics attempts to find out
the truth about the rightness or wrongness of human conduct. Although vast knowledge about ethics does not necessarily guarantee to live a morally upright
life, a student of ethics is more likely to be correct in his application of moral rules to a specific situation compared to a man who has knowledge about the
particulars of the case but has no knowledge of ethics. In this light, we are challenged to be responsible not only for ourselves but also for each of our fellowmen
and the entirety of the world. This is why human responsibility and respect for human dignity are at the forefront of studying ethics.

The problems confronting humankind can be traced to our irresponsibility and neglect of the most basic human value, our dignity as human persons. Today,
humans are being viewed not as a unique end in itself, but as a mere means to an end. The contemporary world has reduced the value of a human person to
his functionality and usefulness. Hence, this challenges each one’s responsibility to recognize and respect the inherent and universal value of every human
person, our dignity. Respecting the human person means respecting each one’s uniqueness. In this sense, ethics is a basic respect for every men’s right to
profess and practice his faith, to pursue and achieve the good life, and to nourish himself to reach the fullness of his potential.

Everyone is responsible for ensuring that respect for human dignity and its inherent rights. Although people have the right to do activities that lead to their
advancement, or the achievement of the goals of society, they must act responsibly to ensure that it will not harm or endanger others, and will not violate the
dignity of the human person. It is because without dignity, a human is less than human, it becomes less than what it truly is. Ethics helps us in considering
what is worthy for us, as human persons. This means that to live rightly is not only about seeking our own happiness but to live as a human person ought to
live

MORAL STANDARD VS. NON-MORAL STANDARDS

A MORAL STANDARD is a code of what is right or wrong without reference to specific behaviors or beliefs (Lynn, 1997). It deals with matters that the person
thinks have serious consequences and is based on good reason and impartial considerations overriding self-interest.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MORAL STANDARDS

1. Involve behaviors that seriously affect other people’s well-being (it can injure, or benefit them).
2. Take a more important consideration than other standards, including self-interest.
 3. Do not depend on any external authority but on how the person perceives the reasonableness of the action. (no one is telling you it is right or wrong
but you just believe the action is right or wrong)
4. Believed to be universal.
5. Based on objectivity (not based on personal opinion).
6. Associated with vocabulary that depicts emotion or feelings (ex.: When you hurt someone, you feel guilty)

NON-MORAL STANDARDS can be considered as relative standards by which something or someone is judged as either good or bad. The rules of non-moral
standards vary because these rules depend on the guidelines agreed upon by a particular group.

1. Etiquette- set of rules on how an individual should responsibly behave in the society. Table manners such as the proper use of utensils and the proper
manner of eating are examples of etiquette.
2. Policy- a clear, simple statement of how an organization plans to handle its services, actions, or business. Policies are guiding rules to help with
decision making. Example is the wearing of school uniform and ID.
3. Law- a rule created and enforced by the government and its agencies to maintain order, resolve disputes, and protect a person’s liberty and rights.
4. Commandment- a rule that is to be strictly observed because it was said to be set by a divine entity such as those in the Ten Commandments (Stahl,
2009).

MORAL DILEMMA

In the academic and practical pursuit of ethics, encountering a moral dilemma is an inevitable reality. A moral dilemma is characteristically defined as a situation
wherein a moral agent has to choose between two actions with two conflicting moral situations, none of which nullifies or overrides the other. A moral dilemma
is a situation where: a. there are two or more actions that you can possibly do, b. there is a moral reason(s) for doing such actions, c. you cannot do all the
possible actions presented to you. You only need to choose one.

Jean Paul Sartre, a renowned existentialist, gave a famous example of a moral dilemma, whose resolution is quite obscure to ethicists. Sartre tells a story of
a student whose brother died during the attack of the Germans in 1940. The student, who wants to avenge the death of his brother, wants to join the army in
order to fight the German forces which he regards as evil. However, the student’s mother was living with him, and he is the only one who can support and
console her in life since his brother is already dead. Sartre describes the student as torn between two kinds of moral obligations: personal devotion to his
mother or contributing to the effort to defeat an evil aggressor. The former can be described as having limited scope but a certain effect, while the latter as
having a wider scope but uncertain effect.

In Sartre’s example, none of the two cases clearly overrides the other. In this sense, it represents a genuine moral dilemma. A situation wherein one of
the two choices obviously overrides the other is only called a conflict, not a moral dilemma.

LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMA

1. Personal moral dilemma – is when your decision in a situation where there is moral conflict is the cause of either your own; that of another person;
or a group of people’s potential harm.
2. Organizational moral dilemma – is when a member or members of the organization is in a situation where there is a moral conflict, and the decision
will potentially harm either some members of the group or organization.
3. Structural moral dilemma – is when a person or group of persons who holds high-level positions in society faces a morally conflicting situation
wherein the entire social system is affected.

FREEDOM

Why only human beings can be ethical? According to St. Thomas Aquinas, the fundamental difference between animal and human ethics is that animals behave
instinctively while human behavior is rational.

Rational Behavior-a decision-making process where the person acts in ways that best achieve his or her needs in accordance with his or her set preferences,
priorities, and principles.

The Human Person as a free being- A human person is a being with inborn properties that he or she uses to direct his or her own development toward
self-fulfillment. One of the inborn properties of the human person is freedom.

PERSPECTIVES IN FREEDOM

1. GABRIEL MARCEL - freedom is a gift from God. It is the ability to make significant choices, and not just arbitrary (not important) choices.
 2. ARISTOTLE- Freedom is Complementary to Reason. Freedom without reason is not freedom at all. Freedom to achieve one purpose in life needs
reason to fulfill it, in other words, self-direction.
3. JEAN PAUL SATRE- Freedom is Absolute. we are so free that even “not choosing” is a choice. Freedom demands responsibility.

WHY IS ETHICS CONNECTED WITH HUMAN ACTIONS?

In a simplified way, ethics is all about determining the morality of human conduct. Morality is the standard upon which we base the rightness or wrongness
of human action. Ethics seeks to investigate the motive, the circumstances, and the very nature of the act itself in order to judge human action as right or
wrong. It is also important to note that the human acts that concerns ethics are those that are freely and willfully committed. In this sense, the scope of ethics
only covers human actions insofar as they are free acts.

LESSON 2: THE MORAL AGENT

HUMAN ACTS VS. ACTS OF MAN

Montemayor (1994) defines human acts as:

1. Voluntary (free) acts of man.

2. Acts done with knowledge and consent.
3. Acts which are proper to man which is acted with knowledge and freedom of the will.
4. Acts which man is conscious, under his control, and for which man is responsible of it.
5. Acts which man is the master, as man has the power and control of doing and not doing as he pleases.

Human acts, therefore, are actions done with KNOWLEDGE, FREEDOM, and VOLUNTARINESS.

1. KNOWLEDGE - Has intellectual knowledge of the act; - When the doer is conscious and aware of the reason and the consequences of one’s action –
good or bad.
2. FREEDOM - When the doer acts on his own initiative and choice without being forced to do so.
 3. VOLUNTARINESS – An act is done voluntarily or willfully when the doer approves/consents to the act and owns it as its own. - It requires knowledge
and freedom.

ACTS OF MAN- actions done according to our biological and physiological make up. It is instinctive, involuntary, and not within the control of the will (Agapay,
1991). Ex. Breathing, digestion, sweating, snoring, sneezing, and the like.

CULTURE AND MORALITY

CULTURE- Culture is a complex phenomenon. It contains nearly all aspects of shared human experience. The Father of Sociology, Emile Durkheim
asserted that culture has the power over individuals to create beliefs such as belief in God. Durkheim added that with more people holding the same beliefs,
social order is also strengthened. Meanwhile, the Father of cultural anthropology, Edward Taylor stated that in general, culture is the way of life of a
group of people that “includes their knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of
society”. Culture also includes language, beliefs, values, norms, behaviors, and even material objects that are passed from one generation to another.

FIVE BASIC ELEMENTS OF CULTURE

1. SYMBOLS- can be anything that a group of people find meaningful. Ex: in a religious group, the cross is a symbol for Christianity while the crescent
is for Islam.
2. LANGUAGE- a complex symbol system that enable human beings to communicate either verbally or through writing.
3. BELIEFS- assumptions or convictions held to be true or by an individual or a group of people. These assumption/convictions could be about events,
people or things. Ex. Ancient civilizations attributed events to spirits and gods. This is what we now call as “superstitious beliefs”.
4. VALUES- are culturally acceptable standard of behavior. It is what a person considers important or beneficial in life.
5. NORMS- an informal guideline by a particular group of people or social unit about what is considered is normal or correct/incorrect social behavior.
For instance, The Filipino norm in relating to other people to other people is to get along well with others, even with complete strangers. This Filipino
trait is called “pakikisama”

MAN’S MORAL CHARACTER

▪ MORAL is “concerned with the principles of right and wrong behavior or the goodness and badness of the human character”.
 ▪ CHARACTER is defined as “the mental and moral qualities distinctive to an individual”.
▪ MORAL CHARACTER refers to the “existence (or lack of) virtues such as integrity, courage, fortitude, honest and loyal”.

HOW DOES CULTURE AFFECT HUMAN BEHAVIOR?

▪ Naturally drawn to participate in culture.

▪ People want to belong.
▪ To be accepted by peers.
▪ We also need protection from danger, and being part of a social group not only feeds our need to be accepted but, it also increases the human being
chance of survival.

HOW DOES CULTURE DEFINE HUMAN BEHAVIOR?

▪ native traits (or what we might call genetic characteristics)

▪ Early childhood experience
▪ One’s cultural surroundings

Plato implied that if a person’s cultural surroundings reward conformity to agreeable norms, it would lead the person to behave much better and quell
undesirable conduct. He also expressed that the power of culture over an individual is more potent in children because they do not have any pre-existing
values.

PHILOSOPHICAL VIEWS ON MORAL CHARACTER

CONFUCIAN TRADITIONS-The philosophy of moral development is rooted in ancient views. For Confucian tradition, oral development was attributed to
“four beginnings” of the human personality. These four beginnings were considered as seeds of human personality that will naturally unfold to become human
activities. The teaching of Mencius, considered as the “Second Sage” of Confucianism stresses that people are born with the knowledge of the good. As such,
people have the natural capacity to be good. According to Mencius, people have four innate ethical dispositions which are Benevolence (rén), righteousness
(yì), wisdom (zhì) and propriety (lĭ).
Each of the four virtues is associated with a characteristic emotion or motivational attitude: “The feeling of compassion is benevolence. The feeling of disdain
is righteousness. The feeling of respect is propriety. The feeling of approval and disapproval is wisdom”.

ARISTOTLE AND VIRTUE ETHICS- Virtue ethics is an approach that reduces the emphasis on rules, consequences, and particular acts. Instead, virtue ethics
focus on the quality of the person. Although action and consequence are significant, virtue ethics does not focus on whether an action is right or wrong; nor
on whether the consequence are good or bad. It is more concerned with whether the person is acting as a virtuous person should act in the situation.

Virtue Ethics is largely identified with Aristotle. In ancient western philosophy, Aristotle's discussion on moral character, particularly virtue, is the most influential
view on the topic. Aristotle argued that each person has a built-in desire to be virtuous and that if a person is focused on being a good person the right action
will follow effortlessly, and you will do good things.

WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO VIRTUOUS?

Virtue for Greeks is equivalent to excellence. A person of virtue is someone who performs the distinctive activity of being human well. The principle of being
virtuous is called “DOCTRINE OF THE GOLDEN MEAN” – that moral behavior is the one that is in the middle of two extreme behaviors (or what he called vices).
When he said “extreme behavior”, it meant the act was either excessive of deficient.

STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

KOHLEBERG’S THEORY- Lawrence Kohlberg studied morality using a very interesting technique. His theory holds the moral reasoning, which is the basis for
ethical behavior, has identifiable development stages and each become more adequate at responding to moral dilemmas as the person progresses from one
stage to the next. Kohlberg asserted that the process of moral development was principally concerned with justice and that the process goes on throughout
the individual’s lifetime.

Level I: Pre-conventional morality

▪ Stage I: Punishment-Obedience Orientation

▪ Stage II: Reward Orientation

Level II: Conventional Morality

 ▪ Stage III: Good Boy/Good Girl Orientation
▪ Stage IV: Authority Orientation

Level III: Post Conventional

▪ Stage V: Social Contract Orientation

▪ Stage VI: Ethical-Principal Orientation

CULTURAL RELATIVISM

The central tenet in the concept of Cultural Relativism is that “Different cultures have different moral codes.” There is no concept of universal truth in ethics.
The customs of different societies are all that exist. These customs cannot be judged as “right” or “wrong”, since it affirms the idea that independent, universal,
ethical standard exists, which can be used to judge these different customs. In 1906, William Graham Summer, a great pioneering sociologist said:

“The "right" way is the way which the ancestors used and which has been handed down. The tradition is its own warrant. It is not held subject to verification
by experience. The notion of right is in the folkways. It is not outside of them, of independent origin, and brought to test them. In the folkways, whatever is,
is right. This is because they are traditional, and therefore contain in themselves the authority of the ancestral ghosts. When we come to the folkways we are
at the end of our analysis.”

As a short summary, these are the following central claims made by cultural relativists:

1. Different societies have different moral codes.

2. There is no objective standard that can be used to judge one societal code better than another.
3. The moral code of our own society has no special status; it is merely one among many.
4. There is no "universal truth" in ethics; that is, there are no moral truths that hold for all people at all times.
5. The moral code of a society determines what is right within that society; that is, if the moral code of a society says that a certain action is right, then
that action is right, at least within that society.
6. It is mere arrogance for us to try to judge the conduct of other people. We should adopt an attitude of tolerance toward the practices of other cultures.
THE CULTURAL DIFFERENCES ARGUMENT

1. Different cultures have different moral codes.

2. Therefore, there is no objective "truth" in morality. Right and wrong are only matters of opinion, and opinions vary from culture to culture.

To many people, the argument provided above is very persuasive. However, in a logical point of view, this argument is not sound. The trouble is that the
conclusion does not follow the premise. Even if the premise is true, the conclusion might still be false. On one hand, the premise is only concerned with what
people believe. People from different societies believe different things. On the other hand, the conclusion is concerned about what really is the case. Hence,
the conclusions do not follow logically from this premise. Of course not; we would never draw such a conclusion because we realize that, in their beliefs about
the world, the members of some societies might simply be wrong. There is no reason to think that if the world is round everyone must know it. Similarly, there
is no reason to think that if there is moral truth everyone must know it. The fundamental mistake in the Cultural Differences Argument is that it attempts to
derive a substantive conclusion about a subject from the mere fact that people disagree about it.

THE CONSEQUENCES OF TAKING CULTURAL RELATIVISM SERIOUSLY

1. We could no longer say that the customs of other societies are morally inferior to our own.
2. We could decide whether actions are right or wrong just by consulting the standards of our society.
3. The idea of moral progress is called into doubt.

UNIVERSAL VALUES

It cannot be denied that in reality, societies really have different moral codes. However, there are values that continue to be universally true. These are values
which find common ground despite having different forms and enunciations in the world’s various societies. These universal values are:

1. Care for children: If all societies fail in caring for children, society would soon cease to exist.
2. Truth telling: It would be impossible to communicate with each other if dishonesty and falsity would govern societies.
3. Prohibition against murder: If people would be freely permitted to murder each other, on a small or large scale, society would collapse.

THE FILIPINO WAY

The Filipino culture is a mix of both Eastern and Western cultures. The beliefs and traditions of pre-colonial. The Philippines was mainly indigenous Malay
heritage (Baringer, 2006)

Dr. Patricia B. Licuanan (Psychologist, educator, and former Chairperson of the Commission on Higher Education) wrote the strengths and weaknesses of
the Filipino character are rooted in factors such as;

1. The home environment

2. The social environment
3. Culture and language
4. History
5. The educational system
6. Religion
7. The economic environment
8. The political environment
9. Mass media, and
10. Leadership and role models

STRENGTHS OF THE FILIPINO CHARACTER

The Filipino traits listed here is certainly not exhaustive, but those are what we have in common the most. The strong aspects of the Filipino character are;

1. Pakikipagkapwa-tao
2. Family Orientation
3. Joy and humor
4. Flexibility, adaptable and creativity
5. Hard work and industry
6. Faith and religiosity
7. Ability to survive
Weaknesses of the Filipino Character

The areas that need improvement in order to grow and develop as a person. An informed Filipino will also result in a stronger and more progressive nation,
generally, these weaknesses are;

1. Extreme Personalism
2. Extreme Family-Centeredness
3. Lack of Discipline
4. Passivity and Lack of Initiatives
5. Colonial Mentality
6. Kanya-kanya Syndrome
7. Lack of Self-Analysis and Self-Reflections

LESSON 3: THE ACT

PHILOSOPHICAL INSIGHT IN FEELINGS

David Hume’s Ethics: “Theory of the Mind”

1. Reason alone cannot be a motive to the will, but rather is the “slave of the passions”.
2. Moral distinctions are not derived from reason.
3. Moral distinctions are derived from the moral sentiments: feelings of approval (esteem, praise), disapproval (blame) felt by spectators who contemplate
a character trait or action.
4. While some virtues and vices are natural, others (including justice) are artificial.

Although reason is needed to discover the facts of any concrete situations, reason alone is insufficient to yield a judgment that something is virtuous or vicious
(Hume, 2003). According to Hume’s “Theory of Mind”, humans have what he called as passions (which he used to describe emotions or feelings).

CLASSIFICATION OF PASSION
 1. DIRECT- passions are caused directly by the sensation of pain and pleasure; the passion that arises immediately from good or evil, from pain or
pleasure”
2. INDIRECT- passions are caused by the sensation of pain or pleasure derived from some idea or impression.

MAX SCHELER AND THE PHILOSOPHY OF FEELINGS

1. Sensual Feelings- involves bodily pleasure or pain.

2. Vital Feelings- life functions such as health, sickness, energy, fatigue, etc.
3. Psychic Feelings- about aesthetics, justice and knowledge (scientific).
4. Spiritual Feelings- about divinity; Holiness.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RESPONSES BASED ON REASON AND ON FEELINGS

Philosopher and Professor Dr. James Rachels asserted that in moral reasoning, you could not rely on your feelings no matter how powerful these feelings
may be. Feelings can be irrational and merely a product of your prejudice, selfishness, or cultural condition.

An argument is reasonable if: A. The facts are correct. B. The moral principles are correctly applied C. Everyone’s well-being is treated equally important.

WHAT IS THE ROLE OF FEELINGS IN DECISION-MAKING?

Reasons play a role in making decisions. Philosophers encourage the use of reason in making moral decisions. However, it should be noted too that our moral
compasses are also powerfully influenced by feelings. Hume claimed that in any given situation, a person would act based on emotions rather than reason
(Bucciarelli, et al., 2008).

Why feelings can be obstacles to making the right decision?

There are three central features as to why emotions can be obstacles in making the right decision: 1. Its non-deliberate nature 2. Its partial nature (Been Zeev,
1997); and 3. It is capricious (Pizarro, 2000)

THE NON-DELIBERATE NATURE OF FEELINGS SUMMARY BY PROFESSOR AARON BE’EN ZEEV

 1. Responsibility entails free choice; if we are not free to behave in a certain way manner, then we are not responsible for this behavior.
2. Free choice entails an intellectual deliberation in which alternatives are considered and the best one is chosen. Without such consideration, we clearly
cannot understand the possible alternatives and are not responsible for preferring one of them.
3. Since intellectual deliberation is absent from emotions, we cannot be responsible for our emotions.

THE PARTIAL NATURE OF FEELINGS

Emotions notoriously play favorites. It operates on a principle called “The law of concern” (Fridja, 1988) where emotions give focus only on matters of personal
interest. However, emotions are quiet when it is of no personal concern. Example, a catastrophic event like an earthquake. The sorrow that you feel for
earthquake victims from other countries is nowhere near the level of sorrow that you feel if your family were the victims.

THE 2 ASPECTS OF PARTIAL NATURE OF FEELINGS:

1. Decisions based on feelings focus only on a narrow area, and

2. It reflects personal and self-interest perspectives.

Emotions influence our attention. Thus, it governs what attracts and holds attention. Emotions make us preoccupied with specific matter s and we become
oblivious to everything else.

THE CAPRICIOUS NATURE OF FEELINGS

The third problem with emotions is that it rises up for arbitrary reasons. For example, you did not give money to an old beggar asking for alms simply because
she tugged at your shirt and startled you. Aspects or situations that have nothing to do in moral situations could rile up your emotions, and this emotion will
certainly influence your subsequent moral judgment (Pizarro, 2000)

HOW EMOTIONS HELP IN MAKING THE RIGHT DECISIONS?

Emotions are the foundation of all our cognitive and behavioral processes; and emotional responses often guide a person in making beneficial choices without
any conscious reasoning (Arnold, 1960; Damasio, 2003)
3 ways that feelings, especially negative feelings, help in making the right decisions: 1. It signals the need to adjust behavior. 2. It can help us learn from our
mistakes. 3. Emotional responses can be reshaped as time pass by.

Studies have shown that negative feelings are integral to our ability to learn. The surge of negative emotions triggers “counterfactual thinking” (Smallman and
Roese, 2009).

Counterfactual thinking is a psychological concept about the human tendency to create possible or alternatives scenarios other than what had actually
happened. Have you ever replayed a situation in your mind repeatedly, thinking about how you could have done better or how you should have reacted instead?
This analysis of what went wrong present an opportunity to reflect and prepare oneself in making a different and possibly better choice in the future.

REASON AND IMPARTIALITY AS REQUIREMENTS FOR ETHICS

Here are some compelling reasons:

a) It is enlightened self-interest- “I will be better off”

b) It is traditional law- “Because some authority says so”
c) It is a responsibility- “It is expected of me”
d) It is what is fair and equitable- “It is about fairness and justice” But most of all,
e) People have shared human needs, goals, desires, and/or objectives; and these are better met when people treat each other in a manner that promotes
what is right and good.

Is reason a requirement for morality?

Reason- is the power of the mind to think, understand, and form judgments by a process of logic.

Immanuel Kant argued that reason alone is the basis for morality, and once the person understood this basic requirement for morality, he or she would see
that acting morally is the same as acting rationally (Beck, 1960). In Kant’s view, the definition of morality alone shows that a person must decide what to do.
In Kant’s view, the definition of morality alone shows that a person must decide what to do. You, as a person, are able to think and reflect on different actions
and then choose what action to think. That a moral decision means mere desires did not force you to act in a particular manner. You acted by the power of
your will.

Impartiality is commonly understood as a principle of justice. It denotes that decision should be “based on objective criteria rather than on the basis of bias,
prejudice, or preferring to benefit one person over another for improper reasons” (Jollimore, 2011). Impartiality stresses everyone ought to be given equal
importance and not favor one class (people, animals, or things) in a capricious way.

7 STEP MORAL REASONING PROCESS

1. Gather the Facts

2. Identify the Stakeholders
3. Articulate the Dilemma
4. List the Alternatives
5. Compare the Alternatives with the Principles
6. Weigh the Consequence
7. Make a Decision

MORAL COURAGE

It is the courage to put your moral principles into action even though you may be in doubt, are afraid, or face adverse consequences. Moral courage involves
careful deliberation and mastery of self. Moral courage is essential not for only a virtuous life, but also a happy one because integrity is essential to self-esteem.

Moral Imagination- An ability to imaginatively discern various possibilities for acting within a given situation to envision the potential help and harm that are
likely to result from a given action (Johnson, 1994). This ability is called moral imagination.

Generally, “will” is the mental capacity to act decisively on one’s desire. It is the faculty of the mind to initiate action after coming to a resolution following
careful deliberation (Joachim, 1952). Within Ethics, “will” is an important topic along with reason because of its role in enabling a person to act deliberately.
Aristotle believed that “will” is the product of intellect and sensation; and that “will” gave the person the capacity for “exciting movement in space”. On one
hand, it is reason which guides us as we choose the appropriate or proper way of acting. On the other hand, will is as important because it is the one responsible
in actualizing what our reason came up with as the proper action.

Aristotle discussed the difference between what people decide to do and what they actually do. In Aristotle’s philosophy, using the intellect to decide is just
one part of the moral decision. The resolve to put the decision into action is the role of the “will”. He said since vice and virtues are up to us, “we become just
by the practice of just actions; self-control by exercising self-control; and courageous by practicing acts of courage (as translated by Baird, 2016).”

P.E IV

Volleyball game played by two teams, usually of six players on a side, in which the players use their hands to bat a ball back and forth over a high net, trying
to make the ball touch the court within the opponents’ playing area before it can be returned. To prevent this a player on the opposing team bats the ball up
and toward a teammate before it touches the court surface—that teammate may then volley it back across the net or bat it to a third teammate who volleys it
across the net. A team is allowed only three touches of the ball before it must be returned over the net.

Volleyball has come a long way from the dusty-old YMCA gymnasium of Holyoke, Massachusetts, USA, where the visionary William G. Morgan invented the
sport back in 1895. It has seen the start of two centuries and the dawn of a new millennium.

Volleyball has witnessed unprecedented growth over the last two decades. With the great success of world competitions such as the FIVB World
Championships, the FIVB World League, the FIVB World Grand Prix, the FIVB World Cup and the FIVB Grand Champions Cup as well as the Olympic Games,
the level of participation at all levels internationally continues to grow exponentially.

The BEACH VOLLEYBALL PHENOMENON also continues to amaze. The overwhelming spectator and television success of beach volleyball since its
introduction to the Olympic Games at Atlanta 1996 and the stunning success of the FIVB World Tour, the World Championships and the Continental Cup has
opened up volleyball to a completely new market.

LESSON 2: FACILITIES AND EQUIPMENT

The Ball- The standard volleyball is made of leather or synthetic leather weighs between 9 and 10 ounces and has a circumference of 25.6 to 26.4 inches.
The ball has a rubber bladder and can be one color or a combination of colors. Synthetic leather is lighter and is fine for beginner players. Junior volleyballs
for children 12 years old and younger weigh between 7 and 8 ounces.

The Net and Court- The outdoor volleyball court measures 18 x 9 m surrounded by a free zone that is 2 meters wide on all sides. The minimum playing
space for U.S. volleyball competitions is 7 meters. The volleyball net is 32 feet long by 3 feet wide. For women, the net should be 7 feet, 4 1/8 inches high.
For men, the net should be 7 feet, 11 5/8 inches high. U.S. regulation volleyball playing surfaces must be flat and not present any hazards to the players.

Lines-The playing court is marked by two sidelines and two end lines. All lines must be 2 inches wide and must be created with a light color that is easy to
discern from the playing court. An attack line should be placed three meters from the center line. The center line divides the court into two 9 x 9 meter
courts.

Posts and Cables-The volleyball net structure is held together with metal cables and posts. Posts are placed 0.5 to 1.0 meter outside the sidelines and
2.55 meters high. Posts should be round, smooth and padded, to prevent injury to the players should they dive or crash into them. Metal wires and cables
may need to be covered if it is determined that they present a danger to the players.

Antenna and Side Bands-Antenna is flexible rods that are 1.8 meters long and made of fiberglass, fastened at the outer edge of each sideband. Side
bands are two white bands attached vertically to the net and placed above each sideline.

Knee pads-Knee pads should be sturdy enough to protect your knees from falls, slides and dives, but flexible enough to allow you to bend comfortably.
Your volleyball knee pads must be made of fabric that breathes and manages moisture. Good quality pads have a gel or foam shock-absorbing material that
covers and protects your patella. It is best to purchase your pads from a reliable sporting goods store that will allow you to try them on. If you have difficulty
finding the right fit, have the store professional measure you and order custom -fit pads. Popular volleyball knee pad brands include Asics, Mizuno, adidas,
Nike and Mikasa.
Shoes- Arch and ankle support is key when choosing a volleyball shoe. Mizuno, Asics and Nike are just a few of the popular brands of volleyball shoes,
which are lightweight, allowing you to be faster on your feet, as well as bearing good shock absorption on your toes. Volleyball shoes also provide for better
lateral movement than typical running or cross-training shoes.

Clothing and Jewelry

All clothing should be lightweight to allow maximum flexibility and breathability, as well as made of a material that absorbs sweat and keeps skin dry.
Spandex shorts are a good option, as they are flexible, light, and absorb odor. Socks, while not required, absorb sweat and p revent blisters. Jewelry is not
permitted in volleyball, except for smooth wedding bands. Glasses must be worn with a strap to keep them secure.

PLAYING AREA
The playing area includes the playing court and the free zone. It shall be rectangular and symmetrical.

DIMENSIONS
The playing court is a rectangle measuring 18 x 9 m, surrounded by a free zone which is a minimum of 3 m wide on all sides. The free playing space is the
space above the playing area, which is free from any obstructions. The free playing space shall measure a minimum of 7 m in height from the playing surface.

For FIVB, World and Official Competitions, the free zone shall measure a minimum of 5 m from the side lines and 6.5 m from the end lines. The free playing
space shall measure a minimum of 12.5 m in height from the playing surface.

PLAYING SURFACE
▪ The surface must be flat, horizontal, and uniform. It must not present any danger of injury to the players. It is forbidden to play on rough or slippery
surfaces. For FIVB, World and Official Competitions, only a wooden or synthetic surface is allowed. Any surface must be previously approved by the
FIVB.
▪ On indoor courts the surface of the playing court must be of a light colour.For FIVB, World and Official Competitions, white colours arerequired for the
lines. Other colours, different from each other,are required for the playing court and the free zone.
▪ On outdoor courts a slope of 5 mm per metre is allowed for drainage.Court lines made of solid materials are forbidden.
LINES ON THE COURT-All lines are 5 cm wide. They must be of a light color which is different from the color of the floor and from any other lines.
Boundary lines-Two sidelines and two end lines mark the playing court. Both side lines and end lines are drawn inside the dimensions of the playing court.
Centre line-The axis of the center line divides the playing court into two equal courts measuring 9 x 9 m each; however, the entire width of the line is
considered to belong to both courts equally. This line extends beneath the net from sideline to sideline.
Attack line-On each court, an attack line, whose rear edge is drawn 3 m back from the axis of the center line, marks the front zone.
For FIVB, World, and Official Competitions, the attack line is extended by the addition of broken lines from the side lines, with five 15 cm short lines 5 cm wide,
drawn 20 cm from each other to a total length of 1.75 m. The “coach’s restriction line” (a broken line which extends from the attack line to the end line of
the court, parallel to the side line and 1.75 meters from it) is composed of 15 cm short lines drawn 20 cm apart to mark the limit of the coach’s area of
operation.

ZONES AND AREAS

Front zone- On each court, the front zone is limited by the axis of the center line and the rear edge of the attack line. The front zone is considered to extend
beyond the side lines to the end of the free zone.
Service zone-The service zone is a 9 m wide area behind each end line. It is laterally limited by two short lines, each 15 cm long, drawn 20 cm behind the
end line as an extension of the side lines. Both short lines are included in the width of the service zone. In depth, the service zone extends to the end of the
free zone.
Substitution zone-The substitution zone is limited by the extension of both attack lines up to the scorer's table.

Libero Replacement zone-The Libero Replacement zone is part of the free zone on the side of the team benches, limited by the extension of the attack line
up to the end line.

Warm-up area-For FIVB, World and Official Competitions, the warm-up areas,sized approximately 3 x 3 m, are located in both of the benchside corners,
outside the free zone.

Penalty area- sized approximately 1 x 1 m and equipped with two chairs, is located in the
control area, outside the prolongation of each end line. They may be limited by a 5 cm wide red line.

TEMPERATURE-The minimum temperature shall not be below 10° C (50° F).For FIVB, World and Official Competitions, the maximum temperature shall not
be higher than 25° C (77° F) and the minimum not lower than 16° C (61° F).

LIGHTING-For FIVB, World and Official Competitions, the lighting on the playing area should be 1000 to 1500 lux measured at 1 m above the surface of the
playing area.

BASIN FUNDAMENTAL SKILLS.

Proper Ready Position-The ready position is an extremely important aspect of playing volleyball because when it's properly performed it can help
a player react more quickly to an incoming ball. A player who is set up in proper ready position before any given play will automatically have an advantage
because he'll be physically prepared to react and to get to that incoming ball.

A player can follow three steps in make sure he's in proper ready position. Setting up improperly could have negative effects on the play, just as setting up in
the ready position properly can have positive effects on the play.

The First Step

▪ Proper ready positions begins with good weight distribution—the first step. The player’s weight should be evenly distributed on the balls of his feet.
His weight should not be on his heels because this will slow down his reaction time. He wants to surge forward, not fall backward.
▪ With his weight distributed evenly across the balls of his feet, the player will be balanced and prepared to use his weight as momentum when the time
comes to make a move. It's also easier to move laterally if he must when his weight is on the front of his foot.

The Second Step

▪ Balance is extremely important to the ready position. The player’s feet should be properly spaced apart—this is the second step of a proper ready
position. The feet should be spread at about a shoulder-length from each other. The knees should be bent slightly, but not too much.

The Third Step

▪ Finally, as the third step, the player’s arms should be out and ready for action. His head should be up with his eyes on the ball at all times.

Similarities to the Triple Threat Position-The triple threat position in basketball allows a player who receives the ball to be equally prepared to pass, shoot,
or dribble. The ready position in volleyball operates on a similar concept because it aims to have players prepared to receive, return, or pass an incoming ball.
Depending on what the player needs to do, ready position puts the body in proper position to react quickly.
FUNDAMENTAL SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES

PASSING

▪ The ball handling skills- forearm pass and overhand pass and their associated techniques constitute at least two-thirds of the ball contacts during play.

Forearm Pass – This pass (also calleds “pass”, “bump” or “dig”) with its associated techniques is the most frequently used ball-handling skill. It is utilized to
pass the serve., play balls below the waist, play hard drive balls, and contact balls located far from the player. Employing this skill avoids official ball handling
violations.

a) Feet are shoulder-width apart, in a stagger stance (heel-toe relationship), and the body weight is forward on the inside front half of each foot with the
heels slightly off the ground.
b) Knees are flexed approximately 90 degrees, inside the feet and in front of the toes.
c) The upper body is in a front leaning position with the waist flexed approximately 90 degrees and the shoulders in front of the knees.
d) Pressing the pads of both thumbs together with the base of the thumbs, even and level connects hands extended downward. Several methods for
clasping the hands together are acceptable.
e) Arms reach out in the front of the body. Elbows rotate inward together and are locked exposing the fleshy part of the forearm. The arms are parallel
with the thigh of the leading leg. Attempt to align with the approaching ball as near as possible the midline of the body.
f) Ball contact is on the fleshy part of the forearm approximately 2-6 inches above wrist. The eyes focus on the ball until contact and following rebound.
g) Force is provided to the ball when needed by a slight bunting action of the arms, extension of the legs, and body lean toward the intended target. A
hard -driven ball from the opponent’s might require absorption of the force at contact by dropping of the forearms upon contact as a cushioning effect.

Overhand pass – The overhand pass is the most controllable of the ball handling skills. It is used for accurately passing any ball above the head to a team
mate and for the setting technique of passing of passing the ball to an attacker with the specific height, trajectory, and placement.

a. Feet, knees and upper body is the same in forearm pass

 b. Align ball with the forearm hairline.
c. Arms are raised, elbows are flexed (90 degrees) at approximately chin height, and the hands are equally positioned in 6 inches above the forehead,
with the wrist flexed and extended back.
d. Fingers and hands are spread into the shape of the approaching ball, thumbs pointing toward the nose and wrist extended back. Thumbs are
approximately 3 inches apart and the index fingers about twice as far apart.
e. Ball contact is on the inside edge of the first digital areas of the thumbs, index, middle, and the ring fingers, and the ball is allowed to almost slide
through, with the hands on the side. (thighs), contact (hands), extended (arms) for the correct smooth, and sequential action.

Underhand Serve

It is the easiest and simplest for the beginners to use to start the play.

a. The player faces the net with the left foot in front ( if right handed) of the right.
b. Rest the ball at the left hand in about knee height, and hit it off by the folding hand, which swings forward and upward during the hit. The hitting
arm swings as in bowling a ball.
c. The hand follows the ball straight through the direction of the flight of the ball.

Overhand Serve- serves-the floater and the topspin.

a. This serve is executed by tossing the ball 2 or 3 in the air above in front of the right shoulder.
b. The left side of the body faces the net; with the feet in a stride position.
c. As the ball falls to the desired hitting spot, the arm extends from a cocked position to contact ball. The heel of the hand should be used. Contacting
the ball momentarily at its midpoint and with little follow through results in a floater, while contacting the ball on its lower midsection, snapping
the wrist, and rolling the hand over the top of the ball imparts the topspin.

Spike-used in aggressive play against the opponents to keep them from the ball or making a transition to return it aggressively.
 a. The approach to jump is started from a point approximately 12 feet from the net, depending on the length of the attacker’s stride. It is an angular
approach directly to where the ball is descending, the angle dependent upon the approach position (left, center, right front) and the handedness of
the attacker.
b. A right-handed persons approach is 45 degrees toward the net from the left front position and increases moving to the remaining positions.
c. The footwork consists of four final steps: a short step with the same side foot as the striking arm. Followed by an elongated running stride with the
opposite foot, and an almost simultaneous step, step/close gathering for a maximum vertical jump.
d. The arms assist in providing force for jumping. They function identically during the approach and are extended straight, behind and nearly parallel with
the floor at the two footed take-off. The arms thrust vigorously forward and upward for lifting force as the legs thrust for vertical jump.

Block -used to counter a forceful attack defensively, this is accomplished by jumping and positioning the hands above and over the net, decreasing the area
available for the attacker to drive the ball downward forcefully into the blocker’s court. The objective of the block is to render the ball unreturnable while it is
in the opponent’s court.

Ready position

a. The feet are in parallel stance, shoulder parallel with the net. Stand 12 inches form the net, with the knees slightly flexed for quick movement.
b. The hands are positioned between the net and the body, at shoulders height, with fingers spread and palms facing the net.
c. The elbows are flexed and touching the rib cage, with the forearms perpendicular to the floor. The back is straight.

Jump

a. The knees are flexed to a near 100 degree angle for a quick and maximum jump.
b. Thrust off from the floor equally with both legs, and thrust the arms straight upward parallel with the net.
c. As the hands clear net height, gently push them across as far as possible, being careful not to touch the net. Position the outside hand slightly
toward the court to deflect the ball inward.
d. Spike slightly at the waist for the balance and power.
 e. Upon descending, gently withdraw the hands, returning them in front of the shoulders.
f. Upon floor contact, bend the knees to absorb shock and for the balance. Pivot away form the net, following the direction of the ball.

LESSON 2: RULES OF THE GAME VOLLEYBALL

During a play of Volleyball sport, each team tries to score points by grounding the ball on the other’s team’s court under organized rules. The complete rules
are extensive, let us put it this way.

Service. The team captains complete a toss coin before a game is started. It is to determine the team who will serve first. The winner of the toss coin
can choose the might either to serve the ball to begin a play or to receive the serve from the opponent. In serving the ball, the server must hit the ball 8
seconds after the 1st referee whistled for service. A service executed before the referee’s whistle or signal will be cancelled. The opponent must not attack or
block a service.

Faults. There will be a fault if a server violates the service order. The player of the team at fault must take their correct position. At the time the ball
is contacted for a serve, the players in the opponent court must be in their proper order. There will be a fault called if a server doesn’t execute the service
properly- stepping on the service line and not releasing the ball. Failure to serve the ball over the net is a fault as well. Hitting the ball to the antenna is
considered an out. Hitting the ball unto the ground outside the playing area is a fault.

Game Play. Each team consists of 6 players inside the court. Both teams should submit a starting line-up that indicates the rotation order of the
players on the court. This order must be maintained throughout the set. Inside each team’s side of the court are three players on the front row and three
players on the back row. The game starts with a service, in this manner the referee will whistle to cue a player to serve the ball. Most matches are made up of
either 3 or 5 sets. Each team is allowed 3 successive contacts of the ball in order to return it, but individual players may not touch the ball twice consecutively.
The ball may hit any part of the body. Front row players may complete attack hit at any height of the ball but in back row players they are allowed to attack if
the ball is lower than the top of the net, and also in attacking back row players are not allowed to step across at the front zone. Two 2 timeouts are allowed
for each team every set and will last only for 30 seconds. 2 substitutions are allowed in each game for each team, and Libero does not count as a sub. The
game continues until one of them scores 25 points and 2 points ahead.
 Playing the ball. Touching the ball in an attempt to block does not count as touch, the same player maybe the first contact. Contact with the ball
must be brief and instantaneous. Scooping, lifting, pushing or carrying the ball in a form of holding. A ball clearly hit from a position below the ball is considered
as a good hit. Receiving a serve ball with an overhead pass using open hands is not necessarily a fault. A player is not allowed to attack the ball on the
opponent’s side of the net. A libero is not allowed to have an attack hit and if the entire ball is higher that the top of the net. Play will continue during the serve
even if the ball makes contact with the net and crossover.

Blocking. Blocking is the action of the players chose to the net to intercept the ball coming from the opponents by reaching the higher than the top
of the net. Blocking maybe legally accomplished by only the players who are in front line service. Backline players may not participate in a block. The team
which has affected a block shall have the right to three additional contacts after the block. Any player participating in a block shall have the right to make the
next contact, such as, contact counting in an block shall be legal provided it is during on attempt to intercept the ball. Blocking a spiked ball is prohibited. A
blocked ball is considered to have a crossed the net.

Scoring System. A team scores a point: By successfully grounding the ball on the opponent’s court. When the opponent team commits a fault/error.
When the opponent team receives a penalty. To win a game: A team should win 3 sets with a score of 25. In case with a tie, 24-24 play is continuing until
two-point lead is achieved (slide two, raise to two, deuce) 24-26, 27-25. In case of a 2-2 set tie, a fifth deciding set is played to 15 points with a minimum lead
of 2 points just like on the set.

Rotation/Position. At the moment the ball is hit by the server, each team must be positioned within its own court in the rotational order (except the
server). The positions of the player are numbered as follows: The three players along the net are front row players and occupying the 5 (back-left), 6 (back-
center), 1 (back-right). Relative positions between players: each back-row player, must be positioned further back from the venter line than the corresponding
front-row player: the front-row players and the back-row players, respectively, must be positioned laterally in order indicated in the rule. The position of players
is determined and controlled according to the positions of their feet contacting the ground as follows: each front-row player must have at least a part of his/her
foot closer to the center line than the feet of the corresponding back-row player, each right (left) side player must have at least a part of his/her foot closer to
the right (left) sideline than the feet of the center player in that row. After the service hit, the players may move around and occupy the next position being
assigned. Teams must rotate appropriately, in a clockwise manner.
 Libero. In 1998, the FIVB introduce a new specialist role: The Libero. This player wears a different colored uniform from the rest of the team. Can be
substituted in back-row for any player on the team. The libero cannot serve, spike the ball over the net or rotate into the front-line positions, but plays a vital
role for the team in serve perception and back-row defense.

Violation. Players are not allowed to touch the ball two times in a row. Players may not lift the ball. Three touches made before the ball reaches the
other side. Players are not allowed to touch the net. Players are not allowed to cross to the other team’s side. Player may not step over while serving the ball.
Players are not allowed to taunt. If the ball lands outside of the court a point is granted. A team may only make a limited n umber of substitutions. A point is
granted to a team if the other team cannot follow the procedure. Playing with the palm of my hands. Double contact. Line ball and stepping.

LESSON 1: HAND SIGNALS

LESSON 2: OFFICIALS OF THE GAME

What's a First Referee?

The first referee, aka the first official aka the 'up" referee starts the match, judges each play and calls the technical fouls, assigns points and side outs
as they occur to each qualifying team and makes the final decision on questionable plays.
 He or she is called the "up" referee because they climb up and call the game from an elevated volleyball stand. The first referee watches the blockers
for net touches, calls the double hits, lifts, technical fouls, timeouts and starts each play with a whistle blow to each server. Here are a few more responsibilities
of the first referee:

Before the match starts:

▪ the first referee inspects the balls, the court equipment like the net and antennae and inspects the conditions of the playing area.

▪ They perform the coin toss with the team captains and moderates the beginning and ending time for warmups

During the match:

• the first referee will issue warnings to teams

• can sanction misconduct delays of the game
• decides on possible faults of the players in service and the positions of the serving team, watching closely for screens
• the faults than can occur when the ball is being played
• attack hit faults committed by the Libero if they jump and attack the ball making contact when the entire ball is above the level of the net.

End of the match

• they check the score sheet and sign it

What's a Second Referee?

The second referee is across from the first referee on the opposite side of the net officiating the game from the ground. The second referee, one of
the volleyball officials, sometimes known as the "down" referee assists and supports the first referee mainly by calling fouls that occur under the net.
They watch a

a. team's rotation order to make sure players are in the right position,
b. foot faults committed by the server or back row hitter,
c. answer questions and monitor the score and players being substituted in and out of the substitution zone
d. also looks to the linesman for judgment calls when needed.

They also watch players on team benches who are in the warmup area, controls and helps monitor both team's timeouts, communicates with the scorer
at the score table.

At the beginning of matches and at the beginning of each set, the second referee checks each team's rotation based on how each coach has entered
their starting lineup on the lineup sheet.

During competition they whistle and signal

• any penetration into the opponent's court over the net or under the net
• any overlaps or out of position faults by the team in serve receive
• backrow issues like backrow players coming front row to block or liberos jumping to hit a ball that's completely above the top of the net
• any time the ball touches the floor when the first referee can't see where or how it landed

At the end of the match, the second referee

• checks the score sheet and signs it

What's a Scorer?

The scorer operates their functions from a table, the scorer's table which is located behind the second referee.
Before the match begins the scorer...
• registers the numbers on jerseys and each team's lineup in the scorebook and lineup sheets
• gets the signatures of the captains and coaches

During the match...

• records the points scored by both teams, tracks timeouts and substitutions called
• monitors the service order for each team and notifies the second referee if a player serves out of order
• records yellow cards and red cards, misconduct warnings, sanctions and improper requests and controls the intervals between sets
• records other events like special substitutions, recovery time, long interruptions,

After the match the scorer...

• records the result
• if there are any protests launched during the match, the scorer, with permission from the first referee will allow the captain of the team launching the
protest, to write the details of their protest on the score sheet in a statement regarding the incident.
• signs the score sheet before obtaining the signatures of the team captains and then the referees

What's a Linesman?

Depending on what type of game is being played, there are two or four linesmen that stand on only two or all four corners of the volleyball court.
When there are two official linesmen one stands at the corner where the sideline and the service line meet on one side and the other linesman stands
in the same place on the opposing team's side.
In official games, the linesmen will have a flag in their hands, if not, then they will make their calls using their arms.
Their responsibility is to judge whether a volleyball has landed inside or outside of the sidelines or service lines and to call any block touches.

Linesmen or linespersons use flags to

• indicate their calls of the ball being "in" or "out" when they call balls close to the sideline or end line
• touches on balls going out
• the ball touches the antenna, if it passes outside of the net and the third hit of a ball crossing over the net outside the crossing space