1. Style and Stylistics.

The subject and aims of

Stylistics
The main subject of stylistics is style in all linguistic definitions of this
term. The word “style” goes back to the Latin word “stilos” which
meant a sharp stick used for writing on wax tablets . The
term”stylistics”is originated from the Greek “stylos”which means “a
pen”
To do stylistics is to explore language and more specifically ,to explo
creativity in language. . Stylistc is a branch of Linguistic. The word
stylistic was firstly confirmed in the “Oxford English Dictionary”only in
1882.
The object of a science is a certain phenomenon which exists
transforming role of human mind. The subject-matter of a science covers
one or several aspects of the given object.Thus stylistics is subdivided
into separate, quite independent branches, each treating one level and
having its own subject of investigation. Stylistic phonetics, stylistic
morphology, stylistic Lexicology and stylistic syntax .
Stylistic phonetics studies the style-forming phonetic features of sounds,
peculiarities of their organization in speech. It also investigates variants
of pronunciation occurring in different types of speech.
Stylistic morphology is interested in stylistic potential of grammatical
forms and grammatical meanings peculiar to particular types of speech.
(we mean form grammatical point of view) .
Stylistic lexicology considers stylistic functions of lexicon, expressive,
evaluative and emotive potential of words belonging to different layers
of vocabulary.
Stylistic syntax investigates the style-forming potential of particular
syntactic constructions and peculiarities of their usage in different types
of speech.
The subject of Stylistics has not so far been definitely outlined. This is
due to this reason: there is confusion between the terms style and
stylistics. Style in architecture, literature, behaviour, linguistics, dress
and in other fields of human activity .

2.Stylistcs as a branch of Linguistics

The main subject of stylistics is style in all linguistic definitions of this
term. The word “style” goes back to the Latin word "stilos "which meant
a sharp stick used for writing on wax tablets. The term "stylistics" is
originated from the Greek "stylos", which means "a pen". It is no news
that any content, any idea can be verbalized in several different ways:
"May I offer you a chair?", "Take a seat, please" ,"Sit down" have the
same idea, the same subject matter but differ in the manner of
expression, which depends upon the situational conditions of the
communication act.
The term “style” is understood by various scholars in the following
senses:
1) the individual manner of a writer or a speaker in making use of
language to achieve the desirable effect in speech or in writing. This
application of the general term ‘style’ is observed in several trends of
stylistics: a) pragmatic one that studies what the language can offer to
make a communicative act successful; b) an author’s individual style
study.
2) functional style of language (registers, discourses), i.e. a set of
interrelated lingual units of all language levels used in a given sphere
and serving a definite purpose in communication.
3) a variety of linguistic expression serving particular communicative
purposes, or so-called style of language’.

3.Expressive Means (EMs) and Stylistic Devices (SDs)

To define expressive means it’s necessary to know what is
expressiveness .
Expressiveness is a kind of intensification of an utterance. So, all
stylistic means are divided into:
a) expressive means;
b) stylistic devices.
1) The expressive means are those:
1. phonetic means; --intonation, pronunciation, melody, stress, rhythm,
tembr, tone, whispering, pausation.
2. morphological forms;
3. means of word-building;
4. lexical forms; suffixes, prefixes (təzəsözlər)
5. phraseological forms; -(figurated meaning) metafor, metanomy,
proverb, idioms
6. syntactical forms, logical and emotional meanings
Stylistic device is a conscious and intentional intensification of some
typical structural or semantic property of a language unity (neutral or
expressive) promoted to a generalized status.
Stylistc devices always carry additional information,either emotive or
logical.Most SDs show an application of 2 meanings:
the ordinary meaning( the lexical or structural meaning has already
been established in the languages) and a special meaning which is
superimposed on the unit by the text.And Ems have greater degree of
predictability than SDs.
And it is possible to single out the some main groups of SDs:
1.SDs based on the opposition of lexical meanings regardless of the
syntactical organization of utterance- LEXICAL
SDs :metaphor,epithet,pun,irony,antonomasia
2. SDs based on the opposition syntactical meanings regardless of their
semantics-SYNTACTICAL SDs:
inversion,ellipsis,detachment,suspence,repetition,rhetorical question
3. SDs based on the opposition of lexical meanings accompanied by
fixed syntactical organization of employed lexical units – LEXICO-
SYNTACTICAL SDs :climax,anticlimax,litotes,simile
4. SDs based on the opposition of meanings of PHONOLOGICAL AND
PHONETIC STYLISTIC
MEANS :alliteration,onomatopoeia,rhyme,rhytme
Expressive means and stylistic devices have a lot in common but they
are not completely synonyms .All stylistic devices belong to expressive
means but not at all expressive means are stylistic devices.

4.Types of Lexical meaning

A number of stylistic devices are based on the peculiar use of lexical
meanings. Therefore it is necessary to define the types of meanings of
words which we meet in stylistic devices.
Before we start analyzing different meanings of a word let’s see what is
a word. The word is a language unit that expresses a concept by its form
and meaning. A concept is an abstract or in other words generalised idea
of a phenomenon. The meaning of a word is the means by which the
concept is materialized.
The three main meanings in the word semantic structure
are:logical,emotive,nominal
The logical meaning sometimes named referential meaning.It is
historical category which constantly changes in the course of time.
Emotive meaning express feeling and emotions called forth by the
phenomenon denoted.It shows the subjective attitude of the speaker,his
or her evaluation of phenomenon.
Nominal meaning characterizes beings or things.Nominal meaning is
characteristic of proper names,the logical meaning of the words they
originate from may be forgotten :smith-Smith;taylor -Taylor

5. Varieties of language
One of the basic classifications of literary language is according to the
spheres of human activity.There are 2 varieties of language:
- the spoken (is primary)
- the written (is secondary)
( the spoken variety is primary and the written one is secondary.)
The spoken language is maintained in the form of a dialogue,the
written in the form of a monologue. The spoken language has a great
advantage over the written one in that in it the human voice comes into
play.
The written language is more carefully organized,more explanatory,the
word choice is more deliberate.The spoken language is spontaneous and
momentary. In spoken language we used unfinished sentences.
They have own features which in many ways may be regarded as
opposed to each other.
1.Spoken language- are colloqiual words.
 -have omission of the part of utterance
 -unfinished sentences (if i were you...)
 -absence of connecting words (came home, went to bed)
 -expressing definite emotions (isn't she cute! Don't you tell me
that)
 -form of dialogue
  -is full of repetitions, incomplete sentences, corrections and
interruptions (expect formal speech) he'd- he would; how come?
(how did it happen)
The spoken languagediffers from the written language phonetically,
morphologically, lexically and syntactically.
2.Written language- form of monologue
 -bookish words; like prove
 -the exact of nature of utterance
 -bookish "space wasters"
 -use of connectives
-role of context

6. Stylistic Classification of the English Vocabulary

(neutral, common literary and common colloquial)
Stylistic classification is about the word. We choose different words
depend on situation.
For getting a more or less clear idea of the word-stock of any
language ,it must be presented as a system, the elements of which are
interconnected, interrelated and yet independent.
We may represent the whole of the word-stock of the English language
as being divided into three main layers:
• The literary layer
• The neutral layer
• The colloquial layer
The Literary layer has no local or dialectical character. The literary
vocabulary consists of these groups:
1) Common literary
2) Terms and learned words
3) Poetic words
4) Archaic words
5) Barbarisms and foreign words
6) Literary coinages including nonce-words
The Colloquial layer of words is often limited to a definite language
community or confined to a special locality where it circulates. The
colloquial vocabulary falls into the following groups:
• Vulgar words
• Common colloquial words
• Jargonisms
• Dialectal words and etc.
For ex: daddy, chap, go on and etc.
Neutral words, which form the bulk of the English vocabulary, are used
in both literary and colloquial language Neutral words are the main
source of synonymy and polysemy.
For ex: child, father, continue and etc.
Common literary words are chiefly used in writing and in polished
speech. One can always differ a literary word from a colloquial word.
For ex: parent, infant, retire and etc.
continue (neutral) – go on / carry on (colloq.) – proceed (bookish,
formal);
begin / start (neutral) – get going /get started / Come on! (colloq.)-
commence (formal).

7. Special colloquial Vocabulary

The colloquial vocabulary falls into the following groups: 1. Common
colloquial words: 2. Slang: 3. Jargons: 4. Professional words: 5.
Dialectal words: 6. Vulgar words: 7. Colloquial coinages-are
spontaneous.It is not fixed in dictionaries.It disappear from the language
without a trace.ex;caff-cafeteria;combo-combination.Some colloquial
coinages are made by means of contamination;S’long,c’mon,gimme.
Professionalisms
Professionalisms, as the term itself signifies, are the words used in a
definite trade, profession or calling by people connected by common
interests both at work and at home.
Professionalisms generally remain in circulation within a definite
community, as they are linked to a common occupation and common
social interests. The semantic structure of the term is usually transparent
and is therefore easily understood.
Professionals should not be mixed up with jargonisms. Like slang
words, professionalisms do not aim at secrecy.
Dialectal words
Dialectal words are in the process of the integration into the English
Neutral Language, remain beyond its literary boundaries and their use is
referred to a definite layer (lower). They are recognized as Standard
Colloquial English. Dialectal words are mostly found in the style of
emotive description. Thus they characterized personalities through
speech.
Modern English in the British Isles shows signs of both regional dialects
and class dialects. Nearly each British county has its own peculiarities,
and as A.C.Baugh notes, sometimes as many as three dialectal regions
may be distinguished within the boundaries of a single shire.
Modern American English regional dialects include Eastern New
England (Bostonian), New York, Inland Northern (Great Lakes), North
Midland (covers southern New Jersey, eastern Pennsylvania, north
Delaware, and Maryland), Mid-southern (West Virginia, North Carolina,
Kentucky and Tennessee), Southern (Virginia, South Carolina lowlands,
Louisianna), General American, and Black English Vernacular.
Vulgar Words or Vulgarisms
The term vulgarism is rather misleading. Webster’s New International
Dictionary defines vulgarism as a vulgar phrase or expression, or one
used only in colloquial, or, esp. in unrefined or low, speech.
There are different degrees of vulgar words. Some of them, the obscene
ones, are called four-letter words. A lesser degree of vulgarity is
presented by expletives and they sometimes appear in euphemistic
spelling. Vulgarisms are: expletives and swear words which are of an
abusive character, like damn, bloody, to hell, goddam and, as some
dictionaries state, used now as general exclamations.

8. Slang and Vulgar words

Informal diction or the use of vocabulary considered inconsistent with
the preferred formal wording common among the educated or elite in a
culture. For instance, formal wording might require a message such as
this one: “Greetings. How are my people doing?”
Slang seems to mean everything that is below . In most of the
dictionaries slang is used as convenient stylistic notation for a word or a
phrase that cannot be specified more exactly. Many words formerly
labelled as slang have now become legitimate units of standard English.
Thus the word kid (child), which was considered low slang in the
nineteenth century, is now a legitimate colloquial unit of the English
literary language.
Some linguists say that slangs never grow stale. If a slang word or
phrase does become stale, it is replaced by a new slangism.
Slangs are informal words which is used by social groups among
friendly atmosphere. Slangs are very fashionable, vivid more flexible.
Slang is:
• a language of a highly colloquial style laying below the level of
educated speech and consisting Of words or of current words,
employed in some special sense.
• the special vocabulary used by any set of persons of a low
character; thus, slang is represented both as a special vocabulary
and a special language, and so, it causes confussion.
Slang requires constant innovation, so that words are replaced by new
slangisms.
There’re many kind of slangs – public, house, commercial, military.
There is a standard slang, which is a way of speaking, using special
words and phrases in some special sense.
Slang is very informal usage in vocabulary and idiom that is
characteristically more metaphorical, playful, elliptical, vivid, and
ephemeral than ordinary language. Slang words depend on the language
used, country or area, ethnic background, subculture, and specific
occupation or part of society – in other words, everyone has their own
slang.
There are a lot of examples of slang in teenager’s dialogues:
• Crumbs! That girl is really choong, blud.
• Safe, man! You’re looking buff in your fresh creps and low batties.
• Crumbs! – Wow!
• choong- attractive
• blud; man – friend
• safe- hi
• buff- attractive
• creps- trainers
• low batties – trousers that hang really low on your waist
In normal words:
• Wow! That girl is really attractive, friend.
• Hi, friend! You’re looking attractive in your fresh trainers and trousers
American Slang:
Dude, Pal, Buddy – man or friend
Cash – paper money
Bread, Dough – any money
Spud – potato
Cop – police officer
Bathroom, Restroom, john, can - toiletChicken – afraid
Mad – angry
Dirty – obscene
Nuts, A Nut- crazy, eccentric
British Slang:
For a small country, the UK has a lot of slang!
Bobby – police officer
Good Egg/ Bad Egg – moral person/immoral person
Bloke, Chap – man
Mad – insane
Chuffed – pleased, happy
Bags – claiming something because you are first to say so
Whinge – to complain or whine
Spud – potato
Bird – girl
Cockney Rhyming Slang:
Rhyming slang is a subculture slang originating in the Cockney east end
of London. It is perhaps the most recognized and most colorful slang in
the world. Rhyming slang terms include
Trouble and strife – wife
Rosey lee – tea
Frog and toad – road
Bees and honey – money
Mince pies – eyes
Old joanna – piano
Barnet Fair – hair
Plates of meat – feet

Vulgar word
Vulgarism - a vulgar phrase or expression, or one used only in
colloquial, or, esp. in unrefined or low, speech.
I.R.Galperin defines vulgarisms as expletives or swear-words and
obscene words and expressions.
Vulgar words mean a) words or manes employed in ordinary speech,
b) common, familiar words,
c) commonly current or prevalent or widely disseminated words. In
Webster’s New Internal Dictionary six meanings are repeating in
variations the ones given above and only the seventh is different
d) words marked coarseness of speech or expression; crude or offensive
in nature; lewd, obscene, or profane in expression, indecent, indelicate.
The two last meanings are the foundation of what here understand as
vulgarisms.
The function of vulgarisms is almost the same as that of interjections,
that is to express strong emotions. They are not to be found in any style
of speech except emotive prose, and here only in the direct speech of the
characters.
Vulgarisms are coarse words with a strong emotive meaning, mostly
derogatory, normally avoided in polite conversation. Vulgar words are
harder than coarse words. Vulgar words are strong charge words. They
are not socially accepted words.
Vulgarisms possess a strong emotional meaning which denotes the
speaker’s attitude towards the object in question. in Middle Ages and
until the 16th century vulgar words were accepted in oral speech and
even in printed one. They were widely spread in literature. Vulgarisms
are often used in conversation out of Habit, without any thought of what
they mean, or in imitation, not to seem old-fashioned and prudent.
So vulgarisms are: expletives and swear words which are of an abusive
character, like damn, bloody, to hell, goddam and, as some dictionaries
state, used now as general exclamations;obscene words.
Ex’ 1. So I got the ax
2. I was the goddam manager of the fencin

9. Jargonisms
Jargonisms are code words or Jargon is a group of words with the aim to
preserve secrecy within one or another social group. Jargonisms are
generally old words with new meanings imposed on them. Jargon may
be defined as a code within a code. E.g. grease-money; tiger hunter-
gambler; loaf -head.
Jargonisms are social in character. They are not regional. They are
common. In Britain and in the US almost any social group of people has
its own jargon. The following jargons are well known in the English
Language: the jargon of thieves and vagabonds, generally known as
cant; the jargon of the army, known as military slang; the jargon of
sportsmen, of jazz musicians and many others.
Jargon remains a foreign language for the outsiders of any social group.
Slangneeds no translation, while jargon is a code. But on the whole
jargonisms are special groups within the non-literary layer of words.
Ex. From students jargon: exam (examination), math (mathematics),
trig(trigonometry), ec (economics), a big gun or big wig (an important
person), an egg(an inexperienced pilot).

10.Professionalism
Professionalisms, as the term itself signifies, are the words used in a
definite trade, profession or calling by people connected by common
interests both at work and at home. Professionalisms are correlated to
terms. Professionalisms are special words in the non-literary layer of
the English vocabulary, whereas terms are a specialized group
belonging to the literary layer of words.
Professionalisms generally remain in circulation within a definite
community, as they are linked to a common occupation and common
social interests. Like terms, professionals do not allow any polysemy,
they are monosemantic. Professionals should not be mixed up with
jargonisms. Like slang words, professionalisms do not aim at secrecy.
[Professionals are used in emotive prose to depict the natural speech of a
character.Professional words name a new already existing concepts and
have the typical properties of a special code, but they do not aim at
secrecy.
Here are some professionalisms used in different spheres of activity:
tin-fish (submarine), piper (a specialist who decorates pastry with the
use of a cream- pipe); outer (a knock out blow).

11.Dialectal words
Dialectal words are in the process of the integration into the English
Neutral Language, remain beyond its literary boundaries and their use is
referred to a definite layer (lower). They are recognised as Standard
Colloquial English. Dialectal words are mostly found in the style of
emotive description. Thus they characterised personalities through
speech.
Old-English and Middle English also had unique regional dialects. In
Old English, the FOUR MAJOR REGIONAL DIALECTS were West
Saxon, Kentish, Mercian, and Northumbrian. As the centuries went
by, West Saxon became increasingly the standard. In Middle English,
the major dialects included Southern, Kentish, West Midlands, East
Midlands, and Northern.
Modern American English regional dialects include Eastern New
England, New York, Inland Northern, North Midland , Mid- southern ,
Southern , General American, and Black English Vernacular.
There is sometimes a difficulty in distinguishing dialectal words from
colloquial words. Some dialectal words have become so familiar in good
colloquial or standard colloquial English that they are universally
accepted as recognized units of the standard colloquial English. To these
words belong lass, meaning a girl or a beloved girl and the
corresponding lad, a boy or a young man,daft from the Scottish and the
Northern dialect, meaning of unsound mind;silly; fash, also Scottish,
with the meaning of trouble, cares. Still they have not lost their dialectal
associations and therefore are used in literary English.
The term dialect encompasses the sounds, spelling, grammar, and
diction employed by a specific people as distinguished from other
persons either geographically or socially.

12.Antiphrasis
Greek anti "opposite" and phrasis, "diction" is a figure of speech in
which a word or phrase is used to mean the opposite of its normal
meaning to create ironic humorous effect; verbal irony. The adjective
form is antiphrastic.
Ex "He's only a child of 50 years old".
"She's so beautiful. She has an attractive long nose".
"Get in, little man," he told his fat old friend. It is a cool 45 degrees
Celsius in the shade".
Even a brief consideration of the most common rhetorical devices
deployed in ironic texts will show that antiphrasis explains only some of
them, such as litotes and contradiction; whereas, on the contrary,
hyperbole works by excess, not opposition, and meiosis operates by
playing downmore than by playing against.

13,14,15,16. Special literary vocabulary, Terms,

Archaic words,Barbarisms and foreignisms, Literary
coinages (noncewords)
14. Terms. A term- is a word (word-combination) denoting a
scientific concept. Terms may be divided into three main groups
depending on the character of their etimology. Terms formed from
Greek, Latin, French, German or other foreign sources, e.g.
Botany,Anatomy, schedule (Greek) locomotive, chivalry, march,
parliament, estate (Latin); facade, Renaissance, retreat, maneuver, squad,
coup d’etat, cliché (French); cobalt, zinc, quartz, sauerkraut (German).
Terms formed from the common word stock, by means of semantic
change, e.g. tank, company(milit.); wing (archit); fading, jamming
(radio) Terms formed by means of special suffixes and prefixes: e.g.
ultra-violet, antidote, transplant.Usually these suffixes and prefixes (and
sometimes word root components) are borrowed from Greek or Latin
and as such have the same meaning in all the languages. Any term taken
separately has the following peculiarities: It has no emotional value. It is
usually monosemantic, at least in the given field of science, technique or
art. In any language with the increase of general education some terms
are losing their original quality and are gradually passing into common
literary or even neutral vocabulary. This process is called
determinization. E.g.: radio, television, computer, network. Terms are
stylishtically neutral,they may be used with a stylist purpose.Terms
mustn’t be overused.

15. Archaic words

Archaism a word, expression, spelling, or phrase that is out of date in the
common speech of an era, but still deliberately used by a writer, poet, or
playwright for artistic purposes. Archaic words are divided into the three
groups: archaic, obsolescent, obsolete. There are three stages in the
aging processes of words: They become rarely used; they are in the stage
of gradually passing out from use; They have already gone completely
out of use and are still recognised by the English-speaking people.
Archaic words proper is no longer recognizable in modern English; such
words were in use during the Old English period, are earlier dropped out
of the language or have changed in the appearance so much that they
have become unrecognizable. Obsolescent words are used in different
kinds of documents and legal English. Obsolent words are used mostly
in poetry. Archaic words are also used to create an evaluated effect.

16. Barbarisms and foreignisms

In the vocabulary of the English language there is a considerable layer of
words called barbarisms. These are words of foreign origin which have
not entirely been assimilated into the English language. Most of them
have corresponding English synonyms; e.g. chic (stylish); bon mot (a
clever witty saying); en passant ( in passing); ad infinitum (to infinity)
and many other words and phrases. It is very important for purely
stylistic purposes to distinguish between barbarisms and foreign
wproper. Barbarisms are words which have already become facts of the
English language. Foreign words, though used for certain stylistic
purposes, do not belong to the English vocabulary.
17. Literary coinages (nonce-words)
Some words are coined to be used at the moment of speech, possessing
the property of temporariness. New coinages may become synonyms of
some old words or substitute them. Terminological coinages, indicating
new-born concepts, which may result from the science or used with the
need to understand the nature of the phenomenon better (computer).
Stylistic coinages are coined because their creators seek expressive
utterance (thingism)by the way, have the right to be called so because
they will always remain neologisms, i. e. will never lose their novelty:
"Let me say in the beginning that even if I wanted to avoid Texas I could
not, for I am wived in Texas, and mother-in-lawed, and uncled, and
aunted, and cousined within an inch of my life." (J. Steinbeck) The past
participles mother-in-lawed, uncled, aunted and cousined are coined for
the occasion on the analogy of wived and can hardly be expected to be
registered by English dictionaries as ordinary English words. Colloquial
coinages or noncewords are spontaneous. They are not fixed in
dictionaries. They dissapear from the language without a trace. There is
a term in linguistics which by its very nature is ambiguous and that is the
term neologism. In dictionaries it is generally defined as a new word or a
new meaning for an established word. The first type of newly coined
words, i. e. those which designate newborn concepts may be named
terminological coinages. The second type, i.e. words coined because
their creators seek expressive utterance may be named stylistic coinages

18.Lexical EMs and SDs.- 20/21

Lexical stylistic devices is such type of denoting phenomena that serves
to create additional expressive, evaluative, subjective connotations.

19. METAPHOR, METONYMY, Synecdoche

METAPHOR- is a stylistic device based on the principle of
identification of two objects. The metaphor is a well-known semantic
way of building new meanings and new words. E.g cunning person
• Trite or dead metaphors are time-worn and well rubbed into the
language. E.g : a shadow of smile / a ray of hope / floods of tears.
• The writers finds it necessary to prolong the image by adding a number
of other images, but all this additional images are linked with the main
images. Such metaphors are called sustained or prolonged metaphors.
Types of metaphor:
1) genuine metaphors - are absolutely unexpected, are quite
unpredictable. E.g Through the open window the dust danced and was
golden. 2) Anthropomorphic metaphors- in which the words denoting
parts of the body. E.g head of an army / foot of a hill / arms and mouth
of a river.
3)Another subgroup of metaphors comprises transitions of proper names
into common ones: e.g Don Juan - attractive profligates
METONYMY- is a different type of interaction between logical and
contextual logical meanings. Metonymy - is a figure of speech in which
one object or idea takes the place of another with which it has a close
association. In fact, metonymy means “change of name.” e.g Crown (for
the power of a king) , Hollywood (for US Cinema). Metonymy is a a
figure of speech that a thing or concept is not called by its own name,
but by the name of smth intimately associated with that thing or concept.
Like metaphors Metonymy can be divided into trite and genuine
metonymy . The stylistic effect of trite metonymies is in the most cases
weak. Metonymy used in emotive prose is often called contextual and in
this case considered to be genuine and unexpected. Metonymy may be
divided into figures of speech established in the language and individual
speech. A metonymy differs from a metaphor by the fact that a metaphor
may be periphrased into a simile by the help of such words as : as if ,so,
so as ,like.
Synecdoche. It is a part of speech similar to metonomy. Synecdoche is a
spesific kind of metonomic relotionship a qualitative one where a pary
stands for a whole, singular stands for the plural. E.g: a Red Hat, I want
to live with the wolf and owl. Synecdoche is the case when the part of an
object is called instead of the whole object. It has given rise to many
phraseological units.e.g under one’s roof (in one’s house)
Types of syndecdoche.
• Part of something is used to refer to the whole thing – e.g: A hundred
head of cattle (using the part head to refer to the whole animal)
• The whole of a thing is used represent part of it – e.g: The world
treated him badly ( using the world to refer to part of the world)
• A container is used to refer to its contents – A barrel (referring to a
barrel of oil)
• A material is used to refer to ab object composed of that material –
Glasses or steel (referring to dpectacles or world)

20. IRONY - is a stylistic device based on the use of words to

convey a meaning that is opposite of what is actually said , two
meanings stand in opposition to each other. E.g "it must be delightful to
find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one's pocket".
Irony may be expressed by any part of speech, most often by a noun ,
adjective and adverb.
• The function of irony is not confined (kifayətlənmək /məhdudlanmaq )
to producing humorous effect. İrony is generally used to convey a
negative meaning .
• Irony can hardly be trite. Naturally, it is always original. It's used in
humorous, satirical, comic prose.
• Irony is a device ,usually used in belles- letters,publicistic and
newspaper style.
Types of irony :
1) VERBAL IRONY : also called sarcasm. This is a statement in which
the speaker means something very different from what she/he is saying.
E.g : The boy is so intelligent that he failed in all the subjects.
2) DRAMATIC IRONY: Dramatic irony is when the reader knows more
than the character. It creates tension and suspense. E.g : The wife
believed that her husband died in an airplane crash and but the audience
was aware that the husband had survived.
3) SITUATIONAL IRONY: also called cosmic irony. Situational irony
occurs when there is a difference between what is expected to happen
and what actually happens. E.g Dr. Johnson smokes a pack of cigarettes
a day.

21. Zeugma and Pun

Zeugma is a figure of speech which applies o two or more things. A
zeugma is a literary term for using one word to modify two words, in
two different ways . For example , She broke his car and his heart.
When you use one word to link two thoughts , you’re using a zeugma .
For ex; She opened her door and her heart to the orphan.
Simultaneous realization within the same short context of two
meanings of a polysemantic word is called zeugma.
Zeugma is the use of a word in two meanings - literal and figurative.
The zeugma is sometimes utilized to create drama, add emotion or
produce some sort of shock value. For ex; "He lost his coat and his
temper."
When Zeugma Goes Wrong
"Sitting by the fence, the dog barked at the cat" is an example of when
zeugma goes wrong. The function of zeugma is to create a humorous
effect.
Pun
A pun( or paronomasia) – is a form of wordplay ,Which suggest two or
more meanings, by exploiting multiple meanings of words or phrase for
an intended humorous or rheteorical effect. For ex: ‘ Atheism is a non-
prophet institution’ the word ‘ prophet’ is put in place of its
homophone profit, altering the common phrase non-profit institution.
For ex; An elephant’s opinion carries a lot of weight; You can tune a
guitar , but you can’t tuna fish. Unless of course , you play bass.

22.Interjections and exclamatory words.

Interjections are words we use when we express our feelings strongly
and which may be said to exist in language as conventional symbols of
human emotions. In traditional grammars the interjection is regarded as
a part of speech, alongside other parts of speech, as the noun, adjective,
verb, etc. But there is another view which regards the interjection not as
a part of speech but as a sentence.
Interjections can be divided into primary and derivative. Primary
interjections are generally devoid of any logical meaning E.g: Oh! Ah!
Bah! Pooh! Gosh! Hush! Alas! Voy! Eh! Oh! Be! Ie! Iy! Voey! E-ha!
xa! Voy-bo`y! Xaya! I-i! Yop! Ey! Xax! Obbo!
Derivative interjections: E.g: Heavens! Good gracious! Dear me! Good!
By the lord! God knows! Bless me! Hum bug!
“Heavens!”, “God knows”, “Bless me” are exclamatory words generally
used as interjections.

23. Epithet
Epithet is an attributive word or phrase used to characterise an object,
i.e. to express an individual perception and evaluation of its features and
properties. E. g. a giant moustache, a pessimistic rumble. (J. B.
Priestley)
The epithet is a stylistic device based on the interplay of emotive and
logical meaning in an attributive word, phrase or even sentence used to
characterize an object and pointing out to the reader, and frequently
imposing on him, some of the properties or features of the object with
the aim of giving an individual perception and evaluation of these
features or properties. The epithet( for ex;loud ocean; wild wind) is
markedly subjective and evaluative. The logical attribute( for ex; white
snow; round table ,etc.) is purely objective, non-evaluating.
Semantically, there should be differentiated two main groups, the
biggest of them being affective (or emotive proper) (e.g. "gorgeous";
"nasty"; "magnificent" ;"atrocious" etc.). The second group - figurative,
or transferred, epithets-is formed of metaphors, metonymies and similes
expressed by adjectives. E.g. "the smiling sun", "the frowning cloud",
"the sleepless pillow"etc.
Epithets may be classifed from different standpoints; semantic,
structural .
Semantic classifiction of epithets:
Associated:dark forest; carefully attetion ,etc.
Unassociated: heart-burning smile ; vioceless sands ,etc.
From the point of view of structure Epithets maybe divide into:
Compound: weak-minded ideas. Paired epithets : wonderful and happy
summer. Reserved epithet: a day of happiness. Pharse epithet : a life and
death struggle . etc.

24.SDs based on the interaction of the logical and

nominal meanings ( Antonomasia)
Antonomasia (Gk. antonomasia 'naming instead’; antonomazein 'to
name differently’) is usually the substitution of the proper name of a
person for another name in order to characterize him/her.
Function: characterization through name, creation of humorous
atmosphere.
This SD is based on the immediate interplay between logical and
nominal meanings of a word which is realized in the text. Depending on
the character of the contextual meaning there are two types of
antonomasia:
1) That based on the interaction between the nominal and contextual
logical meanings.
2) That based on the interaction between the logical and contextual
nominal meanings.
To the first group those cases in which a proper noun is used for a
common noun. This type of antonomasia is usually trite for writer
repeats the well-known, often-mentioned facts.
The second type of antonomasia observed the interaction between the
logical and the contextual nominal meaning, i.e. practically any common
noun can be used as a common name.
e. g. So, my dear Simplicity, let me give you a little respite.
Antonomasia stands close to epithets. For ex: : Miss Sharp, Mr.
Backbite, Miss. Murdstone.
There exist 2 major types of antonomasia:
1.metaphoric – is based on similarity.( for ex: Mrs Snakes,
Mr.Murdstone( murder+stone) 2.metonymic- is based on
association.(for ex; He has married money)
There are several types of antonomasia:
1) the name of the place for the event that took place there: E. g.
Waterloo - defeat;
2) the name of some establishment (or the policy): E. g. The White
House - American policy; Fleet street - English mass media; Old Bailey
- the Court system;
 3) geographical names for the things that came into being there: E. g.
China - china; Champaign - champaign;
4) names of things after the names of their inventors: E. g. Sandwich,
Machintosh.

25. Intensification of a certain feature of a thing or

phenomenon (euphemisms, hyperbole).
EUPHEMISM
Euphemism.Using a mild orgentle phrase instead of a blunt, embarrassing,
or painful one. For instance, saying "Grandfather has gone to a better
place" is a euphemism for "Grandfather has died."
So euphemisms are synonyms which aim at producing a deliberately mild
effect. Euphemism is sometimes figuratively called "a whitewashing
device".
Euphemism may be divided into several groups :1. moral 2. medical 3.
Parliamentary policical.
In emotive prose euphemisms are usually exdivssed by metonymy,
metaphors or periphrases. One of the stylistic functions of euphemisms-
is to produce a humorous effect or to distort thetruth, to make the
statement milder.
Euphemism is often contrasted with dysphemism. Some euphemisms
intend to amuse, while others intend to give positive appearances to
negative events or even mislead entirely. Ex: Going to the other side -
death, Passed away - die. On the streets - homeless. Between jobs -
unemployed.
The technique of euphemisms is to use a neutral language so as not to
sound offensive to the receiver. Ex: Differently abled instead of
disabled. Put to sleep instead of euthanasia.
Genteelism is a kind of euphemism, which means the substitution of a
mild or indirect expression for one that might be offensive.
Hyperbole
Hyperbole is a stylistic device based on the interaction between the logical
and emotive meanings of a word. It is a deliberate over statement. Both
the writer and the reader (or the speaker and the listener) are fully aware
of the deliberateness of the exaggeration.Hyperbole is a figure of
speech in which statements are exaggerated. It may be used to evoke
strong feelings or to create a strong impression. Ex. "I tried a thousand
times.",. 'scared to death’.
Very often the hyperbole is used to create humorous or satirical effect and
so to express the author’s attitude towards the described. This figure of
speech is mainly used in several jokes or as a way of insult. It is to
dramatize a normal situation or to make it look worse. Ex: The whole
world was staring at me ;
Hyperbole is a deliberate exaggeration of some quantity, quality, size, etc.,
big though it might be even without exaggeration.
Hyperbole may be used in combination with other SD:
hyperbolic similes: Ex: His mind began to move like lighting. She was as
grace full as a meridian of longitude;
hyperbolic metaphors; Ex: Gradually he was becoming acclimatized to the
strange town, primitive and isolated entombed by the mountains.
Hyperbole may be found in repetition. Ex: I’d have been out there days
ago-days ago.

26. Peculiar use of set expressions (27,28)

27. Cliché, Proverb and Sayings
Cliche
A cliché is generally defined as an expression that has become
hackneyed and trite. Cliché is a derogatory term and it is therefore
 necessary to avoid anything that may be called by that name. It has lost
its precise meaning by constant reiteration: in other words it has become
stereotyped. Cliche is a kind of stable word combination which has
become familiar and which has been accepted as a unit of a language e.
g. rosy dreams of youth, growing awareness.
There are thousands of clichés in the world. Many of them have meanings
that you can obviously see, but some have meanings that are only clear
if you know the context. E. g. “any port in a storm" has a hidden
meaning. The obvious meaning is that, in a bad situation, anything will
do. However this cliché can also be used to say that a man has many
friends or lovers.
Clichés can be figurative or literal and are overused. An example of a
figurative cliché is “raining cats and dogs”, meaning it is raining heavily.
A literal cliché would be “to tell the truth” because you are going to do just
that.
Clichés are often idioms.
Clichés that Describe Time:
Time will tell:- that something will revealed or become clear over time In
the nick of time: -something happened just in time
A waste of time: -refers to something that was silly or not valuable to do
Rushed for time:- you do not have sufficient time to do something
The time of my life:- to a really great time
At the speed of light: -something done very quickly.
Some clichés that describe people include:
As old as the hills: - someone very old
Fit as a fiddle: -describes someone in great shape
Clichés About Life, Love and Emotions:
Opposites attract: -people who like different things and have different
views are likely to fall in love or to become friends
Scared out of my wits:- being very frightened Frightened to death: -
describes being very frightened
All is fair in love and war: -stands for the premise that you can do
whatever you have to in order to capture the heart of your love.
Proverbs and Sayings
A proverb is a brief, witty phrase of generalizing nature characterized by
the completeness of the thought and generally expressing the wisdom of
the people. e. g. He laughs best who laughs last.
Proverbs are short, well-known, supposedly wise sayings, usually in
simple language. e. g. Never say never. You can't get blood of a stone.
Proverbs are expressions of culture that are passed from generation to
generation. They are words of wisdom of culture lessons that people of
that culture want their children to learn and to live by They are served as
some symbols, abstract ideas. Proverbs are usually dedicated and
involve imagery. e. g. Out of sight, out of mind.
Proverbs and sayings have linguistic features which distinguish them from
ordinary sentences.They are usually short familiar epigrammatic
sayings, the wisdom of the people and never lose their freshness and
vigor. E.g.: "Better late than never"; "Out of sight, out of mind"; "A
great ship asks deep waters". Proverbs have much in common with set
expressions because their lexical components are also constant, their
meaning is traditional an mostly figurative, and they are introduced into
speech ready-made.
A saying is a common phrase differing from a proverb in that the thought
is not completely expressed as a proverb. It is often elliptical in
structure. E. g. Come! he said, milk's spilt. e.g. to kill two birds with one
stone.

28. Epigrams
Epigrams
The origin of the word epigram is Greek,Epigram is a stylistic device
which is very close to a proverb. The difference between them lies in the
fact that epigrams are created by individuals, famous writers, poets,
scientists, philosophers whom we know, while proverbs are the coinage
of the people. In other words, when using epigrams, usually make a
reference to its author. Like proverbs epigrams are rhythmically
arranged, sometimes rhymed and alliterated. Their aim is to convey
some generalized idea in a laconic and expressive form. Unlike
proverbs, epigrams have a literary-bookish air that distinguishes them
from proverbs. Brevity is the main quality of the epigram.
Epigrams possess a great degree of independence and therefore, if taken
out of the context, will retain the wholeness of the idea they express.
Epigrams are often confused with aphorisms. It is difficult to draw a
demarcation line between them. Real epigrams are true to fact and that is
why they win general recognition and acceptance. But there is no brevity
in aphorisms. They are too long. The following sentence seems to meet
all the necessary requirements of the epigram: Ex: "A thing of beauty is
a joy forever" (Keats). It is brief, generalizing, witty. Writers use
epigrams to criticize their heroes. Somerset Maugham is fond of it and
many of his novels and stories abound in epigrams:
He that bends shall be made straight.
An epigram refers to a concise, witty, memorable, and sometimes
surprising or satirical statement. Epigram is a short clever amusing
saying or poem. E.g:"No one is completely unhappy at the failure of his
best friend."

29.Decomposition of a set Phrases

Decomposition of a set expressions is alike to pun.We
use literal and figurative meaning together:
I am eating my heart
The meaning of a set expression can be understood only
from the combination as a whole.It pretends to understand
the phraseorits constituents,inserts additional
components,replaces the original ones.
There are several types of decomposition of set
expressions:
Inclusion-she took a desperate hold of his arm
Interaction- to be fed up with sth
Substitution-divorces are made in heaven
changes in spelling-Sofa,so Good!
Decomposition of a set Phrases bring humor and laugh.
30.Lexico-Syntacical Ems and SDs-31-32
31.Simile,Periphrasis
Simile is an imaginative comparison two unlike
objects.Simile is a structure of three
components;tenor,vehicle,link words(as though ,as
if,than).
There are two kinds of simile:genuine or trite and lexical
Genuine similes are fresh ones which discover unexpected
and striking similarities between two objects compared.A
trite simile which is often repeated.Ex;as strong as
horse;as ugly as a sin,as pretty as picture.
Syntactically simile may take the following forms;
negation,attribute in a comparative degree,an object,a
simple sentence,a simple compound word,adverbial
modifier of manner with prepositional object.
Periphrasis
Periphrasis is a word combination which is used instead of
the word designating an object.Periphrasis it means talking
around,to say sth in a long way.We use periphrasis bring
humoritic effect.
Periphrases are devided into two groups;logical and
figurative
The logical periphrasis constitutes the essence of traditional
dictionary periphrasis;to turn over a new leaf(make a better
start),one’s better half(one’s wife)
Periphrasis may be trite and original.
Trite periphrasis is also called traditional or dictionary. Ex-
the seven -hilled city-Rome
Original periphrasis also called stylistic,speech
periphrasis.Original periphrasis is a new nomination which
may be understood only in the context.
32.Antithesis,Climax,Anticlimax
Antithesis is a stylistic device presenting two contrasting
ideas in a close neighbourhood.Ex:
”Youth is lovely,age is lonely”
Youth is fiery,age is frosty.
Antithesis is a device bordering between stylistics and
logic. The extremes are easily discernible,but most of the
cases are intermediate. However, it is essential to
distinguish between antithesisarid what is termed contrast.
Climaxis an arrangement of sentenceswhich secures a
gradual increase in significance, importance, or emotional
tension in theutterance; as in:
"It was a lovely city, a beautiful.city, a fair.city, a,
Veritable gem of a.city”
There are several types of climax: logical, emotional and
quantitative.
Logical climax - the relative importance of the components
is looked from the point of view ofthe concepts embodied
in them. Every successive word or word-combination in
logical climax-issemantically more important than the
previous one
Emotional or Emotive climax is based on the relative
emotive meaning. It is mainly found inone sentence as
emotive charge cannot hold long. Emotional climax is
mainly found in sentences,more rarely,in longer syntactical
units:
For example: "He was pleased when the child
began to adventure across floors on hand and knees;
Quantitative climax is an evident increase, in the volume,
of the corresponding concepts;numerical increase, concepts
of measure and time. in;
 "Lite by little: bit by bit, and day by day,and year by year
the baron got the worst of some disputed question.»
Literary climax-The moment in a play, short story; or
narrative poem at whichthe crisis reaches its point of
greatest intensity and is there after resolved. Theclimax
usually follows or overlaps with the crisis of a story.
Rhetorical climax- refers to an artistic arragement of a lisr
of items so that they appear in a sequence of increasing
importance.
Anticlimax a stylistic means opposite to climax. It is a
sudden change ofthought from the serious to ridiculous by
adding a weaker element.
E.g.: "He was inconsolable - for an afternoon"
Anticlimax is a drop often sudden and
unexpected,important idea or situation to one that is
humorous. Anticlimax is also called bathos.Inrhetoric, the
effect is frequently intentional and comic.
Ex: "America is the Paradise for women.That is why, like
Eve, they are so extremely anxious to get out of it.

33.Syntactical Ems and SDs.Composition of utterance

34.35.36
34.Supra-Phrasal units
It generally comprises a number of sentences interdependent
structurally and semantically. A sentence from the stylistic point
of viewcdoes not necessarily express one idea,as it is defined in
most manuals of grammar.It may express only part of one
idea.Thus the sentence; Guy glanced at his wife’s untouched
plate if taken out of the context, will be perceived as a part of a
larger span of utterance where the situation will be made clear
and the purport of verbal expression more complete
Guy glanced at his wife’s untouched plate’’if you have finished
we might stroll down….
So supra phrasal unit may be defined as a combination of
sentence presenting a structural and semantic unity backed up
by rhythmic and melodic unity.
As a stylistic term the word ‘utterance’ must be expanded.Any
utterance from stylistic point view will serve to denote a certain
span of speech in which we may observe
coherence,interdepence of the elemenets,one definite idea and
last but not least ,the purport of writer.
35.The Paragraph
A paragraph- a group of related sentences that develop a
single idea.A paragraph is a term used to name a group of
sentences meaning a distinct pourtion of written discourse.In
fact the paragraph as a category is half linguistic,half
logical.Paragraph in the belles-lettres and publicist styles is
strongly affected by the purport of the author.The length of a
paragraph normally varies from 8 or 12 sentences.In newspaper
style,however,most paragraph consist of 1 or 2 or 3 sentences
Paragraph structure depends on the style:
• The scientific prose style paragraph is built on logical
principles;
 • The newspaper style paragraph,on psychological
principles;
• The belles-lettres and the publicistic style
paragraph,according to the author’s purpose;

36.Stylistic Inversion
The violation of the traditional word order of the sentence which
does not alter the meaning of the sentence only giving it an
additional emotional coloring is called stylistic inversion.
The Stylistic Device where the object is placed at the beginning
of the sentence is version.(imt)
The Stylistic Device is where the predicative is placed before
the subject is inversion.(imt)
The Stylistic Device of inversion should not be confused with
grammatical inversion.Unlike grammatical inversion,stylistic
inversion doesn’t change the structural meaning of the
sentence in an utterance,but has some structural function.
Stylistic inversion deals with the rearrangement of the normative
word order:
Rude am I in my speech/W.Shakespeare
Questions may also be rearranged.
Your mother is at home.
37.Detached construction and Parallel construction
Sometimes one of the secondary parts of a sentence by some specific
consideration of the writer is placed so that it seems formally
independent of the word it logically refers to.Such parts of structures are
called detached.In the English language detached constructions are,
generally used in the belleslettres prose style and mainly with words that
have some explanatory function. Detached construction as a stylistic
device is a typification of the syntactical peculiarities of colloquial
language. A variant of detached construction is parenthesis.Parenthesis
is a qualifying, explanatory or appositive word, phrase, clause, sentence,
or other sequence which interrupts a syntactic construction without
otherwise affecting it, having often a characteristic intonation and
indicated in writing by commas, brackets or dashes.For example:”June
stood in front,fending off this idle curiosity-a little bit of a thing,as
somebody said,’’all hair and spirit…’’-Detached construction as a
stylistic device is a typification of the syntactical peculiarities of
colloquial language.Functions of detachment emphasizing the word or
phrase: E.g. I had a feeling. Of the most peculiar closeness to him – not
love or attraction or sympathy in any way. But linked destiny (Fowles).
Parallel Construction
Parallelism is a figure of repeition, which is of interest to rhetoric as
well as literature. The term stands for the repetition of linguistic , paterns
such as sentences, phrases and expressions. Parallelism, with its
unexpected regulariy, is also considered to be a main typé of
foregroundine.Parallelism a figure based on the use of the similar
syntactic pattern in two or more sentences or syntagms:
When the lamp is shattered
The light in the dust lies dead
When the cloud is scattered
The rainbow’s glory is shed
Reversed parellism is called chiasmus. There are some other types of
parellism: Faulty parallelism,Good Parallelism,More good parallelism.

38.Chiasmus
Chiasmus belongs to the group of stylistic devices based on the
repetition of syntactical pattern;but it has a cross order of words and
phrases. It must be remembered that chiasmus is a syntactical, not a
lexical device.Chiasmus is used by presidents in the Bible,in the Quran.
Both parts of the parallel construction have the same, the normal word-
order. However, the witty arrangement of the words has given the
utterance an epigrammatic character. This device may be classed as
lexical chiasmus or chiasmatic repetition.
For example: Eat to live,don’t live to eat.
Man is not a creature of circumstances,circumstances are the creature
of men.

39.Repetition
Repetition is an expressive means of language used when the speaker is
under the stress of strong emotion.When used as a stylistic device
repetition acquires quite different function ,it aims a logical emphasis ,an
emphases necessary to fix the attention of the reader on the key word of
the utterance. Four main types in English literature:
1. Anaphora – anaphora is a stylistic device that consists of repeating a
sequence of words at the beginnings of neighboring clauses to give them
emphasis.
2. Epiphora – the repetition of the final word.for ex: the sky was
bright.Her simile was bright .My heart was bright.
3. Anadiplosis– the end of one clause/sentence/verse
line/stanza/paragraph is repeated at the beginning of the following one
(… a, a …).
4. Framing or ring repetition – the repetition of the same unit at the
beginning and at the end of the same sentence (a …, … a).
For Exaple:I told you how to do,I told you when to do it,I told you why to
do it,yet you did nothing. The combination of several catch repetitions
produces a chain repetition. Morphological repetition, that is the
repetition of a morpheme, is to be included into the stylistic means.

40. Enumeration,Suspense
Enumeration is a stylistic device by which separate
things,objects,phenomena,properties,actions are named by one so that
they produce a chain ,the links of which,being syntactically in the same
position are forced to display some kind of semantic
homogencity,remote though it may seem.
Ex;famine,despair,cold ,thirst and heat had done
Their work on them by turns….’’(G.G.Byron)
The stylistic function of enumeration may be different it may suggest the
rapidly impressions of the society.Sometimes enumeration helps to
reveal the inner state of the character’s mind.Enumeration are listed one
after another .The list may produce different impression on the
reader.From semantic point of view there are 2 types of
enumeration:homogenous and heterogoneous .
The grouping of quite different nations in one sentence produces much
impression on the reader ,In the example home ,pleasure,friends,a cat, a
dog constitute the heterogenous enumeration.
Suspense-Suspense is a deliberate delay in the completion of the
expressed thought.The function of suspense is to keep the reader in a
state of uncertainty and expectation.Suspense always requires long
stretches of speech or writing.Less important parts are given at the
beginning ,the main idea is given at the end of the sentence.Thus the
reader’s attention is held and their interestckept up.Suspense is a
deliberate delay in the completion of the expressed thought.The device
of suspense is especially favoured by orators and writers to keep their
readers or listeners interest alive throughout the work.
For example: “Mankind, says a Chinese manuscript, which my friend
was obliging enough to read and explain to me, for the first seventy
thousand ages ate their meat raw.” (Ch. Lamb)

41) Particularways of combiningparts of the

utterance;
Asyndeton;
Asyndetonis a Greek word meaning unreleated. In this technique,
conjunctions are omitted and only commas are used instead. This
accelerates the rhythm of the passage. Literary language, the absence of
conjunctions and punctuation marks can be considered as the deliberate
introduction of colloquial speech norms into the literary language. For
example; “He couldn’t go abroad alone, the sea upset his liver,
hehatedhotels.”Asyndeton helps the author make each phraseor word
sound independent and significant. Asyndeton is used in speech, written
prose, movies, poetry, lyrics.
Polysyndeton;
Polysyndetonis a stylistic device that combines sentences, phrases or
phrases by using conjunctions before each component. For example; He
put on his coat and found his mug and plate and knifeand
wentoutside.Repetition of conjunctions and other means of
communication makes the idiom more rhythmic. Polysyndeton has a
splitting function. Polysyndeton- the use of several conjunctions in close
succession, multiple conjunction “ and”, “but”. For example; “I love
Jack, but he loves Ann, but she likes Mike.”
The Gap Sentence Link;
Gap Sentence Link- mainlyin various characteristicsof the character’s
voice- dialogue, speech found in the story. For example; “Prison is
where she belongs. And my husband agrees one thousand per cent.”The
second part of the statement is seperated from the first part by a period.
The second part comes later in thought. Gap sentence linkmoves the
reader’s, listener’sassumptions, connections and associations. Gap
sentence link is usually indicated by “ and” or “ about”. It is based on
the characteristics of spoken language.

42) Asyndeton;
Asyndetonis a Greek word meaning unreleated. In this technique,
conjunctions are omitted and only commas are used instead. This
accelerates the rhythm of the passage. Literary language, the absence of
conjunctions and punctuation marks can be considered as the deliberate
introduction of colloquial speech norms into the literary language. For
example; “He couldn’t go abroad alone, the sea upset his liver, he hated
hotels.” Asyndeton helps the author make each phrase or word sound
independent and significant. Asyndetonin speech- this kind of toolis
more effective in oral speech. For example; “I came, I saw, I
conquered”. Translate from the Latin saying “ Veni, Vidi,Vici”. These
are words by Julius Caesar describing one of his greatestvictories.
Asyndeton is also used in written prose. Asyndeton in movies-makes
this movie memorable. Asyndeton is better in poetry and lyrics.

43) Polysyndeton;
Polysyndetonis a stylistic device that combines sentences, phrases or
phrases by using conjunctions before each component. For example; He
put on his coat and found his mug and plate and knife and went out
side.Repetition of conjunctions and other means of communication
makes the idiom more rhythmic. Polysyndeton has a splitting function.
Polysyndeton- the use of several conjunctions in close succession,
multiple conjunction “ and”, “but”. For example; “I love Jack, but he
lovesAnn, but she likes Mike.”

44) The Gap Sentence Link;

Gap Sentence Link- mainlyin various characteristics of the
character’svoice- dialogue, speech found in the story. For example;
“Prison is where she belongs. And my husband agrees one thousand per
cent.” The second part of the statement isseperated from the first part by
a period. The second part comes later in thought. Gap sentence
linkmoves the reader’s, listener’s assumptions, connections and
associations. Gap sentence link is usually indicated by “ and” or “
about”. It is based on the characteristics of spoken language. At the same
time, an unexpected combination of images and ideas takes placehere.
Correct intonation helps decipher communication. As in many other
cases, the device of Gap Sentence Link is deeply rooted in the norms of
the spoken language.

45. Aposiopesis (BREAK-IN-THE-NARRATIVE)

Aposiopesis which in Greek means ‘silence’ denotes intentional
abstention from continuing the
utterance to the end. The speaker (writer) either begins a new utterance
or stops altogether. A sudden break in speech often occurs in the oral
type of speech. It is caused by strong emotion or some reluctance to
finish the sentence. Aposiopesis is marked graphically by a series of dots
or a dash. It is often used in represented speech. Graphicalexpressive
means, such as dash and dots are indispensable in aposiopesis. e. g. I
still don’t quite like the face, it’s just a trifle too full, but –“ I swung
myself on the stool”. Sudden break in the narration has the function to
reveal agitated state of the speaker.
Aposiopesis is a breaking off as if unable to continue, stopping suddenly
in the midst of a sentence, or leaving a statement unfinished at a
dramatic moment. Sometimes the interruption is an artificial choice the
author makes for a dramatic effect. e. g. "The fire surrounds them while
-- I cannot go on."
Aposiopesis is a wonderful and flexible technique for showing a
character's overcharged emotions. Aposiopesis is a device which
dictionaries define as "A stopping short for rhetorical effect." This is
true. But this definition is too general to' disclose the stylistic functions
of the device. Aposiopesis is a stylistic syntactical device to convey to
the reader a very strong upsurge of emotions. The idea of this stylistic
device is that the speaker cannot proceed, his feelings depriving him of
the ability to express himself in terms of language.

46.QUESTION-IN-THE-NARRATIVE
(RATIOCINATIVE QUESTION)
A figure in the form of a question which a speaker often asks and often
answers himself: “For what is left the poet there? For Greeks a blush –
for Greece a tear.” (G. B.) Question in the narrative changes the real
nature of a question and turns it into a stylistic device. A question in the
narrative is asked and answered by one and the same person, usually the
author. It becomes akin to a parenthetical statement with strong
emotional implications.Question in the narrative is very often used in
oratory. This is explained by one of the leading features of oratorical
style - to induce the desired reaction to the content of the speech.These
are not rhetorical questions, but answered by one who knows the
answer, they assume a semi-exclamatory nature.
Question–in–the–narrative may also remain unanswered and contain
only the hints of possible answers, as in the following example: E. g
"How long must it go on? How long must we suffer? Where is the end?
What is the end? " (Norris)
Question–in–the–narrative is very often used in oratory to chain the
attention of the listeners to the matter the orator is dealing with, to give
the listeners time to absorb what has been said and prepare for the next
point. Sometimes question–in–the–narrative gives the impression of an
intimate talk between the writer and the reader

47.REPRESENTED SPEECH
Represented, or reported speech is the representation of the actual
utterance by a second person, usually by the author, as if it had been
spoken, whereas it had not been spoken, but is only represented in the
author’s words: “Could he bring a reference from where he now was?
He could.”
There are 3 ways of reproducing character's speech. 1. direct speech 2.
indirect speech
(reported speech) 3. represented speech. There is also a device which
coveys to the reader the unuttered or inner speech of the character, his
thoughts and feelings. This device is also termed represented speech.
Represented, or reported speech, is a stylistic device peculiarly
combining characteristic features of direct and indirect speech. It is a
comparatively young stylistic device dating its increasing popularity
from the end of the last century.
The morphological structure is that of indirect speech: the hero is
referred to in the third person singular the verbs and pronouns are, too,
of the same form.
Represented speech exists in 2 varieties: uttered represented speech and
unuttered or inner represented speech. The first group is incomparably
larger, it enables the writer to give a fuller and more complete picture of
the hero’s state of mind as if from within.

48,49. STYLISTIC USE OF STRUCTURAL

MEANING
RHETORICAL QUESTION
Rhetorical question (from Greek- “an orator”) – a statement reshaped
into a question, generally a complex one: Without a subordinate clause a
rhetorical question would lose its specific quality and might be regarded
as an ordinary question. Rhetorical questions are often asked in distress,
or anger. E.g.: "What have I done to deserve this? " (The implication: I
have done nothing to deserve this.
Rhetorical question – a figure of speech based on a statement expressed
in an interrogative form, which requires no answer on the part of the
reader or speaker: “What is this life if, full of care, we have no time to
stand and stare?”
Rhetorical questions can be based on negation. There is always an
additional shade of meaning implied in such rhetorical questions: doubt,
assertion, or suggestion. In this case it may be a simple sentence.
E.g.: "Have I not had to wrestle with my lot?
LITOTES (A VARIANT OF PERIPHRASIS)
Litotes (Greek- "plainness, simplicity") a figure of speech which
consists in the affirmation of the contrary by negation. The structural
pattern can be as follows: "not" /"no"/ “The wedding was no distant
event”. Litotes is an understatement that shows the insignificance of the
object by means of a peculiar use of negative constructions.
The structure of litotes is rather rigid: its first element is always the
negative particle “not” and its second element is, too, always negative in
meaning, if not in form. If the second element of litotes is expressed by
an adjective or adverb, it has as a rule a negative affix. If the form of a
noun or a word-combination, presenting the second component of litotes
is not negative, its negative meaning is implied.
Litotes is a varied specific form of understatement. Litotes and
understatement reflect either the author’s general tone of writing or a
way of rendering subtle irony. e.g.
"He's not a very generous man. "
"She is not very beautiful. "

50.Phonetic or graphical EMs and SDs

The stylistic approach to the utterance is not confined to its structure and
sense. There is another
thing to be taken into account which in a certain type of communication
plays an important role. This is the way a word, a phrase or a sentence
sounds. The sound of most words taken separately
will have little or no aesthetic value. It is in combination with other
words that a word may
acquire a desired phonetic effect. The way a separate word sounds may
produce a certain
euphonic effect, but this is a matter of individual perception ( qavrayış)
and feeling and therefore subjective.
The phonemic structure of the word proves to be important for the
creation of expressive and emotive
connotations. The acoustic form of the word foregrounds the sounds of
nature, man and
inanimate objects, emphasizing their meaning as well.
Separate sounds due to their acoustic properties may awake certain
ideas, feelings, images, and
emotions.
Different sounds have different effect on us. The sounds of language
also create different
responses in us and writers and poets use this in their works. By
choosing words writers can
evoke (cause) strong emotional responses and reinforce the meaning
they wish to convey. The most
common sound features are rhyme, rhythm, alliteration, assonance and
onomatopoeia.

51. Onomatopoeia
Onomatopoeia is a combination of speech sounds which aims at
imitating sounds produced
in nature (wind, water, leaves, etc.),by animals, by people, and by things
(machines or
tools). There are two varieties of onomatopoeia: direct and indirect.
Direct onomatopoeia imitates natural sounds, as buzz, bang beep,
vroom, clap, click, cuckoo,
rustle, giggle, mumble, whistle, crunch, splash, bubble, ping-pong, tick-
tock, etc.
e.g. babble, chatter, giggle, grumble, murmur, mutter, titter, whisper;
buzz, cackle, croak, crow,
hiss, howl, moo, mew, roar; bubble, splash; clink, tinkle; clash, crash,
whack, whip, whisk.
e.g. Then with enormous, shattering rumble, sludge-puff, sludge-puff,
the train came into the
station. (A.Saxton)
Indirect onomatopoeia is a combination of sounds that echoes the sense
of the utterance
Indirect onomatopoeia demands some mention of what makes the sound.
e.g. "... where white
horses and black horses and brown horses and white and black horses
and brown and white
horses trotted tap-tap-tap tap-tap-tappety-tap over cobble stones.
The sound /w/ may reproduce the sound of wind: "Whenever the moon
and stars are set,
Whenever the wind is high, All night long in the dark and wet A man
goes riding by.
Indirect onomatopoeia is sometimes used by repeating words which
themselves are not
onomatopoetic, as in Poe’s poem ‘The Bells’:
"Silver bells…how they tinkle, tinkle, tinkle…
…From the bells bells, bells, bells, Bells, bells, bellsFrom the jingling
and the tinkling of the bells.
Indirect onomatopoeia sometimes called “echo writing”: “And the
silken, sad, uncertain rustling
of each purple curtain” (E. A. Poe), where the repetition of the sound [s]
actually produces the
sound of the rustling of the curtain or the imitation of the sounds
produced by the soldiers
marching over Africa:
“We are foot-slog-slog-slog-slogging
Foot-foot-foot-foot-slogging over Africa.
Boots- boots- boots- boots - moving up and down again ." (R. Kipling).

52.Alliteration
Alliteration (from Latin ad- “near” and littera- “a letter”, i.e. “letters
near”) – repetition of
similar consonant sounds (usually at the beginning of successive/closely
following words) to
impart a melodic effect to an utterance. E.g.: a Monday morning
meeting, the silver sweep of
the sea.
The essence of this device lies in the repetition of similar sounds, as a
rule, consonant
sounds, in close succession, particularly at the beginning of successive
words. “The possessive instinct never stands still” (J. Galsworthy) or,
“Deep into the darkness peering, long I stood there wondering, fearing,
doubting, dreaming dreams no mortals ever dared to dream
before” (E. A. Poe)
Alliteration is therefore sometimes called initial rhyme. The traditions of
folklore are
exceptionally stable and alliteration as a structural device of Old English
poems and songs has
shown remarkable continuity. It is frequently used as a well-tested
means not only in verse but in
emotive prose, in newspaper headlines, in the titles of books, in proverbs
and sayings.
Ex: the phrase "buckets of big blue berries" alliterates with the
consonant b.
Alliteration is frequently used not only in verse but in emotive prose, in
newspaper headlines, in
proverbs and sayings, in the titles of books: E.g.: "Blind as a bat";
"betwixt and between (nə o, nə bu; ikisinin arası)"; " to
rob Peter to pay Paul"; and in the titles of books: "Sense and Sensibility"
(J. Austin); Pride and
Prejudice (J. Austin) etc.

53.Rhyme,Rhythm,Assonance
Rhyme is the repetition of identical or similar sound combination of
words.
Identity and similarity of sound combinations may be relative,
distinguishing between full rhymes and incomplete rhymes.
1.True/perfect/full rhyme.Identical sounds correspond exactly. For ex:
Boat-float;might-right;day-say.
2.Incomplete/imperfect/half rhyme.They can be divided into two
groups:vowel rhymes and consonant rhymes.For example for consonants
:Flesh-fresh-press
Example for vowels :tale-tool-treble-trouble
3.Compound Rhyme may be set against what is called eye-rhyme.For
example:flood-brood.
4.Couplet rhymes:aa
The seed ye sow,another reaps;a
The wealth ye find ,another keeps;a
5.Triplet rhymes:aaa:
And on the leaf a browner hue,(a)
And in the heaven that clear obscure,(a)
So softly dark,and darkly pure ,(a)
6.Cross rhymes:abab:
It is the hour when from the boughts (a)
The nightingales ‘ high note is heard (b)
It is the hour when lovers’ vows (a)
Seem sweet in every whispered word (b)
7.Frame(ring rhymes):abba:
He is not here;but far away (a)
The noise of life begins again (b)
And ghastly thro ‘ the drizzling rain (b)
On the bald streets breaks the bland day (a)
8.Internal rhymes occur within the same line:. E.g.I bring fresh showers
to the thirsting flowers’
Rhythm -The unit of measure in verse is a syllable.The unit of measure
in prose is not the syllable but a structure, a word combination, a
sequence of words ,that is phrases ,clauses, sentences, even syntactical
wholes.
The general definition of rhythm as:rhythm is a flow ,movement,
characterized by basically regular recurrence of elements in alternation
with opposite ,There are the following rhythmic pattern of
verse:iambus,Dactul,umphibrach, anapaest.
Assonance is the repetition of similar vowel sounds.For ex:about the
house,moaning and groaning.
Some common conditions that assonance constructions include...
1.The repetitive sound must be that of vowels (A,E,I,O,U)
2.Some literary experts may argue that the assonance construction
cannot be a part of similar rhyme or a rhyme scheme.
Assonance is found in several forms prose and poetry. For ex:
“Or hear old Triton blow his wreathed horn.
Or hear old Triton blow his wreathed horn”.

54. Functional styles of the English language. The

Belles-Lettres style
Functional style FS became and remains an international,very important
trend in style study.
Professor I.R.Galperin distinguishes 5 Functional styles and suggests
their subdivision into substyle in modern English according the
following scheme:
The Belles-Lettres Style. This style has a following substyle:
A)poetry
B) emotive prose
C) drama
Publicist Style: (sometimes it calls the language of media):
a)Oratory and speeches;
b)The essay;
c)Articles (in newspapers, magazines, the radio and TV commentaries).
Newspaper Style: (sometimes it unites with publicist style):
a)The brief styles and communique news items;
b)Newspapers headlines;
c)Advertisements and announcements;
d)Editorials.
Scientific prose Style.
a)Humanitarian sciences;
b)Exact science;
c)Popular – scientific prose.
The Style of official documents:
a)Business documents;
b)Legal documents;
c)The language of diplomacy or the diplomatic documents;
d)Military documents.
Belles-Lettres Style is a French phrase meaning “beautiful “ or “fine”
writing .This style may be called the richest register or communication.
BLS makes ample use of other styles too.BLS has a unique task to
impress the reader aaesthetically.The form becomes meaningful and
carries additional information. It has certain linguistic features:
1)genuine,not trite,imagery
2)the use of words in contextual and very often in more than one
dictionary meanings
3)a peculiar individual selection of vocabulary and syntax.

55. Scientific prose Style.Newspaper style.

Purpose is to prove a hypothesis, to create new concepts. There are some
features:
1)Logical sequence of utterances with clear indication.
2)The use of terms specific to each given branch of science.
3)Sentence-patterns.There are 3 types :postulatory,argumentative and
formulative.
4)The use of quotations and references .These sometimes occupy as
much as half a page.
5)Feature is a frequent use of foot-notes.
Newspaper Style was the last of all the styles of written listening English
to be recognized as a specific form of writing. Containing some
feautures: 1.brief news items;2.advertisements and announcements;3.the
headline;4.the editorial.
1.the Headline (the title given to a news item) is a main dependent form
of newspaper writing. The main function of the headline is to inform the
reader briefly what the text that follows is about. Headlines are very
short sentences or phrases.
2) Brief News items-the principal function of a brief news item is to
inform the reader. News item are essentially matter-of-fact, the language
of brief news items is stylistically neutral. The size of brief news items
varies from one sentence to several paragraphs.
Newspaper style has its spesific vocabulary fea- tures Special political
terms, abbreviations (UNO - United Nations Organizations); neologism.

56.The Style of official documents

The main function is regulative.There are not homogenous.There are
substyles.
1.The language of buisiness documents (agreements,contracts,protocols)
2.The language of legal documents, law documents
3.The language of diplomacy (agreements, memoranda,note)
4.The language of military documents
Stylistic features of this style are: non-personal character, precision,
standard, imperative and Prescriptive nature.
Specific features of the official style: templet (pattern) text composition,
speech standard and Stereotyped ways of expression and arrangement of
the language means (cliches, standard Vocabulary)Language means of
the style of official documents: graphic means: wide use of graphic
means –Change of the print.Lexical means: the use of special
terminology to express precision, repetitions, Grammatical means:
nominal character (predominance of nouns, a great number of nominal
prepositions and conjunctions. Compositional devices: the patterned
structure of texts of all the genres and substyles, declarative, ascertaining
nature, neglect of narration and discussion

57. Publicistic Style. (oratory and speeches, the essay

and journalistic articles)
The aim of publicistic style is to exert a deep influence on public
opinion, to convince the reader or the listener that the explanation given
by the writer or the speaker is the only true one. Publicistic style is also
characterized by brevity of expression. Publicistic style has some
substyles;
1) Oratorical 2)The essay 3)Articles
Oratorical style- is evident in speeches on political and social problems
of the day. The speaker often use repetition to enable his listeners to
follow him. Special obligatory forms open the oration; Mr.Lords,
Mr.President, Ladies and Gentlemen. At the end of the speech the
speaker thanks to the audience; Thank you, thank you very much.
An essay -never goes deep into the subject but merely touches upon the
surface. The essay was very popular in the 17th and 18th centuries.
Nowadays an essay is usuallyused in a magazine or newspaper. Essay
are written by one or the same writer or journalist.
Article- all the features of publicistic style are to be found in any article.
Words of emotive meaning are few in popular scientific articles. The
language of political magazine articles differs little from that of
newspaper articles. Bookish words, neologisms are most frequent than
in newspaper articles.

58. Quotation
A quotation is a repetition of a phrase or statement from a book, speech
and used by way of authority, illustration, proof for further speculation.
What is quoted must be worth quoting, since a quotation will acquire
some degree of generalization. Quotations are mostly used in belles-
lettres style. Quotations are usually marked off in the text by inverted
commas (“ “), dashes (-). The use of quotations presupposes a good
knowledge of the past experience of the nation. Quotations are also used
in epigrams. In this case it possesses great power. Unlike epigrams,
quotations need not necessarily be short. A whole paragraph or a long
passage may be quoted if it suits the purpose.

59. Allusion
An allusion comes from Latin, it means hint. An allusion is an indirect
reference, by word or phrase, to historical, biblical, literary fact or to fact
of everyday life made in the course of speaking or writing. For ex; We
got a new Einstein in our school.2. Shakespeare talks of the herald
Mercury.The use of allusion presupposes knowledge of the fact. There
are some differences between quotation and allusion. First difference is
that no indication of the source is given. Another difference is of a
structural nature. Allusion is a casual reference in literature to a person,
place, event. Authors often use allusion to establish a tone, create an
implied association, contrast two objects or people.For ex; She’s a good
swimmer, but she’s not a Ariel.Allusion is deeply rooted in the traditions
of English folklore. For ex; Sense and Sensibility.There are many
advantages when you use an allusion; 1) don’t need to explain or clarify
a problem
2)make the reader become active 3) make your message memorable

60. Oxymoron
Oxymoron is a combination of words that express two diametrically
opposite notions. The plural is oxymorons or oxymora. For ex; Clearly
misunderstood.
Oxymoron is the use of an epithet or in attributive phrase that is
contradictory to the noun it modifies. For ex; beautiful sorrow, a
beautifully ugly face
Semantically there are two types of oxymoron; 1) evident composed of
dictionary antonyms (beautifully ugly)
2)non- evident composed of words that render mutually exclusive
notions and become contextual antonyms (jolly starvation)
Trite oxymorons are used in oral speech and fiction dialogue. For ex;
awfully nice
Sometimes oxymoron create an ironic or comical effect.For ex; cold
fire, living death.