MODULE -III
FORGING
Forging is a basic process in which the work piece is shaped by
compressive forces applied through various dies and tooling
One of the oldest and most important metalworking operations,
dating back at least to 4000 B.C.
Forging first was used to make jewellery, coins, and various
implements by hammering metal with tools made of stone
Forged parts now include large rotors for turbines; gears; bolts and
rivets cutlery hand tools, numerous structural components for
machinery, aircraft and railroads
Forging operations produce discrete parts
Forged parts have good strength and toughness, and are very reliable
for highly stressed and critical applications
OUTLINE OF FORGING AND
RELATED OPERATION
OPEN-DIE FORGING
(UPSETTING)
(a) Solid cylindrical billet upset between two flat dies. (b) Uniform deformation of the billet
without friction. (c) Deformation with friction.
OPEN-DIE FORGING
(UPSETTING)
Open-die forging is the simplest forging operation
Most open-die forgings generally weigh 15 to 500 kg
Open-die forging can be depicted by a solid work piece placed
between two flat dies and reduced in height by compressing it
Also called upsetting or flat die forging
Because constancy of volume is maintained, any reduction in height
increases the diameter of the forged part
Barreling is caused primarily by frictional forces that oppose the
outward flow of the work piece at the die interfaces and thus can be
minimized by using an effective lubricant
COGGING
COGGING
Cogging (also called drawing out) is basically an open-die forging
operation in which the thickness of a bar is reduced by successive
forging steps (bites) at specific intervals
Because the contact area between the die and the work piece is small,
a long section of a bar can be reduced in thickness without requiring
large forces or heavy machinery
IMPRESSION-DIE FORGING
IMPRESSION-DIE FORGING
In impression-die forging, the work piece takes the shape of the die
cavity while being forged between two shaped dies
This process usually is carried out at elevated temperatures to lower the
required forces and attain enhanced ductility in the work piece
During deformation, some of the material flows outward and forms a
flash.
The principle that in plastic deformation the material flows in the
direction of least resistance (because it requires less energy), the
material flows preferentially into the die cavity, ultimately filling it
completely
FULLERING AND EDGING
PREFORMING OPERATIONS
In fullering, material is distributed away from an area.
In edging, it is gathered into a localized area.
The part then is formed into the rough shape (say, a connecting rod)
by a process called blocking, using blocker dies.
The final operation is the finishing of the forging in impression dies
that give the forging its final shape.
The flash is removed later by a trimming operation
CLOSED-DIE FORGING
CLOSED-DIE FORGING
In closed-die forging, flash does not form (hence the term flashless
forging), and the work piece completely fills the die cavity
The forging pressure is very high, and accurate control of the blank
volume and proper die design are essential to producing a forging
with the desired dimensional tolerances.
Undersized blanks prevent the complete filling of the die cavity;
conversely, oversized blanks generate excessive pressures and may
cause dies to fail prematurely
PRECISION FORGING
In order to reduce the number of additional finishing operations
required-hence the cost-the trend has been toward greater precision in
forged products (net-shape forming)
Typical precision-forged products are gears, connecting rods, and
turbine blades
Precision forging requires
(a) special and more complex dies
(b) precise control of the blank’s volume and shape, and
(c) accurate positioning of the blank in the die cavity
Aluminium and magnesium alloys are particularly suitable for
precision forging because of the relatively low forging loads and
temperatures that they require
FORGING OPERATIONS
COINING
This is a closed-die forging process that is
typically used in the minting of coins,
medallions, and jewellery
The blank or slug is coined in a
completely closed die cavity.
In order to produce fine details (for
example, the detail on newly minted
coins), the pressures required can be as
high as five or six times the strength of the
material.
HEADING
Also called upset forging, heading is an
upsetting operation, usually performed
on the end of a round rod or wire in
order to increase the cross section.
Typical products are nails, bolt heads,
screws, rivets, and various other
fasteners
Heading operations are performed on
machines called headers, which usually
are highly automated with production
rates of hundreds of pieces per minute
for small parts
PIERCING
PIERCING
Piercing is a process of indenting (but not breaking through) the
surface of a work piece with a punch in order to produce a cavity or
an impression
The work piece may be confined in a container (such as a die cavity)
or may be unconstrained.
The deformation of the work piece will depend on how much it is
constrained from flowing freely as the punch descends
A common example of piercing is the indentation of the hexagonal
cavity in bolt heads.
BLANKING & PUNCHING
DIE DESIGN
The design of forging dies requires considerable knowledge and experience
regarding
1. Shape and complexity of the work piece
2. Ductility
3. Strength and sensitivity to deformation rate and temperature
4. Frictional characteristics.
Die distortion under high forging loads is also an important design
consideration, particularly if close dimensional tolerances are required.
The most important rule in die design is the fact that the part will flow in the
direction of least resistance.
Work piece intermediate shapes should be planned so that they properly fill the
die cavities.
PRESHAPING
In a properly preshaped workpiece, the material should not flow
easily into the flash (otherwise die filling will be incomplete), the
grain flow pattern should be favourable for the product’s strength and
reliability, and sliding at the workpiece-die interfaces should be
minimized in order to reduce die wear.
The selection of preshapes requires considerable experience and
involves calculations of cross-sectional areas at each location in the
forging
DIE DESIGN FEATURES
DIE DESIGN FEATURES
The parting line is located at the largest cross section of the part.
For simple symmetrical shapes, the parting line is normally a straight
line at the center of the forging, but for more complex shapes, the line
may not lie in a single plane.
The dies are then designed in such a way that they lock during
engagement, in order to avoid side thrust, balance forces, and
maintain die alignment during forging.
After sufficiently constraining lateral flow to ensure proper die
filling, the flash material is allowed to flow into a gutter, so that the
extra flash does not increase the forging load excessively.
A general guideline for flash thickness is 3% of the maximum
thickness of the forging.
The length of the land is usually two to five times the flash thickness
DIE DESIGN FEATURES (CONT..)
Selection of the proper radii for corners and fillets is important in
ensuring smooth flow of the metal into the die cavity and improving
die life.
Small radii generally are undesirable because of their adverse effect
on metal flow and their tendency to wear rapidly (as a result of stress
concentration and thermal cycling).
Small fillet radii also can cause fatigue cracking of the dies
Allowances are provided in forging-die design when machining the
forging is necessary to obtain final desired dimensions and surface
finish
DRAFT ANGLES
Draft angles are necessary in almost all forging dies in order to
facilitate removal of the part from the die.
Upon cooling, the forging shrinks both radially and longitudinally, so
internal draft angles (about 7° to 10°) are made larger than external
ones (about 3° to 5°).
DIE MATERIALS
Most forging operations (particularly for large parts) are carried out
at elevated temperatures.
General requirements for die materials therefore are
• Strength and toughness at elevated temperatures
• Hardenability and ability to harden uniformly
• Resistance to mechanical and thermal shock
• Wear resistance, particularly resistance to abrasive wear, because
of the presence of scale in hot forging.
Common die materials are tool and die steels containing chromium,
nickel, molybdenum, and vanadium
LUBRICATION
Lubricants greatly influence friction and wear.
Consequently, they affect the forces required, die life, and the
manner in which the material flows into the die cavities.
Lubricants can also act as a thermal barrier between the hot
workpiece and the relatively cool dies-thus slowing the rate of
cooling of the workpiece and improving metal flow.
Another important role of the lubricant is to act as a parting agent,
preventing the forging from sticking to the dies and helping release it
from the die.
For hot forging, graphite , molybdenum disulphide , etc. are used
For cold forging, mineral oils and soap are common lubricant are
used
FORGING MACHINES
(a)Hydraulic press. (b) Mechanical press with an eccentric drive
FORGING MACHINES
(c) Knuckle-joint press. (d) Screw press. (e) Gravity drop hammer
HYDRAULIC PRESSES
These presses operate at constant speeds and are load limited, or load
restricted.
Large amounts of energy can be transmitted to a workpiece by a
constant load throughout a stroke- the speed of which can be
controlled.
A hydraulic press typically consists of a frame with two or four
columns, pistons, cylinders, rams, and hydraulic pumps driven by
electric motors
The ram speed can be varied during the stroke.
Press capacities range up to 125 MN for open-die forging and up to
450 MN for closed-die forging
MECHANICAL PRESSES
These presses are basically of either the crank or the eccentric type
The speed varies from a maximum at the center of the stroke to zero at
the bottom of the stroke; thus, mechanical presses are stroke limited.
The energy in a mechanical press is generated by a large flywheel
powered by an electric motor.
A clutch engages the flywheel to an eccentric shaft.
A connecting rod translates the rotary motion into a reciprocating linear
motion
The force available in a mechanical press depends on the stroke position
and becomes extremely high at the end of the stroke
Press capacities generally range from 2.7 to 107 MN.
Mechanical presses are preferred for forging parts with high precision.
SCREW PRESSES
These presses derive their energy from a flywheel
The forging load is transmitted through a large vertical screw, and the
ram comes to a stop when the flywheel energy is dissipated.
If the dies do not close at the end of the cycle, the operation is
repeated until the forging is completed.
They are suitable particularly for small production quantities,
especially thin parts with high precision, such as turbine blades.
Press capacities range from 1.4 to 280 MN.
HAMMERS
Hammers derive their energy from the potential energy of the ram,
which is converted into kinetic energy thus they are energy limited
Hammers operate at high speeds, and the resulting low forming time
minimizes the cooling of a hot forging
Gravity Drop Hammer: A process called drop forging, the energy is
derived from the free-falling ram. Ram weights range from 180kg to
4500 kg
Power Drop Hammers : In power drop hammers, the ram’s down
stroke is accelerated by steam, air, or hydraulic pressure at about 750
kPa. Ram weights range from 225 to 22,500 kg
Counterblow Hammers: Two rams simultaneously approach each
other horizontally or vertically to forge the part
FORGING DEFECTS
FORGING DEFECTS
If there is an insufficient volume of material to fill the die cavity
completely, the web may buckle during forging and develop laps
If the web is too thick, the excess material flows past the already
formed portions of the forging and develops internal cracks
Internal defects also may develop from (a) nonuniform deformation
of the material in the die cavity, (b) temperature gradients throughout
the workpiece during forging, and (c) microstructural changes caused
by phase transformations.
Forging defects can cause fatigue failures, and they also may lead to
such problems as corrosion and wear during the service life of the
forged component
NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING
Nondestructive testing (NDT) is carried out in such a manner that
product integrity and surface texture remain unchanged
Liquid Penetrants. In this technique, fluids are applied to the
surfaces of the part and allowed to penetrate into cracks, seams, and
pores
By capillary action, the penetrant can seep into cracks as small as
0.1 μm in width.
Two common types of liquids used for this test are (a) fluorescent
penetrants, with various sensitivities and which fluoresce under
ultraviolet light, and (b) visible penetrants, using dyes (usually red)
that appear as bright outlines on the workpiece surface.
NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING
(CONT..)
Magnetic-particle Inspection. This technique consists of placing fine
ferromagnetic particles on the surface of the part.
The particles can be applied either dry or in a liquid carrier, such as water
or oil.
When the part is magnetized with a magnetic field, a discontinuity
(defect) on the surface causes the particles to gather visibly around the
defect
Ultrasonic Inspection. In this technique, an ultrasonic beam travels
through the part.
An internal defect (such as a crack) interrupts the beam and reflects back
a portion of the ultrasonic energy.
The amplitude of the energy reflected and the time required for its return
indicate the presence and location of any flaws in the workpiece.
NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING
(CONT..)
Acoustic Methods. The acoustic-emission technique detects signals
(high-frequency stress waves) generated by the workpiece itself
during plastic deformation, crack initiation and propagation, phase
transformation, and abrupt reorientation of grain boundaries.
Bubble formation during the boiling of a liquid and friction and wear
of sliding interfaces are other sources of acoustic signal
Radiography. Radiography uses X-ray inspection to detect such
internal flaws as cracks and porosity.
The technique detects differences in density within a part.
For example, on an X-ray film, the metal surrounding a defect is
typically denser and, hence, shows up as lighter than, the flaws
EXTRUSION
EXTRUSION
EXTRUSION
In extrusion, a cylindrical billet is forced through a die in a manner
similar to squeezing toothpaste from a tube or extruding
A wide variety of solid or hollow cross sections may be produced by
extrusion, which essentially are semifinished parts
Characteristic of extrusion (from the Latin extrudere, meaning “to
force out”) is that large deformations can take place without fracture
because the material is under high triaxial compression
Typical products made by extrusion are railings for sliding doors,
window frames, tubing having various cross sections, aluminium
ladder frames, and numerous structural and architectural shapes.
Commonly extruded materials are aluminium, copper, steel,
magnesium, and lead
TYPES OF EXTRUSION
a) indirect; (b) hydrostatic
TYPES OF EXTRUSION
Hydrostatic Extrusion
TYPES OF EXTRUSION
Lateral
TYPES OF EXTRUSION
Direct or forward extrusion, a billet is placed in a chamber
(container) and forced through a die opening by a hydraulically
driven am (pressing stem or punch)
The function of the dummy block is to protect the tip of the pressing
stem (punch), particularly in hot extrusion
Indirect extrusion (also called reverse, inverted, or backward
extrusion), the die moves toward the unextruded billet
Indirect extrusion has the advantage of having no billet-container
friction, since there is no relative motion.
Thus, indirect extrusion is used on materials with very high friction,
such as high strength steels.
TYPES OF EXTRUSION (CONT..)
Hydrostatic extrusion ,the billet is smaller in diameter than the
chamber (which is filled with a fluid), and the pressure is transmitted
to the fluid by a ram.
The fluid pressure results in compressive stresses acting on the
workpiece and thus improved formability; also, there is much less
workpiece-container friction than in direct extrusion.
A less common type of extrusion is lateral (or side) extrusion
The geometric variables in extrusion are the die angle, α, and the
ratio of the cross-sectional area of the billet to that of the extruded
product, Ao /Af , called the extrusion ratio, R.
Other variables are the temperature of the billet, the speed at which
the ram travels, and the type of lubricant used
PROCESS VARIABLES IN DIRECT
EXTRUSION
EXTRUSION FORCE
The force required for extrusion depends on
(a) the strength of the billet material,
(b) the extrusion ratio,
(c) the friction between the billet and the chamber and die surfaces
(d) the process variables, such as the temperature of the billet and the
speed of extrusion
𝐀𝐨
𝐄𝐱𝐭𝐫𝐮𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞, 𝐅 = 𝐀𝐨 𝐤 𝐥𝐧
𝐀𝐟
Where k is the extrusion constant (which is determined experimentally)
𝑨𝒐 and 𝑨𝒇 are the billet and extruded product areas,
HOT EXTRUSION
For metals and alloys that do not have sufficient ductility at room temperature,
or in order to reduce the forces required, extrusion is carried out at elevated
temperatures
Hot extrusion has special requirements because of the high operating
temperatures.
To reduce cooling of the billet and to prolong die life, extrusion dies may be
preheated
Because the billet is hot, it develops an oxide film, unless it is heated in an
inert-atmosphere furnace
Oxide films can be abrasive and can affect the flow pattern of the material.
Their presence also results in an extruded product that may be unacceptable
when good surface finish is important
In order to avoid the formation of oxide films on the hot extruded product, the
dummy block placed ahead of the ram
COLD EXTRUSION
Developed in the 1940s, cold extrusion is a general term that often
denotes a combination of operations, such as direct and indirect
extrusion and forging
Cold extrusion is used widely for components in automobiles,
motorcycles, bicycles, and appliances and in transportation and farm
equipment.
The cold-extrusion process uses slugs cut from cold-finished or hot-
rolled bars, Wire, or plates.
Slugs that are less than about 40 mm in diameter are sheared
(cropped), and their ends are squared off by processes such as
upsetting, machining, or grinding.
Larger diameter slugs are machined from bars into specific lengths.
IMPACT EXTRUSION
IMPACT EXTRUSION
Impact extrusion is similar to indirect extrusion, and the process
often is included in the cold-extrusion category.
The punch descends rapidly on the blank (slug), which is extruded
backwards
Because of volume constancy, the thickness of the tubular extruded
section is a function of the clearance between the punch and the die
cavity
Products made by impact extrusion are collapsible tubes (similar to
those used for toothpaste), light fixtures, automotive parts, and small
pressure vessels
Most nonferrous metals can be impact extruded in vertical presses
and at production rates as high as two parts per second.
The maximum diameter of the parts made is about 150 mm
EXTRUSION DEFECTS
(a) Centre burst (b) Piping (c) Surface crack
EXTRUSION DEFECTS
Depending on workpiece material condition and process variables,
extruded products can develop several types of defects that can affect
significantly their strength and product quality
There are three principal extrusion defects: surface cracking, pipe,
and internal cracking.
Surface Cracking. If extrusion temperature, friction, or speed is too
high, surface temperatures can rise significantly, which may cause
surface cracking and tearing
These cracks are intergranular and usually are caused by hot
shortness
These defects occur especially in aluminium, magnesium, and zinc
alloys, high-temperature alloys
This can be avoided by lowering the billet temperature and the
extrusion speed.
EXTRUSION DEFECTS(CONT..)
Surface cracking may occur at lower temperatures, where it has been
attributed to periodic sticking of the extruded product along the die
land.
Because of the similarity in appearance to the surface of a bamboo
stem, it is known as a bamboo defect
Pipe. The type of metal-flow pattern in extrusion tends to draw
surface oxides and impurities toward the center of the billet-much
like a funnel. This defect is known as pipe defect, tailpipe, or fish
tailing.
Piping can be minimized by modifying the flow pattern to be more
uniform, such as by controlling friction and minimizing temperature
gradient
Another method is to machine the billet’s surface prior to extrusion,
so that scale and surface impurities are removed
EXTRUSION DEFECTS(CONT..)
Internal Cracking. The center of the extruded product can develop
cracks, called center cracking, center-burst, arrowhead fracture, or
chevron cracking
These cracks are attributed to tensile stress at the center line in the
deformation zone in the die
These cracks also have been observed in tube extrusion and in tube
spinning, they appear on the inside surfaces of tubes.
The tendency for center cracking (a) increases with increasing die
angle, (b) increases with increasing amount of impurities, and (c)
decreases with increasing extrusion ratio
DRAWING PROCESS
DRAWING PROCESS
In drawing, the cross section of a long rod or wire is reduced or changed by
pulling(hence the term drawing) it through a die called a draw die
The difference between drawing and extrusion is that in extrusion the
material is pushed through a die, whereas in drawing it is pulled through it.
Rod and wire products cover a very wide range of applications, including
shafts for power transmission, machine and structural components, blanks
for bolts and rivets, electrical wiring, cables, tension-loaded structural
members, welding electrodes, springs, paper clips, spokes for bicycle
wheels, and stringed musical instruments
The major processing variables in drawing are similar to those in extrusion
that is, reduction in cross-sectional area, die angle, friction along the die-
workpiece interface, and drawing speed.
The die angle influences the drawing force and the quality of the drawn
product
DRAWING STRESS (𝜎𝒅 )
Ideal Deformation
𝐴𝑜
𝜎𝑑 = 𝜎𝑦 ln
𝐴𝑓
Deformation with friction
𝜇 cot 𝛼
tan 𝛼 𝐴𝑜
𝜎𝑑 = 𝜎𝑦 1+ 1−
𝜇 𝐴𝑓
Where 𝜎𝑦 = Yield stress
𝛼 = Die angle
𝜇 = Co-efficient of friction
𝐴𝑜 = Original area of cross section of wire or rod
𝐴𝑓 = Final area of cross section after drawing operation
WIRE DRAWING
WIRE DRAWING
Wire drawing is the process of reducing diameter of metal rods by drawing
them through conical openings on die blocks
Steel, iron or non-ferrous rod is converted into wire by drawing it through a
conical hole having an included angle of 8- 24 ̊
In continuous wire-drawing the wire passes through a succession of holes
decreasing sizes in die made of steel, tungsten carbide, etc. , the reduction
in cross-sectional area usually being about 30%
