Remark

 If equation of any geometrical figure contains n variables, then

n-1 independent variables determine dimension of the geometrical figure.
one is the independent variable
Opposite Angles or Vertical Angles or Vertically Opposite Angles or Non-
Adjacent Angles
 When any two straight lines intersect each other, there are different pairs
of angles that are formed. The angles that are directly opposite to each
other are known as opposite angles and are equal to each other.
 They are also termed as vertical angles or vertically opposite. In this
instance, the word vertical refers to the vertex as opposed to direction.
Since opposite angles share a vertex, they are considered vertical.
 These angles are also called non-adjacent angles because there are two
pairs of non-adjacent angles.

Transversal
 A transversal is a line that passes through two lines lying in the same
plane at two distinct points. In the transversal, the two given lines may be
parallel or non-parallel.
Transversal Angles
 The angles made by a transversal can be categorized into several types
such as interior angles,
 Interior angles
Exterior angles,
Pairs of corresponding angles,
Pairs of alternate interior angles,
Pairs of alternate exterior angles,
Pairs of interior angles on the same side of the transversal.
 All these angles can be identified in both cases, which means parallel and
non-parallel lines.
Transversal Lines and Angles
 Let’s understand the angles made by transversal lines with other lines
from the below table.

Interior angles ∠3, ∠4, ∠5, Interior ∠3, ∠4, ∠5,

∠6 angles ∠6

Exterior angles ∠1, ∠2, ∠7, Exterior ∠1, ∠2, ∠7,

∠8 angles ∠8

Pairs of corresponding ∠1 and ∠5, Pairs of ∠1 and ∠5,

angles ∠2 and ∠6, correspondi ∠2 and ∠6,
∠3 and ∠7, ng angles ∠3 and ∠7,
∠4 and ∠8 ∠4 and ∠8
 Pairs of alternate ∠3 and ∠6, Pairs of ∠3 and ∠6,
interior angles ∠4 and ∠5 alternate ∠4 and ∠5
interior
angles

Pairs of alternate ∠1 and ∠8, Pairs of ∠1 and ∠8,

exterior angles ∠2 and ∠7 alternate ∠2 and ∠7
exterior
angles

Pairs of interior ∠3 and ∠5, Pairs of ∠3 and ∠5,

angles on the same ∠4 and ∠6 interior ∠4 and ∠6
side of the transversal angles on
the same
side of the
transversal

Transversal Properties
 If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal then each pair of
corresponding angles are equal in measure.
 If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, each pair of alternate interior
angles and alternate exterior angles are equal.
 If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then each pair of interior
angles on the same side of the transversal are supplementary, i.e. their
sum is 180 degrees.
Properties of a Triangle
 The sum of the length of any two sides of a triangle is always greater than
the third side of the triangle. (Triangle Inequality Theorem).
 The difference between the length of any two sides of a triangle is always
less than the length of the third side of the triangle.
 The side that is at the opposite side of the greater angle is always the
longest side among all the three sides of a triangle.
 Triangle has 3 internal angles and has 6 exterior angles.
Exterior Angle Theorem
 Exterior angles are defined as the angles formed between the side of
the polygon and the extended adjacent side of the polygon.
 The exterior angle theorem states that when any triangle's side is
extended, the resultant exterior angle formed is equal to the sum of the
measures of the two opposite interior angles of the triangle. In other
words exterior angle theorem states that the measure of an exterior angle
is equal to the sum of the measures of the two interior angles of the
triangle which are opposite to it.
 Since triangle has 6 exterior angles and above theorem gets applied to
each of the exterior angles.

Exterior angle Inequality Theorem

 According to the exterior angle inequality theorem, the measure of an
exterior angle of a triangle is greater than either of its opposite interior
angles.

Angle Bisector Theorem or Interior Angle Bisector Theorem

 An angle bisector is a ray that divides a given angle into two angles of
equal measures.
 Angle bisector theorem states that an angle bisector of a triangle divides
the opposite side into two segments that are proportional to the other two
sides of the triangle.

 The angle bisector of an angle of a triangle divides the opposite side

internally in the ratio of the sides containing the angle.
 The main property of an angle bisector is that any point on the bisector of
an angle is equidistant from the sides of the angle.
Converse of Angle Bisector Theorem
 If a straight line through one vertex of a triangle divides the opposite side
in the ratio of the other two sides, then the line bisects the angle at the
vertex.
 In a triangle, if the interior point is equidistant from the two sides of a
triangle, then that point lies on the angle bisector of the angle formed by
the two line segments.

Perpendicular Bisector Theorem

 When a line divides another line segment into two equal halves through its
midpoint at 90º, it is called the perpendicular of that line segment.
 The perpendicular bisector theorem states that any point on the
perpendicular bisector is equidistant from both the endpoints of the line
segment on which it is drawn.
Example. If a pillar is standing at the centre of a bridge at an angle, all the
points on the pillar will be equidistant from the end points of the bridge.
 It states the perpendicular bisector divides that other line on which it is
drawn into two equal parts at its midpoint.

 For a triangle, if a perpendicular bisector is drawn from the vertex to the

opposite side, it divides the side into two congruent segments.
External Angle Bisector Theorem
 The external angle bisector of a triangle divides the opposite side
externally in the ratio of the sides containing the angle. This condition
occurs usually in non-equilateral triangles.
Here

is the external angle

AD is the external angle bisector

Prove:
Point of Concurrency
 The point of concurrency is a point where three or more lines or
rays intersect with each other.
Incentre of a Triangle or Centre of a Triangle's Circle or Centre of a
Triangle’s Incircle
 The incentre of a triangle is the point of intersection of all the three
interior angle bisectors of the triangle.
 This point is equidistant from the sides of a triangle, as the central axis’s
junction point is the centre point of the triangle’s inscribed circle.
 The incentre of a triangle is also known as the centre of a triangle's circle
or centre of a triangle’s incircle since the largest circle could fit inside
a triangle.
 The circle that is inscribed in a triangle is called an incircle of a triangle.
 The incentre is usually represented by the letter I. The triangle ABC seen
in the image below shows the incentre of a triangle.
Properties of an Incentre

 If I is the incentre of the triangle then line segments

AE and AG are equal in length
CG and CF are equal in length
BF and BE are equal in length.
 If I is the incentre of the triangle, then
∠BAI=∠CAI,
 ∠ABI=∠CBI
∠BCI=∠ACI
(Using angle bisector theorem).
 The sides of the triangle are tangents to the circle, and thus, EI = FI = GI
= r known as the inradii of the circle or radius of incircle.
 If s is the semi perimeter of the triangle and r is the inradius of the circle,
then the area of the triangle is equal to the product of s and r, i.e. A = sr.
 The triangle’s incentre always lies inside the triangle.
Incentre Formula
 Suppose (x1, y1), (x2, y2) and (x3, y3) are the coordinates of vertices of a
triangle ABC and a, b and c are the lengths of its sides, then the triangle’s
incentre can be calculated using the formula:

Altitude
 The altitude of a triangle is the perpendicular drawn from the vertex of the
triangle to the opposite side. Also, known as the height of the triangle, the
altitude makes a right-angle triangle with the base.
 Every altitude is perpendicular but the converse is not true.

 Depending on the type of triangle, the altitude can lie inside or outside the
triangle
Median of a Triangle
 A line segment, joining a vertex to the mid-point of the side opposite to
that vertex, is called the median of a triangle.
 Median divides opposite side into two equal parts.
 The median of a triangle further divides the triangle into two triangles
having the same area. In other words, each median of a triangle divides
the triangle into two smaller triangles that have equal areas.

Centriod of a Triangle
 The point in which the three medians of the triangle intersect is known as
the centroid of a triangle.
 It is also defined as the point of intersection of all the three medians.
Properties of a Centriod of a Triangle
 It is the point of concurrency of the medians.
 The centroid is the centre of the object. So it is also known as the
geometric centre of the object.
 It is the centre of gravity.
 It should always lie inside the object.
 The centroid of the triangle separates the median in the ratio of 2: 1.
 Centroid Theorem.

This theorem states that the centroid is of the distance from each vertex
to the midpoint of the opposite side. That is,
Centriod Formula

Orthocentre of a Triangle
 An orthocenter can be defined as the point of intersection of altitudes that
are drawn perpendicular from the vertex to the opposite sides of a
triangle. In a triangle, it is that point where all the three altitudes of
a triangle intersect.

 Location for the orthocentre is different for different types of triangles.

Acute Angle Triangle: The orthocenter lies inside the triangle for an acute
angle triangle.
Obtuse Angle Triangle: The orthocenter lies outside the triangle for an
obtuse angle triangle.

Right Angle Triangle: The orthocenter lies on the vertex of the right angle of
the right triangle.

 An orthocenter divides an altitude into different parts. The product of the

lengths of all these parts is equivalent for all three perpendiculars.
Circumcircle
 The circumcircle is a triangle's circumscribed circle, i.e., the
unique circle that passes through each of the triangle's three vertices. The
center of the circumcircle is called the circumcenter, and the
circle's radius is called the circumradius.
Circumcentre of a Triangle
 Circumcentre of triangle is the point where three perpendicular bisectors
from the three sides of a triangle intersect or meet.
 It is the point of concurrency of perpendicular bisectors.
 The circumcentre is also the centre of the circumcircle (circumscribed
circle) of that triangle and it can be either inside or outside the triangle.

 The circumcentre is the center point of the circumcircle drawn around a

polygon. The circumcircle of a polygon is the circle that passes through all
of its vertices and the center of that circle is called the circumcenter.
 All polygons that have circumcircles are known as cyclic polygons.
However, all polygons need not have a circumcircle. Only regular
polygons, triangles, rectangles, and right-kites can have the circumcircle
and thus the circumcenter.
Properties of Circumcenter of Triangle
 All the vertices of the triangle are equidistant from the circumcenter.

 All the new triangles formed by joining O to the vertices are Isosceles
triangles.
 ∠BOC = 2 ∠A when ∠A is acute or when O and A are on the same side of
BC.
 ∠BOC = 2( 180° - ∠A) when ∠A is obtuse or O and A are on different
sides of BC.
 Location for the circumcentre is different for different types of triangles.
Acute Angle Triangle: The location of the circumcenter of an acute angle
triangle is inside the triangle. Here is an image for better understanding.
Point O is the circumcenter.
Obtuse Angle Triangle: The circumcenter in an obtuse angle triangle is
located outside the triangle. Point O is the circumcenter in the below-seen
image.

Right Angled Triangle: The circumcenter in a right-angled triangle is

located on the hypotenuse of a triangle. In the image below, O is the
circumcenter.

Equilateral Triangle: All the four points i.e. circumcenter, incenter,

orthocenter, and centroid coincide with each other in an equilateral
triangle. The circumcenter divides the equilateral triangle into three equal
triangles if joined with vertices of the triangle. Also, except for the
equilateral triangle, the orthocenter, circumcenter, and centroid lie in the
same straight line known as the Euler Line for the other types of triangles.
Note
Incentre Angle Bisectors
Centroid Medians
Orthocentre Altitudes
Circumcentre Perpendicular
bisectors from
sides

Similar Figures
 Two figures are said to be similar if they have the same shape or have an
equal angle but do not have the same size.
Congruent Figures
 Two figures are said to be Congruent if they have the same shape and
size. Thus, they are totally equal.
Congruent Angles
 Congruent angles are the angles that have equal measure. So, all the
angles that have equal measure will be called congruent angles.
Congruent Sides
 In geometry, two sides are said to be congruent if they have the same
length. For example, a square has four congruent sides, because it has
four sides of the same length.
Similar Triangles
 Similar triangles are triangles that have the same shape, but their sizes
may vary. All equilateral triangles, squares of any side lengths are
examples of similar objects.
 In other words, if two triangles are similar, then their corresponding
angles are congruent and corresponding sides are in equal proportion. We
denote the similarity of triangles here by ‘~’ symbol.
 It is interesting to know that if the corresponding angles of two triangles
are equal, then such triangles are known as equiangular triangles.
 Basic Proportionality Theorem (better known as Thales Theorem).
 For two equiangular triangles, the ratio of any two corresponding sides is
always the same.
If a line is parallel to a side of a triangle which intersects the other sides

into two distinct points, then the line divides those sides in proportion.

Mid-Point Theorem
 According to mid-point theorem, a line drawn joining the midpoints of the
two sides of a triangle is parallel to the third side.
Theorem
 If two angles of a triangle are equal, then opposite sides to them are also
equal.
Cyclic Quadrilateral
 A quadrilateral which is circumscribed in a circle is called a cyclic
quadrilateral. It means that all the four vertices of quadrilateral lie in the
circumference of the circle.
 A cyclic quadrilateral is a quadrilateral which has all its four vertices lying
on a circle. It is also sometimes called inscribed quadrilateral.
Properties of a Cyclic Quadrilateral
 The sum of the opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral is supplementary.
 For a quadrilateral to be cyclic, its opposing angles must be
supplementary to one another.
 Cyclic Quadrilateral Theorem or Ptolemy’s Theorem.
In a cyclic quadrilateral the product of the diagonals is equal to the sum of
the product of its two pairs of opposite sides.
If PQRS is a cyclic quadrilateral, PQ and RS, and QR and PS are opposite
sides. PR and QS are the diagonals. Then

or

 If PQRS is a cyclic quadrilateral, then

∠SPR = ∠SQR (Angles in a same segment of a circle)
∠QPR = ∠QSR (Angles in a same segment of a circle)
∠PQS = ∠PRS (Angles in a same segment of a circle)
∠QRP = ∠QSP (Angles in a same segment of a circle)
 If two opposite sides of a cyclic quadrilateral are equal, then the other two
sides are parallel.

 If T is the point of intersection of the two diagonals,

 The exterior angle formed if any one side of the cyclic quadrilateral
produced is equal to the interior angle opposite to it.
 In a cyclic quadrilateral ABCD the ratio of the diagonals equals the ratio of
the sums of products of the sides that share the
diagonals' end points.
 In a cyclic quadrilateral, the perpendicular bisectors will be concurrent
compulsorily.
 In a cyclic quadrilateral, the four perpendicular bisectors of the given four
sides meet at the centre of the circle.
 The quadrilateral formed by angle bisectors of a cyclic quadrilateral is
also cyclic.

Radius of a Cyclic Quadilateral

 If a, b, c and d are the successive sides of a cyclic quadrilateral, and s is
the semi perimeter, then the radius is given by,

where

Diagonals of a Cyclic Quadilateral

 Suppose a,b,c and d are the sides of a cyclic quadrilateral and p & q are
the diagonals, then we can find the diagonals of it using the below given
formulas:

Area of a Cyclic Quadilateral

 If a, b, c and d are the successive sides of a cyclic quadrilateral, and s is
the semi perimeter, then its area is given by is given by,

Types of Quadrilateral

Parallelogram
 A parallelogram is a two-dimensional geometrical shape
 Opposite sides are equal and parallel
 Opposite angles are equal
 Adjacent angles are supplementary
 The two diagonals bisect each other
 Each diagonal bisects the parallelogram into two congruent triangles
 Diagonals do not bisect the interior angles of parallelogram
 The sum of the square of all the sides of a parallelogram is equal to the
sum of the square of its diagonals. It is also called parallelogram law
 Area of Parallelogram

Area=Base × Height
Types of Parallelogram
 Rectangle
 Square
 Rhombus
 Trapezium

Rectangle
 Opposite sides are equal and parallel
 Opposite angles are equal and each angle is equal to 90 degrees
 Adjacent angles are supplementary
 The two diagonals bisect each other
 Each diagonal bisects it into two congruent right triangles.
 Both diagonals are equal in length
 Diagonals do not bisect the interior angles of rectangle
Square
 Opposite sides are equal and parallel
 All sides are equal
 Opposite angles are equal and each angle is equal to 90 degrees
 Adjacent angles are supplementary
 The two diagonals bisect each other at right angles
 Each diagonal bisects it into two congruent right isosceles triangles.
 The two diagonals of the square are equal to each other
 The length of diagonals is greater than the sides of the square

 Length of diagonal
 Diagonals bisect the interior angles of square
Rhombus
 The rhombus is also called a diamond or rhombus diamond.
 Opposite sides are equal and parallel
 All sides are equal
 Only opposite angles are equal
 A square and a rhombus both have sides equal in length. But square has
angles equal to 90 degrees, but a rhombus only has its opposite
 The two diagonals bisect each other at right angles
 Each diagonal bisects it into two congruent isosceles triangles.
 The two diagonals of the square are not equal to each other
 Diagonals bisect the interior angles of rhombus

 Area of Rhombus Square Units

 Examples
 Kite

Note. All kites are not rhombuses

Trapezium
 One pair of parallel opposite sides but the other pair may or may not be
parallel
 The parallel sides of a trapezium are called bases and the non-parallel
sides of a trapezium
are called legs. It is also called a trapezoid. Sometimes the parallelogram
is also called a
trapezoid with two parallel sides.

 The diagonals intersect each other

 The line that joins the mid-points of the non-parallel sides is always
parallel to the bases
or parallel sides which is equal to half of the sum of parallel sides

Mid-Segment
Types of Trapezium
 Isosceles Trapezium
 Scalene Trapezium
 Right Trapezium
Isosceles Trapezium
If the legs or the non-parallel sides of the trapezium are of equal length,
then it is called an isosceles trapezium.

Scalene Trapezium
A trapezium with all the sides and angles of different measures is called a
scalene trapezium.

Right Trapezium
A right trapezium is a trapezium that has at least two right angles, adjacent
to each other.

Regular and Irregular Trapezium

We know, a trapezium has exactly one pair of parallel sides and the other
two sides are non-parallel. Now a regular trapezium will have the other two
non-parallel opposite sides equal, whereas an irregular trapezium will have
the other two non-parallel opposite sides, unequal.

Regular Irregular

Area of a Trapezium

The area of a trapezium can be found by taking the average of the two bases
of a trapezium and multiply by its altitude. So, the area of the
trapezium formula is given as:

Area Square Units