JAPAN countries, Japan was a closed society: all a) Giri connotes duty, justice, honor, face, decency,

foreigners were expelled. Japanese respectability, courtesy, charity, humanity, love,

1. Historical Background. Early Japan Christians were persecuted, and foreign gratitude, claim. Its sanctions are found in mores,
borrowed much from Chinese culture but travel was forbidden under penalty of death. customs, folkways. For example, in feudal Japan "less
evolved its own character over time. Early The shogunate was ended in 1868 when of face' is saved by suicide or vendetta, if not
Japan’s political structure was based on Japan began to trade with the Western renouncing the world in the monastery.
clan, or family. Each clan developed a powers. Under a more powerful emperor,
hierarchy of classes with aristocrats, Japan rapidly acquired the latest b) On suggests a sense of obligation or indebtedness
warriors, and priests at the top and technological knowledge, introduced which propels a Japanese to act, as it binds the
peasants and workers at the bottom. During universal education, and created an person perpetually to other individuals to the group, to
the 4" century A.D. the Yamato grew to the impressive industrial economy. parents, searchers, superiors, and the emperor
most powerful and imposed the Chinese
imperial system Japan creating an emperor, 2. Religious Traditions. Two major faiths where 4. Poetry is one of the oldest and most popular
an imperial bureaucracy, and a grand essential elements is the cultural foundations of means of expression and communication in the
capital city. Japanese society. Japanese culture. It was an integral part of daily life in
A. The Heian Age was the period of peace ancient Japanese society, serving as a means
and prosperity, of aesthetic refinement and A. Shintoism of the way of the gods," is the ancient through which anyone could chronicle experiences
artificial manners. The emperor begins to religion that reveres in dwelling divine spirits called and express emotions.
diminish in power but continued to be a kami, found in natural places and objects. For this
respected figure. Since the Japanese court reason, natural scenes, such as waterfall, a gnarled a) The Manyoshu or 'Book of Ten Thousand Leaves
had few official responsibilities, they were tree, or a full moon, inspired reverence in the is an anthology by poets from a wide range of social
able to turn their attention to art, music, and Japanese people classes, including the peasantry, the clergy, and the
literature. ruling class.
The Shinto legends have been accepted as historical
fact although in postwar times they were once again b) There are different poems according to set forms or
The Pillow Book by Sel Shönagon,
regarded as myths. These legends from the Records structures
represents a unique form of the diary genre.
It contains vivid sketches of people and of Ancient Matters, or KAD. 712, and the Chronicles of
Japan, or Nihongi, AD. 720 form the earliest writings choka are poems that consist of alternate lines of five
place, shy anecdotes and witticisms, and seven syllables with an additional seven-syllable
snatches of poetry, and 164 lists on court of ancient Japan. Both collections have been
considerably influenced by Chinese thought line at the end. There is no limit to the number of lines
life during the Heian period. Primarily which end with envoys, or pithy summations. These
intended to be a private journal, it was envoys consist of 5-7-5-7-7 syllables that elaborate on
b) Zen Buddhism emphasized the importance of
discovered and eventually printed. or summarize the theme or central idea of the main
meditation, concentration, and self-discipline as the
Shonagon served as a lady-in-waiting to the poem.
way to enlightenment. Zen rejects the notion that
Empress Sadako in the late HP century.
salvation is attained outside of this life and this world.
B. The Feudal Era was dominated by the tanka is the most prevalent verse form in traditional
Instead, Zen disciples believe that one can attain
samurai class which included the Japanese literature. It consists of five lines of 5-7-5-7-
personal tranquility and insights into the true meaning
militaristic lords, the daimyo and the band 7 syllables including at least one caesura, o pause.
of life through rigorous physical and mental discipline.
of warriors, the samurai who adhered to a Used as a means of communication in ancient
strict code of conduct the emphasized 3. Socio-political concepts. Japan has integrated Japanese society, the tanka often sell a brief story or
bravery, loyalty, and honor. In 1192 Confucian ethics and Buddhist morality which India express a single thought or insight and the common
Yoritomo became the shogun or chief implanted in China. The concepts of giri and on subjects are love and nature.
general one of a series of shogun who explain why the average Japanese, is patriotic,
ruled Japan for over 500 years sometimes ultra-nationalistic, law-abiding. Even renga is a chain of interlocking tanka. Each tanka
C. The Tokugawa Shogonate in the late seppuku or ritual disembowelment exemplify to what within a renga was divided into verses of 17 and 14
1,500s crushed the warring feudal lords and extent these two socio-political concepts could be syllables composed by different poets as it was
controlled all of Japan born a new capital at morally followed, fashionable for groups of poets to work together
Edo, sow Tokyo. By 1830 and for two during the age of Japanese feudalism.
hokku was the opening verse of a renga which 6. Drama.
developed into a distinct literary form known as the
haiku. The haiku consist of 3 lines of 5-7-5 syllable a) Nō plays emerged during the 14th century as the 7. Novels and Short Stories.
characterized by precision, simplicity, and earliest form of Japanese drama. The plays are
suggestiveness. Almost all haiku include a kigo or performed on an almost bare stage by a small but Snow Country by Kawabata tells of love denied by a
seasonal words such as snow or cherry blossoms that elaborately costumed cast of actors wearing masks. Tokyo dilettante, Shimamura, to Komako, a geisha
indicates the time of year being described. The actors are accompanied by a chorus and the who feels 'used' much as she wants to think and feel
plays are written either in verse or in highly poetic that she is drawn sincerely, purely to a man of the
5. Prose appeared in the early part of the 8th century prose. The dramas reflect many Shinto and Buddhist world. She has befriended Yoko to whom Shimamura
focusing on Japanese history. During the Heian Age, beliefs, along with a number of dominant Japanese is equally and passionately drawn because of her
the members of the Imperial court, having few artistic preferences. The No performers' subtle virginity, her naivete, as he is to Komako who loses it,
administrative or political duties, kept lengthy diaries expressions of inner strength, along with the beauty of after her affair with him earlier. In the end, Yoko dies
and experimented with writing fiction. the costumes, the eloquence of the dancing, the in the cocoon-warehouse in a fire notwithstanding
mesmerizing quality of the singing, and the mystical, Komako's attempt to rescue her. Komako embraces
The Tale of Genji by Lady Murasaki Shikibu, a work almost supernatural, atmosphere of the the virgin Yoko in her arms while Shimamura senses
of tremendous length and complexity, is considered to performances, has enabled the Nõ theater to retain its the Milky Way 'flowing down inside him with a roar."
be the world's first true novel. It traces the life of a popularity. Kawabata makes use of contrasting thematic symbols
gifted and charming prince. Lady Murasaki was an in the title: death and purification amidst physical
extraordinary woman far more educated than most Atsumori by Seami Motokiyo is drawn from an decay and corruption.
upper-class men of her generation. She was episode of The Tale of the Heike, a medieval
appointed to serve in the royal court of the emperor. Japanese epic based on historical fact that tells the The House of Sleeping Beauties by Kawabata tells
story of the rise and fall of the Taira family, otherwise of the escapades of a dirty old man, Eguchi, to a
The Tale of Haike written by an anonymous author known as the Heike. The play takes place by the sea resort near the sea where young women are given
during the 13th century was the most famous early of Ichi no tani. A priest named Rensei, who was once drugs before they are made to sleep sky-clad.
Japanese novel. It presents a striking portrait of war- a warrior with the Genji clan, has decided to return to Decorum rules it that these sleeping beauties should
torn Japan during the early stages of the age of the scene of the battle to pray for a sixteen-year-old not be touched, lest the customers be driven away by
feudalism. named Atsumori, whom he killed on the beach during the management. The book lets the reader bare the
the battle. Rensei had taken pity on Atsumori and had deeper recesses of the septuagenarian's mind.
Essays in Idleness by Yoshida Kenko was written almost refrained from killing him. He realized though Ironically, this old man who senses beauty and youth
during the age of feudalism. It is a loosely organized that if he did not kill the boy, his fellow warriors would. is incapable of expressing, much less having it. Thus,
collection of insights, reflections, and observations, He explained to Atsumori that he must kill him, and the themes of old age and loneliness and coping
written during the 14th century. Kenko was born into a promised to pray for his soul. On his return, he meets become inseparable.
high-ranking Shinto family and became a Buddhist two peasants who are returning home from their fields
priest. and Rensai makes an astonishing discovery about The Makioka Sisters by Tanizaki is the story of four
one of them. sisters whose chief concern is finding a suitable
In the Grove by Ryunusuke Akutagawa is the husband for the third sister, Yukiko, a woman of
author's most famous story made into the film b) Kabuki involves lively, melodramatic acting and is traditional beliefs who has rejected several suitors.
Rashomon. The story asks these questions: What is staged using elaborate and colorful costumes and Until Yukiko marries, Taeko, the youngest, most
the truth? Who tells the truth? How is the truth sets. It is performed with the accompaniment of an independent, and most Westernized of the sisters,
falsified? Six narrators tell their own testimonies about orchestra and generally focus on the lives of common must remain unmarried. More important than the plot,
the death of a husband and the violation of his wife in people rather than aristocrats. the novel tells of middle-class daily life in prewar
the woods. The narrators include a woodcutter, a Osaka. It also delves into such topics as the intrusion
monk, an old woman, the mother-in-law of the slain c) Jorori (now called Bunraku) is staged using of modernity and its effect on the psyche of the
man, the wife, and finally, the dead man whose story puppets and was a great influence on the contemporary Japanese, the place of kinship in the
is spoken through the mouth of a shamaness. development of the Kabuki. daily life of the people, and the passage of the old
Akutagawa's ability to blend a feudal setting with deep order and the coming of the new,
psychological insights gives this story an ageless d) Kyogen is a farce traditionally performed between
quality. the No tragedies.
The Sea of Fertility by Mishima is the four-part epic watakushi-shosetsu or the confessional 1- novel wit. His earliest stories were like those of Edgar Allan
including Spring Snow, Runaway Horses, The Temple where the storyteller is the main character. Poe's but he later turned toward the exploration of
of Dawn, and The Decay of the Angel. The novels are more traditional Japanese ideals of beauty. Among his
set in Japan from about 1912 to the 1960s. Each of The Buddha Tree by Fumio alludes to the works are Some Prefer Nettles, The Makioka
them depicts a different reincarnation of the same awakening of Buddha under the bo tree when he gets Sisters, Diary of a Mad Old Man.
being: as a young aristocrat in 1912, as a political enlightened after fasting 40 days and nights. Similarly,
fanatic in the 1930s, as a Thai princess before the the hero of the novel, Soshu, attains self-illumination Yukio Mishima (1925-1970) is the pen name of
end of WWII, and as an evil young orphan in the after freeing himself from the way of all flesh. The Kimitake Hiraoka, a prolific writer who is regarded by
1960s. Taken together the novels are a clear author was inspired by personal tragedies that befell many writers as the most important Japanese novelist
indication of Mishima's increasing obsession with their family and this novel makes him transcend his of the 20th century. Many of his novels have main
blood, death, and suicide, his interest in self- personal agony into artistic achievement. characters who, for physical or psychological reasons,
destructive personalities, and his rejection of the are unable to find happiness.
sterility of modern life. 8. Major Writers.
Dazai Ozamu (1909-1948) just like Mishima, and
The Setting Sun by Ozamu is a tragic, vividly Seami Motokiyo had acting in his blood for his father Kawabata committed suicide, not unusual, but so
painted story of life in postwar Japan. The narrator is Kanami, a priest, was one of the finest performers of traditional among Japanese intellectuals. It is believed
Kazuko, a young woman born to gentility but now his day. he became a Zen priest late in life; others say that Ozamu had psychological conflicts arising from
impoverished. Though she wears Western clothes, he had two sons, both of them actors. According to his inability to draw a red line between his
her outlook is Japanese; her life is static, and she legend, he died alone at the age of 81 in a Buddhist Japaneseness clashing with his embracing the
recognizes that she is spiritually empty. In the course temple near Kyoto. Catholic faith, if not the demands of creativity. The
of the novel, she survives the deaths of her Setting Sun is one of his works.
The Haiku Poets
aristocratic mother and her sensitive, drug-addicted
brother Naoji, an intellectual ravage by his own and Ryunosuke Akutagawa (1892-1927) is a prolific
Matsuo Bashō (1644-1694) is regarded as the writer of stories, plays, and poetry, noted for his
society's spiritual failures. She also spends a sad, greatest haiku poet. After becoming a Zen Buddhist,
sordid night with the writer Uehara, and she conceives stylistic virtuosity. He is one of the most widely
he moved into an isolated hut on the outskirts of Edo translated of all Japanese writers, and a number of his
a child in the hope that it will be the first step in a (Tokyo) where he lived the life of a hermit, supporting
moral revolution. stories have been made into films. Many of his short
himself by teaching and judging poetry. Bashō means stories are Japanese tales retold in the light of
"banana plant, a gift given him to which he became modern psychology in a highly individual style of
In the Grove by Akutagawa is the author's most
deeply attached. Over time his hut became known as feverish intensity that is well-suited to their macabre
famous story made into the film Rashomon. The story
the Bashō Hut until he assumed the name. themes. Among his works are Rashomon, and
asks these questions: What is the truth? Who tells the
truth? How is the truth falsified? Six narrators tell their Kappa. He also committed suicide.
Yosa Buson (1716-1783) is regarded as the second-
own testimonies about the death of a husband and greatest haiku poet. Buson presents a romantic view
the violation of his wife in the woods. Oe Kenzaburo (1935) a novelist whose rough prose
of the Japanese landscape, vividly capturing the style, at time nearly violating the natural rhythms of
wonder and mystery of nature. the Japanese language, epitomizes the rebellion of
The Wild Geese by Oagi is a melodramatic novel set
in Tokyo at the threshold of the 20th century. The the post-WWII generation which he writes. He was
Kobayashi Issa (1763-1827) is ranked with Bashō
novel explores the blighted life of Otama, daughter of awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1994.
and Buson although his talent was not widely
a cake vendor. Because of extreme poverty, she Among his works are: Lavish are the Dead, The
recognized until after his death.
becomes the mistress of a policeman, and later on of Catch, Our Generation, A Personal Matter, The
a money-lender, Shazo. In her desire to rise from the Yasunari Kawabata (1899-1972) won the Nobel Silent Cry, and Awake, New Man!
pitfall of shame and deprivation, she tries to befriend Prize for Literature in 1968. Three of his best novels
Okada, a medical student who she greets every day are: Snow Country, Thousand Cranes, and Sound
by the window as he passes by on his way to the of the Mountains. He committed suicide shortly after
campus. She is disillusioned however, as Okada, in the suicide of his friend Mishima.
the end, prepares for further medical studies in
Germany. Ogai's novel follows the tradition of the Junichiro Tanizaki (1886-1965) is a major novelist
whose writing is characterized by eroticism and ironic