INTRODUCTION TO MARINE SCIENCE

COURSE CODE: DSUST-MSE-102

UNIT: 2

DR.MRS. P. E. OMORUWOU

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 Definition of Marine Science
Marine science also called Oceanography is the branch of Earth Science that
studies various aspects of oceans as well as coastal or inland waters to
explore the interaction of biology, earth and atmospheric sciences. It covers
a wide range of topics, including marine organisms and ecosystem dynamics;
ocean currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamics; plate tectonics and
the geology of the sea floor; and fluxes of various chemical substances and
physical properties within the ocean and across its boundaries. Some of the
specialties can include marine physics, chemical oceanography, marine
meteorology, geological oceanography, biological oceanography and others.
Marine scientists explore all aspects of the seas seeking to understand the
oceans in all their diversity, from sand and surf to corals and climate change.
Their focus may include anything from the largest whale down to tiny
plankton, from sea level rise to beach erosion, and from ocean currents to
the seawater itself.
Branches of Marine Science.

Marine Science is divided into four separate but related branches:

physical oceanography,
chemical oceanography,
biological oceanography and
geological oceanography.
Physical oceanography involves the study of the properties
(temperature, density, etc.) and movement (waves, currents, and
tides) of seawater and the interaction between the ocean and the
atmosphere.
Chemical oceanography involves the study of the composition of
seawater and the biogeochemical cycles that affect it.
Biological oceanography involves the study of the biological
organisms in the oceans (including life cycles and food production)
such as bacteria, phytoplankton, zooplankton and extends to the more
traditional marine biology focus of fish and marine mammals.

Geological oceanography focuses on the structure, features, and

evolution of the ocean basins.

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 BIOLOGICAL OCEANOGRAPHY OR MARINE BIOLOGY.

Biological Oceanography is the study of the ocean through the lens of marine
life, its distribution, abundance, environmental interaction, and predation.
Biological Oceanographers look into the processes that lead to the unique
behavioural and reproductive patterns of marine organisms. They will also
study the ocean’s chemical makeup and ecology to better understand
relationships in the oceans. Any sudden shift in the chemical profile of the
ocean has a profound effect on its inhabitants.

Different faces of biological oceanography

Biological oceanographers study:

 Chemical and physical factors influencing distribution patterns

 Physiological, behavioural and biochemical adaptations to
environmental variables including natural variations in food,
temperature, pressure, light, and the chemical environment
 Food chain dynamics
 Nutrient cycling and initial steps of chemical energy fixation
 Responses to the results of man's activities in the oceans

CHEMICAL OCEANOGRAPHY AND OCEAN CHEMISTRY.

Chemical oceanography is the study of the pathways that chemical species

follow on their transit through the oceans. Chemical oceanographers
examine vast ranges of time and space scales.
Chemical oceanographers and marine chemists use chemistry to understand
how ocean currents move seawater around the globe and how the ocean
affects climate or to identify potentially beneficial ocean resources such as
natural products that can be used as medicines.
Chemical oceanographers and marine chemists study:
 the composition of seawater, its processes and cycles.
 the chemical interaction of seawater with the atmosphere and seafloor.
 analysis of seawater components
 the effects of pollutants
 the impacts of chemical processes on marine organisms

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 GEOLOGICAL OCEANOGRAPHY OR MARINE GEOLOGY
Geology is the study of the Earth. This includes how the Earth was formed,
how the Earth has changed since it was formed, the materials that make up
the Earth, and the processes that act on it. Marine Geology focuses on areas
affected by our oceans including the deep ocean floor, the shallower slopes
and shelves that surround the continents, and coastal areas like beaches and
estuaries. USGS marine geologists also study some coastal river areas and
some large lakes.
Geological oceanography is one of the broadest fields in the Earth Sciences
and contains many sub-disciplines, including geophysics and plate tectonics,
petrology and sedimentation processes, and micropaleontology and
stratigraphy.
Geological oceanographers study:

 many features of the oceans such as rises and ridges, trenches,

seamounts, abyssal hills, the oceanic crust, sedimentation (clastic,
chemical, and biological), erosional processes, and seismicity.
 the topography, structure, and geological processes of the ocean floor
to discover how the Earth and oceans were formed
 how ongoing processes may change them in the future.

PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY & PALEOCEANOGRAPHY OF MARINE

SCIENCE
Physical oceanographers study the physical conditions and physical processes
within the ocean such as waves, currents, eddies, gyres and tides; the transport of
sand on and off beaches; coastal erosion; and the interactions of the atmosphere
and the ocean.
It has important applications in global climate, oceanic mixing, and coastal studies,
as well as being a key element in interdisciplinary studies of primary production,
hydrothermal vents, and oceanic flux and storage of carbon dioxide.

Physical Oceanographers study:

 The deep currents.
 The ocean-atmosphere relationship that influences weather and
climate
 The transmission of light and sound through water, and

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  The ocean's interactions with its boundaries at the seafloor and the
coast.

“All of these fields are intertwined, and thus all oceanographers must have
a keen understanding of biology, chemistry, geology, and physics to
unravel the mysteries of the world ocean and to understand processes
within it.”
Assignment: What are the differences & similarities between the
different branches of marine science?
ESTUARIES
An estuary is a partially enclosed, coastal water body where freshwater
from rivers and streams mixes with salt water from the ocean. In
estuaries, the salty ocean mixes with a freshwater river, resulting
in brackish water. Brackish water is somewhat salty, but not as salty as
the ocean.
An estuary may also be called a bay, lagoon, sound, or slough.
Estuaries are home to unique plant and animal communities that have
adapted to brackish water—a mixture of fresh water draining from the
land and salty seawater. In fresh water, the concentration of salts, or
salinity, is nearly zero. The salinity of water in the ocean averages
about 35 parts per thousand (ppt). The mixture of seawater and fresh
water in estuaries is called brackish water and its salinity can range from
0.5 to 35 ppt. The salinity of estuarine water varies from estuary to
estuary and can change from one day to the next depending on
the tides, weather, or other factors.

Ecological value

 Estuaries are one of the most productive ecosystems on earth.

 They maintain water quality through natural filtration as microbes
break down organic matter and sediments bind pollutants. Wetlands
that fringe many estuaries also have other valuable functions. Water
draining from the land carries sediments, nutrients, and other
pollutants. Much of the sediments and pollutants are filtered out as the
water flows through these fringing marshes. This creates cleaner and
clearer water, which benefits both people and marine life. Wetland
soils and plants like mangroves, sea grasses and reeds also act as a
natural buffer between the land and ocean, absorbing floodwaters from
land and storm surges from the ocean.
 They help maintain biodiversity by providing a diverse range of unique
habitats that are critical for the survival of many species. Thousands of
birds, mammals, fish and other wildlife use estuaries as places to live,

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 feed and reproduce. Migratory birds use estuaries to rest and gain food
during their journeys. Many species of fish and shellfish use estuaries
as nurseries to spawn and allow juveniles to grow.

Economic value

 They are tourist attractions.

 Used for transport and industry.
 They have ecological importance to commercial fisheries.
 Maintain water quality which benefits both people and marine life
 Natural buffer between the land and ocean, absorbing floodwaters and
storm surges.
 They help maintain biodiversity by providing a diverse range of unique
habitats that are critical for the survival of many species.
 Many species of commercially important fish and shellfish use
estuaries as nurseries to spawn and allow juveniles to grow.

Cultural value

 People value estuaries for recreation, scientific knowledge, education,

aesthetic and traditional practices. Boating, fishing, swimming, surfing,
and bird watching are just a few of the numerous recreational activities
people enjoy in estuaries. Unique estuarine habitats make them
valuable laboratories for scientists and students. Estuaries also provide
a great deal of aesthetic enjoyment for the people who live, work, or
use them for recreation.
 Estuaries were a resource sought after by Maori. Timber for building
materials, rongoa (medicine), harakeke (flax) for weaving, kai (food)
which included birds, fish, rats, eels, shellfish, and humans. To take full
advantage of this plentiful resource, Kainga, which were unfortified
villages were established near estuaries.
 Eels were an important part of the Maori diet. They were caught by
hand with a bob or eel pot. The bob was a huhu grub or worm attached
to a string or flax. The eel's teeth were tangled in the fibres and the eel
would then be landed. Camps were set up in favourable spots during
the autumn spawning migration. The large number of eels caught were
filleted and dried in the sun.
 Estuaries provide us with numerous resources upon which a dollar
value cannot easily be placed. They offer benefits and services which
greatly improve our lifestyle. Estuaries are an irreplaceable natural
resource that must be managed carefully for the mutual benefit of all
who enjoy and depend on them.

SEAS AND OCEANS

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Many people use the terms "ocean" and "sea" interchangeably when
speaking about the ocean, but there is a difference between the two terms
when speaking of geography (the study of the Earth's surface).

Seas are smaller than oceans and are usually located where the land and
ocean meet. Typically, seas are partially enclosed by land.

An ocean is a body of water that is predominantly comprised of salt water. It

covers nearly 70% of the Earth's surface. Oceans consist of slightly over 95%
of all of the world's water. While a sea is a part of an ocean, it is
typically partly bordered by land. Oceans are also much larger and
deeper than seas.

The seas and oceans, however, were not as salty in primeval times as they
are today. Thanks to rainfall they are getting saltier by the day. Rain falling
on rocks washes the surface off a tiny bit at a time (over millions of
years) through the process of erosion dissolving mineral salts of the
rock surfaces. This salt solution flowing through streams and rivers,
ultimately end up in seas and oceans which are essentially reservoirs.

One exception to this definition is the Sargasso Sea. The boundaries of the
Sargasso Sea are defined by ocean currents, rather than physical features
such as coastlines or islands.

Oceans are also the deepest water bodies on the planet. For instance, the
Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest ocean in the world, with an
average depth of 4,028 meters and a total area of 60 million square
miles.

Arbitrary boundaries separate these bodies of water, but they are largely
defined by the continents that frame them. In the Southern Hemisphere,
however, 60° S latitude, which corresponds to the approximate position of
the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, separates the Southern Ocean from the
southern portions of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian oceans.

 The Pacific Ocean: 60,060,700 square miles. Is situated from the

east coasts of Asia and Australia to the west coasts of the Americas.

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  The Atlantic Ocean: 29,637,900 square miles is situated from the
east coasts of the Americas to the west coasts of Europe and Africa.
 The Indian Ocean: 26,469,900 square miles lies between the east
coast of Africa, the Indian subcontinent, and the west coast of
Australia.
 The Arctic Ocean: 5,427,000 square miles is in the extreme global
north), and
 The Antarctic Ocean also known as Southern Ocean: 7,848,300
square miles lies in the extreme global south.
The Pacific and the Atlantic are the biggest and are further divided into
the North Atlantic and South Atlantic; and the North Pacific and South
Pacific. So, if you count these divisions, you’ll end up with a list of
seven oceans (instead of five).

Ecological importance of the oceans

The fact that 71% of the earth's surface is ocean determines a significant
part of its climate and ecology. The hydrologic cycle is dependent on the
vast amounts of water evaporated by solar energy from the oceans and
deposited as rain on the land. Without this vast reservoir of open water, the
earth would quickly become a desert. The oceans also provide a sink for
nutrients eroded from the land. The seas regulate the global climate by
serving as an enormous thermal mass for heat storage and as

Economic importance of the oceans

The services of ecological systems and the natural capital stocks that
produce them are critical to the functioning of the earth's life support
system, as described above. They contribute significantly to human welfare,
both directly and indirectly, and therefore represent a significant portion of
the total economic value of the planet. Costanza et al. (1997) estimated the
current economic value of 17 ecosystem services for 16 biomes, based on a
synthesis of published studies and a few original

Social importance of the oceans

The social importance of the oceans for global transportation and as a

unifying element in the cultures of many coastal countries cannot be
overstated. The oceans are so large that during the development of most of
the world's cultures they could be considered to be almost infinite, with little
risk of their over-exploitation. However, the cultural traditions of open access
that developed during this period are no longer adequate in the ‘full world’ in
which we now find ourselves.

1. It helps us breathe

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Phytoplankton – tiny plant-like organisms that live in the sea – are
responsible for at least 50% of the oxygen on Earth.

Just like land-based plants, they contain chlorophyll to capture sunlight and
use photosynthesis to convert it into the energy they need, producing
oxygen as a byproduct. They also consume carbon dioxide, transferring
about 10 gigatonnes of carbon from the atmosphere deep into the
ocean each year

2. It helps regulate the climate

The ocean absorbs huge amounts of heat from the sun. “More than 90% of
the warming that has happened on Earth over the past 50 years has
occurred in the ocean,” according to the US National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration.

That heat tends to be at its most intense nearer the equator, with the water
nearest the surface warming the most. Sea currents then transport that heat
around the world; north and south, towards the poles. As some of the sea
water evaporates it becomes denser and heavier, due to its relatively higher
salt content. That causes it to sink, taking some of the warm water deeper.

Some currents are directly responsible for specific climatic effects. One
example is the Gulf Stream, which takes warmer water from the Gulf of
Mexico across the Atlantic to Europe. If the Gulf Stream were disrupted,
much of the western part of Europe – including the UK, Ireland and France –
could become colder.

3. It’s an important source of food

Fish is on the menu for billions of people around the world every day.
It accounts for almost 16% of all animal protein consumed globally. Of
course, there’s more to seafood than fish, crustacea and other edible
creatures. A range of algae and sea plants are also commonly used in
cooking.

The UN Food and Agriculture Organization lists sodium, calcium, magnesium,

and iodine among some of the important nutrients in seaweed. Iodine
deficiency has been identified as the “most prevalent and easily
preventable” cause of impaired cognitive development in children.

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Pressure on resources and the environment have led to calls for food
production and for people’s diets to change. A cow, for example, produces
2.8kg of greenhouse gas per kilo of live body weight and needs 10kg of feed
for every kilo it weighs.

Plus, to get just one gram of protein from cattle, you need 112 litres of
water. The oceans, if properly managed and maintained, could form an
important part of a more sustainable approach to feeding the planet’s
growing human population.

4. Its biodiversity is incredible

It’s not just a source of food. The ocean is also home to an abundance of life.
While estimates on the number of species that live in the sea exist, no one
knows with absolute certainty what that number is.

According to the US National Library of Medicine’s National Institutes of

Health, “91% of species in the ocean still await description.” That’s due in no
small part to the vastness of the oceans, which cover around 70% of the
planet’s surface and are up to 11,000 metres deep. The number of yet-to-be-
discovered creatures living in the sea could easily run into the millions.

One example of how mysterious the deep oceans can be is the coelacanth.
Found in fossils and believed to be extinct, a living coelacanth was pulled out
of the ocean in 1938 off the coast of South Africa.

This fascinating deep-water creature could yield invaluable insights into how
marine animals were able to adapt to life on land, as the way they move
their fins resembles the way many four-legged creatures walk.

THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN OCEAN AND SEA

1. Size and Depth:

o Ocean: Oceans are the largest bodies of water on Earth and cover about 71% of
the planet's surface. They are typically deeper than seas and consist of several
interconnected basins, such as the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic, and Southern
Oceans.

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 o Sea: Seas are smaller than oceans and are partially enclosed by land. They are
typically shallower than oceans and can vary greatly in size, ranging from
relatively small bodies of water like the Mediterranean Sea to larger seas like the
Caribbean Sea.
2. Salinity:
o Ocean: Oceans generally have a higher salinity (salt content) compared to seas
due to their size and exposure to open water, which allows for more evaporation
and concentration of salts over time.
o Sea: Seas can have varying levels of salinity, influenced by factors such as
freshwater input from rivers, evaporation rates, and exchange of water with the
ocean.
3. Currents and Circulation:
o Ocean: Oceans have large-scale currents and circulation patterns that redistribute
heat and nutrients around the globe. These currents play a crucial role in
regulating Earth's climate.
o Sea: Seas may have smaller-scale currents and circulation patterns influenced by
local geography and wind patterns, but they generally do not have the extensive
circulation patterns found in oceans.
4. Ecosystems and Biodiversity:
o Ocean: Oceans support a wide variety of ecosystems and marine life, from coral
reefs and coastal mangroves to deep-sea habitats. They host a diverse range of
species adapted to different water depths and temperatures.
o Sea: Seas also support diverse ecosystems and marine life, but their biodiversity
can vary depending on factors such as water temperature, nutrient availability, and
human impacts.
5. Usage and Navigation:
o Ocean: Oceans are used for international shipping, trade, and transportation, and
they serve as major routes for global commerce and communication.
o Sea: Seas are often used for regional fishing, tourism, and recreational activities,
and they can also serve as important transportation routes within certain regions.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ESTUARIES AND FRESHWATER

Estuaries and freshwater refer to distinct aquatic environments with significant differences in
their characteristics, ecosystems, and ecological functions:

1. Definition and Location:

o Estuaries: Estuaries are semi-enclosed coastal bodies of water where freshwater
from rivers and streams meets and mixes with saltwater from the ocean. They are
typically found in areas where rivers flow into the sea, creating a transition zone
between freshwater and marine environments.
o Freshwater: Freshwater refers to bodies of water with low salinity levels,
generally less than 0.5 parts per thousand (ppt). Freshwater sources include lakes,
rivers, ponds, and groundwater.
2. Salinity:

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 oEstuaries: Estuaries have varying levels of salinity that fluctuate with tidal cycles
and freshwater input from rivers. Salinity can range from fully marine (oceanic
salinity levels) at the mouth of the estuary to nearly freshwater levels farther
inland.
o Freshwater: Freshwater bodies have low salinity levels compared to estuaries
and oceans. They are sustained primarily by precipitation, surface runoff, and
groundwater flow, with minimal influence from seawater.
3. Ecosystems and Biodiversity:
o Estuaries: Estuaries are highly productive ecosystems with diverse habitats such
as marshes, mudflats, and tidal channels. They support a rich variety of marine
and freshwater species adapted to fluctuating salinity levels, including fish,
shellfish, birds, and aquatic plants.
o Freshwater: Freshwater ecosystems also support diverse life forms, including
fish species adapted to freshwater conditions, aquatic plants, insects, amphibians,
and mammals like otters and beavers. These ecosystems vary widely depending
on factors such as water flow, depth, and nutrient availability.
4. Human Use and Importance:
o Estuaries: Estuaries are critical for human activities such as commercial and
recreational fishing, aquaculture, tourism, and shipping. They also provide
essential ecosystem services like nutrient cycling, water filtration, and flood
protection.
o Freshwater: Freshwater bodies are essential for human consumption, agriculture,
industry, and hydropower generation. They also provide habitats for wildlife and
play crucial roles in regional water cycles and biodiversity conservation.
5. Environmental Challenges:
o Estuaries: Estuaries face threats from pollution (both land-based and marine),
habitat loss due to coastal development, climate change impacts such as sea level
rise and ocean acidification, and invasive species.
o Freshwater: Freshwater ecosystems are vulnerable to pollution from agriculture,
urban runoff, industrial activities, and mining. They also face challenges from
dam construction, which can alter natural flow regimes and disrupt aquatic
habitats.

STATE IMPORTANCE OF ESTUARIES, SEAS, OCEANS, BEACHES AND COASTS.

Estuaries, seas, oceans, beaches, and coasts are critically important for ecological, economic, and
societal reasons:

1. Estuaries:
o Ecological Importance: Estuaries serve as nurseries and habitats for diverse
marine and aquatic species. They provide feeding grounds and shelter for fish,
crustaceans, and birds. Estuaries also support rich biodiversity and contribute to
nutrient cycling and water filtration.

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 o Economic Significance: Estuaries are vital for commercial and recreational
fishing, supporting industries like shellfish aquaculture and tourism. They provide
valuable ecosystem services such as flood control, storm protection, and water
purification.
2. Seas and Oceans:
o Global Ecosystem Regulation: Seas and oceans play a crucial role in regulating
Earth's climate by absorbing and redistributing heat and carbon dioxide. They
influence weather patterns, ocean currents, and nutrient cycling, which in turn
affect global biodiversity and ecosystems.
o Economic Benefits: Oceans are essential for global trade, shipping, and
transportation. They support industries such as fishing, offshore energy
production (oil, gas, wind), and tourism. Marine resources also contribute to
pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, and scientific research.
3. Beaches:
o Recreational and Aesthetic Value: Beaches are popular destinations for tourism,
recreation, and relaxation. They offer opportunities for swimming, sunbathing,
surfing, and beachcombing.
o Coastal Protection: Beaches act as natural buffers against coastal erosion and
storm surges. They help dissipate wave energy and protect coastal communities,
infrastructure, and ecosystems.
4. Coasts:
o Biodiversity Hotspots: Coastal areas support diverse ecosystems, including
mangroves, salt marshes, and coral reefs. These habitats are home to numerous
species of plants, animals, and microorganisms.
o Economic Importance: Coastal regions are hubs for economic activities such as
shipping ports, commercial fishing, tourism, and coastal agriculture. They also
provide cultural and recreational opportunities for coastal communities and
visitors.
5. Overall Importance:
o Climate Regulation: Together, estuaries, seas, oceans, beaches, and coasts
contribute significantly to climate regulation through carbon sequestration, heat
absorption, and weather patterns.
o Food Security: These environments support fisheries and aquaculture, providing
essential protein sources for millions of people globally.
o Cultural and Societal Value: Coastal and marine environments hold cultural
significance for many communities around the world. They provide aesthetic
enjoyment, spiritual connections, and recreational opportunities that contribute to
quality of life.

STATE CONSTITUENTS OF ESTUARIES, SEAS, OCEANS, BEACHES AND COASTS.

Here are the main constituents or components of estuaries, seas, oceans, beaches, and coasts:

1. Estuaries:

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 o Water: Estuaries are characterized by the mixing of freshwater from rivers and
streams with saltwater from the ocean, resulting in brackish water with variable
salinity.
o Sediments: Estuaries accumulate sediments carried by rivers and tidal currents,
forming mudflats, sandbars, and salt marshes.
o Vegetation: Estuaries support diverse plant life adapted to fluctuating salinity
levels, including salt-tolerant grasses, mangroves, and seaweeds.
o Wildlife: Estuaries are rich in biodiversity, hosting a variety of fish, shellfish,
crustaceans, birds, and mammals that rely on the productive ecosystem for food
and habitat.
2. Seas and Oceans:
o Water: Seas and oceans are vast bodies of saltwater covering most of Earth's
surface. They are characterized by varying temperatures, salinity levels, and
depths.
o Marine Life: Seas and oceans support a wide range of marine organisms, from
microscopic plankton to large whales. This diverse ecosystem includes fish,
marine mammals, seabirds, and coral reefs.
o Ocean Currents: Currents in seas and oceans circulate water around the globe,
influencing climate, nutrient distribution, and marine habitats.
o Submarine Features: Seas and oceans contain diverse underwater landscapes
such as continental shelves, deep sea trenches, and underwater volcanoes.
3. Beaches:
o Sand: Beaches are primarily composed of loose particles of sand, which are
formed through the erosion and weathering of rocks and minerals.
o Water: Beaches are bordered by the dynamic interface of land and sea, where
waves and tides continuously reshape the shoreline.
o Coastal Vegetation: Some beaches are fringed by coastal vegetation like dunes
grasses, shrubs, and trees that stabilize sand and provide habitat for wildlife.
o Wildlife: Beaches support a range of wildlife adapted to sandy habitats, including
shorebirds, crabs, clams, and marine turtles that nest along the shoreline.
4. Coasts:
o Shoreline: Coasts encompass the transition zone between land and sea, including
beaches, rocky shores, cliffs, and tidal flats.
o Tides: Coastal areas experience daily tidal fluctuations, influencing water levels,
erosion, and sediment transport along the shoreline.
o Estuarine Areas: Many coasts include estuaries, where rivers meet the sea,
creating unique habitats for marine and freshwater species.
o Human Activities: Coasts are influenced by human activities such as coastal
development, ports, tourism, fishing, and agriculture, which can impact coastal
ecosystems and biodiversity.

STATE FOCUS AREAS IN MARINE SCIENCE.

Marine science encompasses a wide range of disciplines that study various aspects of the ocean,
seas, and coastal environments. Some of the key focus areas in marine science include:

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1. Oceanography:
o Physical Oceanography: Study of ocean currents, waves, tides, and circulation
patterns that influence global climate and weather systems.
o Chemical Oceanography: Investigation of the chemical composition and
properties of seawater, including nutrient cycles, carbon dioxide absorption, and
ocean acidification.
o Biological Oceanography: Exploration of marine ecosystems, biodiversity, and
the interactions between organisms and their environment.
2. Marine Biology:
o Marine Ecology: Study of marine organisms and their interactions with each
other and their environment, including habitats such as coral reefs, mangroves,
and deep-sea ecosystems.
o Marine Conservation Biology: Focuses on the preservation and management of
marine species and ecosystems, addressing issues such as overfishing, habitat
degradation, and climate change impacts.
o Marine Physiology: Investigates the physiological adaptations of marine
organisms to their aquatic environment, including responses to temperature
changes, salinity, and pressure.

3. Coastal Science and Management:

o Coastal Geology and Geomorphology: Study of coastal landforms, processes of
erosion and sediment transport, and the geological evolution of coastlines.
o Coastal Zone Management: Addresses sustainable use and conservation of
coastal resources, coastal hazards mitigation (e.g., storms, sea-level rise), and
ecosystem-based approaches to coastal development.
o Marine Spatial Planning: Involves the systematic organization of human
activities in coastal and marine areas to achieve ecological, economic, and social
objectives.
4. Marine Technology and Engineering:
o Marine Robotics: Development and use of autonomous underwater vehicles
(AUVs), remotely operated vehicles (ROVs), and other technologies for ocean
exploration and monitoring.
o Ocean Engineering: Design and construction of offshore structures, marine
renewable energy systems (e.g., wave energy, tidal turbines), and coastal
infrastructure (e.g., harbors, breakwaters).
o Marine Instrumentation: Development of sensors, buoys, and instruments for
measuring oceanographic parameters, environmental monitoring, and data
collection.
5. Marine Policy and Economics:
o Marine Policy: Addresses legal, regulatory, and governance frameworks for
marine resource management, conservation, and international maritime law.
o Marine Economics: Study of the economic value of marine resources and
industries (e.g., fisheries, tourism, shipping), economic impacts of environmental
change, and cost-benefit analysis of marine conservation measures.

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 6. Climate Change and Oceanography:
o Climate Change Impacts: Studies the effects of climate change on ocean
temperatures, sea-level rise, ocean acidification, and changes in marine
ecosystems and biodiversity.
o Mitigation and Adaptation: Researches strategies to mitigate climate change
impacts on oceans and coastal communities, and adaptation measures for
resilience in marine ecosystems and industries.

These focus areas in marine science are interconnected and multidisciplinary, addressing
complex challenges and opportunities related to understanding, managing, and sustaining marine
environments and resources for future generations.

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