KARUMO TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE

COMPUTING INFORMATICS AND BUSINESS DEPARTMENT.

UNIT OF COMPETENCY: MANAGE INFORMATION SYSTEM

UNIT CODE: IT/CU/ICT/CR/8/6

Notes

Unit Description:

This unit specifies competencies required to Manage information system. It involves identification
of information system concepts, classification of information systems, management of information
resources, Planning of information system, identification of impact of information system in an
organization

Summary of Learning Outcomes:

1. Identify information system concepts

2. Classify information systems

3. Manage information resources

4. Information system planning

5. Impact of information system in organization

1. Identify Information System (IS) Concepts

Define IS Terms

• Information System (IS): A structured system composed of people, technology, and

processes that work together to collect, process, store, and distribute information to
support decision-making, coordination, analysis, and control.

• Data: Unprocessed facts or figures without context.

• Information: Data that has been processed and is meaningful to users.

• IT (Information Technology): Refers to the hardware and software used to create,

process, store, and exchange information.
Components of an Information System (IS)

An Information System (IS) is a coordinated set of components that work together to

collect, process, store, and disseminate information for decision-making, coordination,
analysis, and control.

1. Hardware

• Definition: The physical technology that supports information processing.

• Examples:

o Input devices: Keyboard, mouse, scanner.

o Processing devices: Central Processing Unit (CPU), Graphics Processing Unit

(GPU).

o Storage devices: Hard drives, SSDs, flash drives.

o Output devices: Monitors, printers.

o Networking devices: Routers, switches, hubs.

• Function: Executes instructions provided by software and performs data input/output and
storage operations.

2. Software

: Set of programs and operating systems that instruct the hardware on what to do.

Types:

o System software: Operating systems (e.g., Windows, Linux), utilities, device

drivers.

o Application software: Word processors, spreadsheets, customer relationship

management (CRM) systems, enterprise resource planning (ERP).

Function: Controls and manages the hardware and provides user-friendly interfaces and
functionalities.

3. Database

Definition: An organized collection of related data that can be easily accessed, managed,
and updated.

Features:

o Supports data storage, retrieval, and manipulation.

o Uses Database Management Systems (DBMS) like MySQL, Oracle, or

PostgreSQL.

Function: Provides a structured and consistent way to manage large volumes of data,
ensuring data integrity, security, and availability.
4. Network

The communication infrastructure that connects hardware and enables the sharing of data
and resources.

Components:

o LAN (Local Area Network) and WAN (Wide Area Network).

o Internet, Intranet, and Extranet.

Function: Facilitates communication between users and systems, allowing distributed

computing and data access.

5. People

The individuals who interact with and manage the information system.

Categories:

o End users: Employees, customers, or clients who use the system's output.

o IT professionals: System analysts, programmers, network administrators, and

database administrators.

Function: Use, develop, maintain, and support the IS to achieve organizational goals.

6. Procedures

The set of rules, policies, and instructions that govern the use and operation of the IS.

Examples:
 o Login protocols

o Backup procedures

o Security policies

• Function: Ensure that the system is used consistently and securely, and that processes
align with organizational objectives.

Roles of Information Systems

1. Operational Support

Supports day-to-day business processes and transactions.

Examples: Payroll systems, order processing, inventory management.

Benefits: Efficiency, accuracy, speed in routine tasks.

2. Managerial Support

Assists middle and upper management in planning, monitoring, and decision-making.

Tools: Management Information Systems (MIS), Decision Support Systems (DSS).

Benefits: Data-driven insights for budgeting, forecasting, and performance analysis.

3. Strategic Support

Provides information to support long-term strategic planning and competitive positioning.

Examples: Business Intelligence (BI) systems, Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP), and
Customer Relationship Management (CRM).
Benefits: Better market analysis, innovation, and gaining a competitive advantage.

Qualities of a Good Information System

1. Accuracy

Information should be correct, free from errors, and reflect reality.

Ensures trust and reliability in decision-making.

2. Timeliness

Information must be available when required.

Delayed data can lead to missed opportunities or incorrect decisions.

3. Relevance

Information must relate to the user's needs and the task at hand.

Irrelevant data can clutter decision-making processes.

4. Completeness

All necessary data should be included for effective decision-making.

Partial data can lead to inaccurate or biased outcomes.

5. Consistency

Information should be uniform across the system with no contradictions.

Helps maintain data integrity and prevents confusion.

 Types of Systems

1. Open System

Interacts with its environment by exchanging information, resources, or energy.

Example: A business organization that responds to customer feedback, market trends, and
regulatory changes.

Characteristics: Adaptive, responsive, and flexible.

2. Closed System

Does not interact with the external environment.

Example: A theoretical system used for scientific modeling.

Characteristics: Self-contained, limited by internal processes.

3. Probabilistic System

Produces outputs that are uncertain and estimated using probability.

Example: Weather prediction systems, stock market analysis tools.

Characteristics: Stochastic, relies on past data and modeling.

4. Cybernetic System

A self-regulating system that uses feedback to control and adjust its operations.

Example: A thermostat that adjusts room temperature based on feedback.

Characteristics: Feedback loop, automatic control, adaptive.

2. Classify Information Systems

Strategic Levels of an Organization

Organizations are typically structured in a hierarchical model, consisting of various levels where
different types of decisions are made. Each level has distinct roles and requires specific types of
information systems to support decision-making and operations.
1. Operational Level

Role: Employees at this level carry out the organization’s routine tasks and daily operations.
 Typical Staff: Cashiers, machine operators, clerks, customer service representatives.

Decision-Making: Structured decisions that follow predefined procedures and rules.

IS Used: Transaction Processing Systems (TPS).

Examples:
o Recording sales at a point-of-sale terminal.

o Logging inventory levels or time clock entries.

2. Knowledge Level

Role: Focused on creating, sharing, and applying knowledge and expertise.

Typical Staff: Engineers, architects, researchers, content developers, IT staff.

Decision-Making: Semi-structured; involves problem-solving, innovation, and design work.

IS Used: Knowledge Work Systems (KWS), Office Automation Systems (OAS).

Examples:

o CAD (Computer-Aided Design) systems used in engineering.

o Document management systems and collaboration tools.

3. Tactical (Management) Level

Role: Mid-level managers plan, monitor, and control resources to meet organizational
objectives.

Typical Staff: Department managers, project managers, division heads.

Decision-Making: Semi-structured; requires combining structured information with human

judgment.
IS Used: Management Information Systems (MIS), Decision Support Systems (DSS).

Examples:

o Analyzing monthly sales trends.

o Creating departmental budgets or forecasts.

4. Strategic Level

Role: Senior executives set long-term objectives and formulate organizational strategies.

Typical Staff: CEOs, CFOs, CIOs, board members.

Decision-Making: Unstructured and complex; based on external and internal data, trends,
forecasts.

IS Used: Executive Support Systems (ESS), Business Intelligence (BI) tools.

 Examples:

o Setting a 5-year strategic growth plan.

o Entering new markets or launching new product lines.

Classification of Information Systems

Information Systems can be categorized based on the kind of support they provide at different
organizational levels.
1. Transaction Processing Systems (TPS)

Function: Records and processes daily routine transactions.

Users: Operational staff.

Examples:

Payroll systems.

Order entry systems.

Characteristics:
o High volume processing.

o Structured data.

o Accuracy and speed are critical.

2. Management Information Systems (MIS)

Function: Converts raw data from TPS into summarized, structured reports.

Users: Middle managers.

Examples:
o Monthly sales performance reports.

o Financial summaries.

• Characteristics:

o Periodic reporting (weekly, monthly).

o Supports tactical decision-making.

3. Knowledge Work Systems (KWS)

Function: Helps professionals create new knowledge or products.

Users: Knowledge workers like engineers, scientists.
 Examples:

Engineering design software.

Data visualization and modeling tools.

Characteristics:
o Supports innovation, creativity, and complex tasks.

4. Decision Support Systems (DSS)

Function: Supports complex, non-routine decision-making using data analysis and models.

Users: Managers at all levels.

Examples:

What-if analysis tools.

Investment analysis systems.

Characteristics:

o Interactive and user-driven.

o Incorporates external and internal data.

5. Executive Support Systems (ESS)

Function: Provides executives with easy access to internal and external information for
strategic decisions.

Users: Senior executives.

Examples:

o Digital dashboards.
o Competitive intelligence systems.
• Characteristics:

o High-level data aggregation.

o Often graphical and drill-down capabilities.

IS Processing Requirements

Different systems require different methods of processing data depending on the organizational
need.
1. Batch Processing

Definition: Collects data over time and processes it all at once.

 Examples: Payroll processing, billing systems.

Advantages:

Efficient for large volumes.

Lower processing cost.

Disadvantages:

o No immediate feedback.

2. Real-Time Processing

Definition: Processes data instantly as it is entered.

Examples: ATM transactions, airline booking systems.

Advantages:

Immediate results.
Essential for critical systems.

Disadvantages:

o Requires more processing power.

3. Online Processing

Definition: User interacts directly with the system via a network (internet or intranet).

Examples: Online shopping, online banking.

Advantages:

o Accessible from anywhere.

o Real-time or near real-time results.
Disadvantages:

o Dependent on connectivity.

4. Distributed Processing

Definition: Processing is distributed among multiple computers in different locations.

Examples: Cloud computing environments, content delivery networks.

Advantages:
Scalability and fault tolerance.
Supports global operations.

Disadvantages:
 Complexity in coordination and security.

Functional Areas of Management Information Systems (MIS)

MIS serves various departments by providing relevant data and tools for decision-making.
1. Finance

Uses:

o Financial planning and forecasting.

o Budgeting and auditing.

o Investment analysis and risk management.

Systems: Accounting software, financial dashboards.

2. Marketing
Uses:

o Market research and trend analysis.

o Customer segmentation.

o Campaign planning and performance analysis.

Systems: Customer Relationship Management (CRM), market analytics tools.

3. Operations

Uses:
o Production scheduling and monitoring.
o Supply chain management.

o Quality control and logistics.

Systems: ERP systems, Manufacturing Resource Planning (MRP).

4. Human Resources (HR)

Uses:

o Employee record keeping.

o Payroll and benefits management.
o Recruitment and performance evaluations.

• Systems: Human Resource Management Systems (HRMS), Talent Management Systems.

5.Sales

Uses:

o Order processing and tracking.

o Sales forecasting.
o Customer interaction and feedback management.

Systems: Point of Sale (POS) systems, Sales tracking software.

3. Manage Information Resources

Information Resource Management (IRM) Concepts

Information Resource Management (IRM) refers to the strategic management of data,

information, and information technologies as corporate assets to optimize performance, reduce
costs, ensure regulatory compliance, and enhance competitive advantage.

Key Concepts of IRM:

Information as a Corporate Asset:

o Information is treated as a valuable organizational resource, similar to physical

assets like buildings or finances.

o Proper stewardship ensures information is accurate, secure, accessible, and used

effectively.

Strategic Alignment:
 o Aligning information resources with organizational goals to drive performance,
innovation, and value creation.

Lifecycle Management:

o Managing information from its creation and storage to its use, sharing,
archiving, and disposal.

Governance and Compliance:

o Applying policies, procedures, and standards to ensure data integrity, privacy, and
compliance with laws such as GDPR, HIPAA, etc.

Cost Optimization:

o Reducing duplication of efforts, minimizing storage costs, and investing in

technologies that offer better ROI.

Knowledge Management:

o Facilitating the creation, distribution, and effective use of organizational

knowledge to support learning and innovation.

IS (Information System) Resources

Information systems are built on a variety of interrelated resources that must be effectively
managed.

1. Hardware

• Physical devices that support computing functions.

• Includes: Servers, desktops, laptops, storage devices, routers, and mobile devices.

• Example: A data center equipped with blade servers and redundant power supply.

2. Software

• Instructions that tell the hardware what to do.

 • Two categories:

o System Software: Operating systems, device drivers (e.g., Windows, Linux).

o Application Software: ERP, CRM, productivity tools (e.g., MS Office, SAP).

3. Databases

• Structured storage systems for managing data.

• Managed using Database Management Systems (DBMS).

• Support functions like querying, reporting, and data integrity enforcement.

4. Networks

• Facilitate communication and data exchange between devices and systems.

• Includes: LAN, WAN, Internet, Wi-Fi, and cloud connectivity.

• Devices: Routers, switches, modems, firewalls.

5. Procedures

• Standard operating procedures (SOPs) and policies that guide system use.

• Define workflows for:

o Data entry and validation

o System access

o Backup and recovery

6. Security Facilities
 • Tools and processes for protecting systems and data.

• Examples:

o Firewalls, antivirus, multi-factor authentication (MFA).

o Encryption, intrusion detection systems (IDS).

o Physical security like biometrics and surveillance.

7. Physical Buildings

• Facilities that house IT infrastructure and personnel.

• Includes:

o Data centers

o Server rooms

o IT offices and support centers

• Require power, cooling, and physical security controls.

Classification of IS Resources

Information system resources can be classified based on their nature, role, and strategic
importance:

1. Tangible vs. Intangible Resources

Tangible:

o Physical assets (e.g., hardware, buildings, network cables).

Intangible:
 o Non-physical assets (e.g., software licenses, proprietary algorithms, brand value of
information).

2. Technical vs. Human Resources

Technical:

o Infrastructure and tools used in IS (hardware, software, networks, databases).

Human:

o People involved in IS development, maintenance, and use.

o Includes IT managers, developers, support staff, analysts, and end users.

3. Core vs. Supportive Resources

• Core Resources:

o Directly support organizational mission and strategic objectives.

o Example: A CRM system in a customer-centric business.

• Supportive Resources:

o Provide auxiliary support for core systems.

o Example: IT helpdesk tools or document scanners.

Importance of Managing Information Resources

Proper management of information resources provides several organizational benefits:

1. Improves Efficiency and Service Delivery

• Streamlined operations and faster access to information.

 • Automation of routine tasks reduces time and effort.

2. Reduces Risks and Errors

• Data accuracy and consistency lower the chance of costly mistakes.

• Security protocols prevent data breaches and system failures.

3. Enhances Compliance and Data Security

• Ensures adherence to legal and regulatory frameworks.

• Protects sensitive information from unauthorized access and cyber threats.

4. Supports Informed Decision-Making

• High-quality data enables better analysis, forecasting, and planning.

• Dashboards and reports aid tactical and strategic choices.

5. Cost Control and Resource Optimization

• Avoids redundancy and inefficiencies in infrastructure.

• Enables better budgeting and IT investment decisions.

6. Promotes Innovation and Agility

• Facilitates new product development, digital transformation, and scalability.

• Organizations can respond faster to market and environmental changes.

4. Information System Planning

Definition of IS Planning

• A process to align IS capabilities with business goals, ensuring efficient and effective
technology use.

Importance of Planning

• Ensures resources are used effectively.

• Aligns technology initiatives with organizational goals.
• Prepares organization for technological changes.
IS Planning Process

1. Assess current IS environment.

2. Define business goals and objectives.
3. Identify IS needs.
4. Develop an IS strategy.
5. Implement and monitor progress.

IS Planning Techniques
1. SWOT Analysis

Definition:

SWOT Analysis is a strategic planning tool used to identify the Strengths, Weaknesses,
Opportunities, and Threats related to an organization or project.
Components:
• Strengths (S): Internal advantages or capabilities (e.g., skilled IT staff, strong brand).

• Weaknesses (W): Internal limitations or areas that need improvement (e.g., outdated
systems, lack of funding).
• Opportunities (O): External factors that the organization could exploit for gain (e.g.,
emerging technologies, new markets).
• Threats (T): External elements that could cause trouble or harm (e.g., cyber threats,
competition).

Purpose in IS Planning:

To understand where the organization stands in terms of technology and to align IS strategy with
business strategy by capitalizing on strengths and opportunities, while addressing weaknesses and
threats.

2. Gap Analysis

Definition:

Gap Analysis is a technique used to determine the difference between the current state and the
desired future state of an information system or business process.
Steps:
1. Identify current capabilities.
2. Define future requirements or goals.
3. Analyze the gap.
4. Develop a strategy to bridge the gap.
Purpose in IS Planning:
To highlight deficiencies in the current system and plan upgrades or new implementations to meet
strategic goals.
Example:

If a company wants real-time customer service but currently only offers email support, gap
analysis would highlight the need for a live chat system or AI chatbot.

3. Business Systems Planning (BSP)

Definition:

BSP is a comprehensive method for analyzing, defining, and designing the information systems
architecture of an organization to support its business functions and strategies.
Key Features:
• Focuses on aligning IT with business objectives.
• Identifies all business processes and the information required to support them.
• Maps out the data and systems needed to fulfill business goals.
Purpose in IS Planning:

To create a long-term roadmap of IS development that ensures all systems support core business
processes efficiently and effectively.
Outcome:

A structured plan or blueprint of how information systems should evolve in an organization.

4. Critical Success Factors (CSF)

Definition:

CSFs are the key areas of activity that must be performed well for an organization to achieve its
mission and objectives.

In the context of IS:

CSF analysis helps identify the specific IT capabilities or systems that are essential to support
these critical areas.
Examples of CSFs:
• High system reliability for online services.
• Strong cybersecurity for financial institutions.
• Fast response times in customer service applications.
Purpose in IS Planning:

To ensure IS planning focuses on the areas that will most significantly impact organizational
success.

Project Planning
Project planning is a critical phase in the project management lifecycle that lays the
groundwork for successful execution and delivery. It involves defining the project's goals,
deliverables, timeline, resources, budget, and risk mitigation strategies.
Key Components of Project Planning:
1. Project Scope Definition
o Clearly defines what the project will deliver.
o Outlines boundaries — what is included and excluded.
o Prevents scope creep by ensuring stakeholder alignment.
 2. Timeline and Scheduling
o Establishes a work breakdown structure (WBS) with milestones and deadlines.
o Uses tools like Gantt charts, critical path method (CPM), and project calendars.
3. Resource Planning
o Identifies the required human resources, technology, equipment, and materials.
o Ensures the right skills and tools are available at the right time.
4. Budgeting
o Estimation of costs including labor, hardware/software, training, and
contingencies.
o Helps track and control project expenditures.
5. Risk Management
o Identifies potential project risks (e.g., delays, cost overruns, technical failures).
o Develops risk mitigation and contingency plans.
6. Communication Planning
o Establishes how and when project information will be shared among stakeholders.
o Ensures transparency and ongoing feedback.
7. Quality Management
o Defines quality standards and assurance/control processes.
o Ensures deliverables meet stakeholder expectations.

Causes of Project Failure

Project failure occurs when a project does not meet its objectives, exceeds its budget or time, or
fails to deliver usable results.
Common Causes:
1. Poor Planning
o Vague goals, undefined scope, unrealistic timelines.
o Lack of task prioritization or contingency plans.
2. Inadequate Stakeholder Involvement
o Failure to gather stakeholder requirements early.
o Resistance to change due to poor communication.
 3. Budget Overruns
o Underestimating costs or failing to control spending.
o Unexpected changes or emergencies without buffer funds.
4. Scope Creep
o Uncontrolled changes or additions to project scope.
o Can overwhelm teams and delay project delivery.
5. Lack of Skilled Resources
o Assigning untrained or unavailable personnel.
o Results in poor quality work or delays.
6. Poor Leadership and Governance
o Ineffective project management.
o Lack of accountability and decision-making.

Causes of Project Success

Successful projects are those completed on time, within budget, and meet the desired quality
and stakeholder expectations.
Key Success Factors:
1. Clear Objectives and Scope
o Well-defined goals and deliverables.
o Scope is realistic, understood, and agreed upon.
2. Effective Leadership
o Strong project managers who inspire, coordinate, and solve problems.
o Clear roles and decision-making authority.
3. Proper Resource Allocation
o Availability of qualified staff and required tools or systems.
o Balanced workloads to avoid burnout or bottlenecks.
4. Stakeholder Engagement
o Involvement throughout the project lifecycle.
o Continuous communication and feedback loops.
 5. Risk and Change Management
o Proactive identification of risks with mitigation plans.
o Structured approach to managing changes in scope or requirements.
6. Regular Monitoring and Evaluation
o Use of KPIs (Key Performance Indicators) and milestones.
o Adjustments made based on progress and feedback.

Types of Information Systems (IS) Acquisition Methods

Organizations can acquire IS in different ways depending on their budget, needs, expertise, and
strategic goals.
1. In-House Development
• Definition: The organization builds the IS using its internal team.
Pros:
o Tailored to organizational needs.
o Greater control over features and development process.
Cons:
o Requires skilled personnel and higher development time.
o Risk of internal bias and scope underestimation.
2. Outsourcing
Definition: Contracting an external vendor to develop or maintain the IS.
Pros:
o Access to expert knowledge and latest technologies.
o Reduces internal workload.
Cons:
o Risk of communication breakdown.
o Less control over the development process.
3. Commercial Off-The-Shelf (COTS) Software
Definition: Purchasing ready-made software products.
Pros:
 o Quick deployment.
o Lower initial cost.
Cons:
o Limited customization.
o May not fully meet organizational needs.
4. Software as a Service (SaaS) / Cloud-Based Solutions
Definition: Subscribing to cloud-based applications hosted by a third-party provider.
Pros:
o No need for on-premise infrastructure.
o Scalable and regularly updated.
Cons:
o Dependence on internet connectivity.
o Ongoing subscription costs.
5. Open Source Software
Definition: Using software with publicly available source code, often free to use and
modify.
Pros:
o Cost-effective and highly customizable.
o Large user community for support.
Cons:
o Requires technical expertise.
o Limited formal support and documentation.
6. Joint Ventures/Partnerships
Definition: Collaborative development with other organizations.
Pros:
o Shared costs and risks.
o Combines expertise and resources.
Cons:
o Coordination challenges.
o Intellectual property and ownership concern
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5. Impact of Information System in Organization

Trends of IS
1. Cloud Computing

Definition:

Cloud computing is the delivery of computing services—including servers, storage, databases,

networking, software, analytics, and intelligence—over the Internet (“the cloud”) to offer faster
innovation, flexible resources, and economies of scale.

Key Features:

• On-demand self-service: Access resources as needed without human interaction with

service providers.

• Scalability: Easily scale resources up or down depending on demand.

• Pay-as-you-go model: Only pay for what you use.
• Accessibility: Accessible from anywhere with an internet connection.
Types of Cloud Services:
IaaS (Infrastructure as a Service): Renting IT infrastructure (e.g., AWS EC2).
PaaS (Platform as a Service): Provides platform to develop, run, and manage apps (e.g.,
Google App Engine).
• SaaS (Software as a Service): Software available via internet subscription (e.g., Google

Workspace, Microsoft 365).

•
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2. Artificial Intelligence (AI)

Definition:

Artificial Intelligence is the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines,

especially computer systems. These processes include learning (acquiring information),
reasoning (using rules to reach conclusions), and self-correction.

Key Areas:

• Machine Learning (ML): Algorithms that allow systems to learn from data and improve
over time.
• Natural Language Processing (NLP): Enables machines to understand and interpret
human language (e.g., chatbots).
• Computer Vision: AI systems that can interpret and make decisions based on visual
inputs.

• Robotics: AI-powered machines that can perform tasks autonomously.

Examples:
Voice assistants (e.g., Siri, Alexa)
Recommendation systems (e.g., Netflix, Amazon)
• Self-driving cars

3. Big Data Analytics

Definition:

Big Data Analytics refers to the complex process of examining large and varied data sets (big
data) to uncover hidden patterns, correlations, market trends, customer preferences, and other
useful information.

Characteristics of Big Data (The 5 V's):

• Volume: Large amounts of data.
•
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• Velocity: Speed at which data is generated and processed.

• Variety: Different types of data (structured, semi-structured, unstructured).
• Veracity: Accuracy and trustworthiness of the data.
• Value: Useful insights derived from data.
Tools & Technologies:
Hadoop
Spark
Tableau
Python, R

•
 •

Use Cases:

• Fraud detection in banking

• Customer behavior analysis in retail
• Predictive maintenance in manufacturing

4. Internet of Things (IoT)

Definition:

IoT refers to the network of interconnected physical devices embedded with sensors, software,
and other technologies that collect and exchange data over the internet.
Components of IoT:
• Devices/Sensors: Physical objects that collect data (e.g., smartwatches, thermostats).
• Connectivity: Transfers data via networks like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, cellular.
• Data Processing: Data is processed either locally (edge computing) or in the cloud.
• User Interface: Users interact with the system via apps or dashboards.
Examples:
• Smart home devices (e.g., smart lights, Nest thermostat)
• Wearable health trackers (e.g., Fitbit)
Smart cities (e.g., intelligent traffic systems)

Positive Impacts

• Improves efficiency and productivity.

• Enhances communication and collaboration.
• Supports data-driven decision-making.
• Enables innovation and competitiveness.
 •

Negative Impacts

• Job displacement through automation.

• Privacy invasion.
• Security vulnerabilities.
• Dependency on technology.
Ethical Issues

• Non-Disclosure Agreements (NDA): Protects sensitive information.

• Privacy: Ensuring personal data is not misused.
Data Integrity: Accuracy and consistency of data.
• Code of Conduct: Ethical guidelines for IS use and behavior.
Legal Issues

• Warrants: Legal access to data by law enforcement.

• Breach of Contract: Failure to meet legal IS obligations.
• Computer Crimes: Illegal acts like hacking, phishing, or data theft.
IS Maintenance

• Corrective: Fixing system errors.

• Adaptive: Updating systems for new environments.
• Perfective: Enhancing system performance.
• Preventive: Avoiding future issues.