Data Transmission - Comprehensive Notes
1. Introduction to Data Transmission
Data transmission refers to the process of sending data from one device to another,
whether over short distances (e.g., computer to printer) or long distances (e.g.,
internet communication). Key considerations include:
How data is transmitted (methods and protocols)
Error detection and recovery (ensuring data integrity)
Encryption (securing data from unauthorized access)
2. Data Packets & Packet Switching
2.1 Data Packets
When data is sent over networks, it is broken into small chunks called data packets
(typically ~64 KiB).
Structure of a Data Packet
Each packet consists of three parts:
1. Header
Sender & receiver IP addresses
Packet sequence number (for reassembly)
Packet size
2. Payload (actual data being transmitted)
3. Trailer
End-of-packet marker
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) for error detection
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
The sender counts all 1 s in the payload and stores the total as a hex value in
the trailer.
The receiver recalculates the 1 s and compares it with the CRC value.
If they match, the packet is error-free; otherwise, it is re-sent.
2.2 Packet Switching
Data is split into packets and sent independently across different network
paths.
Routers determine the best path for each packet based on network traffic.
Packets may arrive out of order and must be reassembled at the destination.
Advantages of Packet Switching
No single communication line is tied up.
Can reroute packets if a path is busy/failed.
Efficient for large-scale data transfer.
Disadvantages of Packet Switching
Packets may be lost or delayed.
Requires reassembly, causing delays.
Unsuitable for real-time streaming (e.g., live video).
Hopping (Preventing Lost Packets)
Each packet has a hop count (e.g., 10).
Every time a packet passes through a router, the hop count decreases by 1.
If the hop count reaches 0 , the packet is discarded to prevent network
congestion.
3. Methods of Data Transmission
3.1 Serial vs. Parallel Transmission
Serial Transmission Parallel Transmission
Sends one bit at a time over a single Sends multiple bits simultaneously
wire. (e.g., 8 bits at once).
Used for long-distance communication Used for short-distance (e.g., internal
(e.g., USB, internet). computer circuits).
No data skewing (bits stay Prone to skewing (bits arrive out of
synchronized). sync over long distances).
Faster but less reliable over long
Slower but reliable.
distances.
3.2 Simplex, Half-Duplex, Full-Duplex
Simplex Half-Duplex Full-Duplex
One direction only Both directions, but not at Both directions
(e.g., keyboard to the same time (e.g., walkie- simultaneously (e.g.,
computer). talkie). phone call).
4. Universal Serial Bus (USB)
Uses serial transmission (half-duplex or full-duplex).
4-wire shielded cable:
2 wires for power (+5V & ground).
2 wires for data (Data+ & Data-).
Advantages of USB
Plug-and-play (automatic device detection).
Supports multiple data speeds (USB 1.0 to USB 4.0).
Error-checking protocol ensures reliable transmission.
Disadvantages of USB
Limited cable length (~5m without hubs).
Slower than Ethernet for high-speed data transfer.
USB-C (Latest Standard)
Reversible connector.
Supports 10 Gbps data transfer & 100W power delivery.
Backward compatible with older USB versions.
5. Error Detection Methods
5.1 Parity Checks
Adds an extra bit (parity bit) to ensure an even or odd number of 1 s.
Even Parity: Total 1 s must be even.
Odd Parity: Total 1 s must be odd.
Example:
Data: 1101100 (4 1 s → even parity).
If even parity is used, parity bit = 0 → 01101100 .
If odd parity, parity bit = 1 → 11101100 .
Limitation:
Cannot detect multiple-bit errors.
5.2 Checksum
A calculated value from a block of data is sent along with the data.
The receiver recalculates the checksum and compares it.
If they match, data is error-free; otherwise, re-transmission is requested.
5.3 Echo Check
The receiver sends the data back to the sender for verification.
If the returned data matches, transmission was successful.
5.4 Check Digits (Data Entry Validation)
A final digit calculated from other digits in a code (e.g., barcodes, ISBN).
Detects errors like:
Incorrect digits (e.g., 5327 instead of 5307 ).
Transposed digits (e.g., 5037 instead of 5307 ).
ISBN-13 Check Digit Calculation
1. Sum all odd-positioned digits.
2. Sum all even-positioned digits and multiply by 3 .
3. Add both results and divide by 10 .
4. Subtract remainder from 10 to get the check digit.
5.5 Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ)
Uses acknowledgements (ACK = received correctly, NAK = error detected).
If no ACK is received within a timeout period, data is re-sent.
6. Encryption
6.1 Purpose of Encryption
Converts plaintext (readable data) into ciphertext (unreadable data).
Prevents eavesdroppers from understanding intercepted data.
6.2 Symmetric Encryption
Same key is used for encryption & decryption.
Example: AES (Advanced Encryption Standard).
Disadvantage: Key must be securely shared (risk of interception).
6.3 Asymmetric Encryption
Uses two keys:
Public key (shared with everyone).
Private key (kept secret by the owner).
Example: RSA encryption.
How It Works:
1. Jane generates a public-private key pair.
2. She shares her public key with Tom.
3. Tom encrypts a message using Jane’s public key.
4. Only Jane’s private key can decrypt it.
Advantage: No need to share private keys, making it more secure.
Mind Maps & Diagrams
1. Data Packet Structure
┌───────────────────────┬───────────────────────┬───────────────────────┐
│ Header │ Payload │ Trailer │
├───────────────────────┼───────────────────────┼───────────────────────┤
│ - Sender IP │ Actual data (~64 KiB) │ - End marker │
│ - Receiver IP │ │ - CRC error check │
│ - Packet number │ │ │
└───────────────────────┴───────────────────────┴───────────────────────┘
2. Transmission Modes
┌───────────────┐
│ Data Flow │
└──────┬───────┘
│
┌────────────┴────────────┐
▼ ▼
┌─────────┐ ┌────────────────┐
│ Simplex │ │ Half/Full-Duplex│
└─────────┘ └───────┬────────┘
(One-way) │
┌──────┴───────┐
▼ ▼
Half-Duplex Full-Duplex
(Alternate) (Simultaneous)
3. Encryption Methods
┌───────────────┐
│ Encryption │
└──────┬───────┘
│
┌────────────┴────────────┐
▼ ▼
┌─────────────┐ ┌─────────────┐
│ Symmetric │ │ Asymmetric │
│ (Same Key) │ │ (Public/ │
└─────────────┘ │ Private Key)│
└─────────────┘
Conclusion
Data packets ensure efficient transmission via packet switching.
Serial/parallel, simplex/duplex define how data moves.
USB is a standard for device connections.
Error detection (parity, checksum, ARQ) ensures data integrity.
Encryption (symmetric/asymmetric) secures data from hackers.
This structured approach helps in understanding how data moves, stays accurate, and
remains secure in digital communications.
