UNIT 12 AIMS OF EDUCATION -

MODERN THINKERS
Structure
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Objectives
12.3 Aims of Education: Indian Thinkers
12.3.1 Rabindranath Tagore
12.3.2 Mahatma Candhi
12.3.3 J. Krishnamurti
12.3.4 Gijubhai Badheka
12.3.5 Sri Aurobindo Chose

12.4
12.3.6 ACritical Summary
Aims of Education: Western Thinkers
1
-i

12.4.1 John Dewey

12.4.2 A.N Whitehead
12.4.3 Bertrand Russell
12.4.4 A Cntical Summary
12.5 Aims of Education
12.5.1 Paulo Freire
12.5.2 Ivan Illich
12.5.3 A Critical Summary
12.6 Commonalities and Differences in Aims of Education
12.7 Distinctiveness and Newness in Aims
12.8 Let Us Sum Up
12.9 Points for Discussion
12.10 Unit-end Activity
12.11 Suggested Readings ,

12.12 Answers to Check Your Progress

12.1 INTRODUCTION
We are all aware of the fact that the term "Education" is so comprehensive and
dynamic that there is no last word on "Education". It is used in both the narrow and
broader senses. In the narrow sense, "Education" refers to schooling whereas in the
broader sense it is considered as any act or experience that has a formative effect on
the mind, character or physical ability of an individual. It implies's life long, continuous,
broad based process, educational experiences from cradle to graveyard, bringing about
changes in the behaviour. Thus, "Education" is all-pervasive; so life is education,
education is life and it deals with the ever growing man in an ever-growing society.
The term "Education" is interpreted in many ways as process and product, task and
achievement, growth and development, initiation, indoctrination etc. Many philosophers
and educationists have defined the term "Education" differently, according to their
perspectives. All these definitions and interpretations indicate, in one or the other
way, the aims and objectives of education. These aims are determined by the philosophy
')4
 of or outlook on life, of these personalities who have tried to explain what is education. -
Aims of Education
Modern Thinkers
The deeper understanding of the aims of education from different perspectives enables
us to comprehend the concept of 'Education' and move ahead in the direction of their
achievement. In the unit 10, we have discuss the aims of education according to
various philosophical schools of thought. In this unit, let us try to understand the aims
of education according to some Indian as well as western thinkers.

12.2 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, you should be able to:
elucidate the philosophy of life of the following Indian thinkeis -
Rabindranath Tagore, Mahatma Gandhi, J.Krishnamurti, Gijubhai Bhadeka and
Sri Aurobindo Ghose;
define the concept of education according to the above mentioned thinkers;
r enlist aims of education as envisaged by the above said thinkers;
critically examine these aims of education in the present context;
elucidate the philosophy of life of the following Western thinkers -
John Dewey, A. N. Whitehead, Bertrand Russell, Paulo Friere and Ivan Illich;
define the content of education according to the above mentioned thinkers;
enlist aims of education as envisaged by the above mentioned thinkers; and
critically examine these aims of education in the present context.

12.3 AIMS OF EDUCATION -INDIAN THINKERS

* 12.3.1 Rabindranath Tagore
In order to understand the aims of education, according to Rabindranath Tagore, we
have to know what is his philosophy of life 1 education.

Tagore's Philosophy of Life

Rabindranath Tagore is the world famous poet- Vishwakavi and is popularly known
as "Gurudev", the respected teacher. He was awarded the Nobel prize for his book
"Geeta~ijali".S hantiniketan and Viswabharti are the renowned contributions of Tagore
to the field of education. Tagore was the apostle of Truth, Virtue and Beauty (Satyam,
Shivam, Sundaram). He had strong confidence in the Supreme Being and regarded
Him as Omnipotent, Omnipresent and Omniscient. According to him, Brahma manifests
Himself through nature and men, and therefore all men and women are equal. He
believed in close affinity between man and nature, and' pleaded for realizing such a
relationship. Emphasizing the relationship between nature and man, he eulogized the
ideal of the 'Tapovana' (Hermitage) in which teachers and pupils lived together with
nature: He felt that in order to make education meaningful, the child should be in
touch with economic, intellectual, social , aesthetic, and spiritual life of people. He
advocated social service for everybody as it not only improves the society, but elevates
oneself spiritually. Rabindranath Tagore was a humanist, a prophet of love, sympathy,
fellow feeling and cooperation. His humanism was based on spiritual foundations, he
believed that God lives in man and thus he is to be worshipped not only in the temple,
but also in serving humanity. According to Tagore, the supreme truth of life is not
merely to live, but also to know our existence and realize the self through love and
sympathy with others. Hence, it is essential that the growth of a balanced and well-
integrated personality of the child is to be promoted and move should be made towards
A i t ~ ~and
s Goals of Education the achievement of the ultimate goal of life i.e. achieving 'Sachidananda'
(sat + chit + anand). He believed that freedom should be the guiding principle of
education. By freedom, Tagore meant the liberation of all the aspects and powers of
the personality, namely the senses, the vital energies, the various mental capacities
including intelligence and imagination; also the functions of the heart-feelings, emotions,
sympathy and love. Here, it can be noticed that the idea of Tagore is similar to the
ideas of Rousseau, Froebel and Dewey, who have emphasized freedom, which lies in
the perfect harmony of relationships, which we realize in the world.
He believed in internationalism based on spiritualization and emphasized universal
brotherhood. He considered that education in India would be successful only when
there is pr~per~integrationof the eastern and western culture, which preserved all the
values of the past with the new values of today.
He also emphasized that self-expression is very important and provision should be
made for its development among students. Self-expression is creative in nature and
should be organized through various forms of arts, music, dramatics, handiwork, etc.
He believed in activity in education. Hence, he encouraged play and work as the
instruments of teaching children and adults respectively.
With this background of Tagore's philosophy of life1education, we can now proceed
to discuss his aims of education.

Aims of Education
Tagore was one of the first in India to argue for a humane educational systemsthat
was in close touch with the environment and aimed at an overall development of the
personality. He envisaged education for harmony and artistic self-expression. In general,
Tagore envisioned an education that was deeply rooted in one's immediate surroundings
but connected to the cultures of the wider world. He propagated that the learning of a
child must be filled with joy and pleasure. He wanted his students to become universal
men and women and to overcome feelings of narrow nationalism in order that the .
world could live and grow in peace and fellowship.
According to Tagore, the main aim of education is to achieve fulfilment and
completeness. In other words, education should aim at promoting an all-round
development of children and achieving "Sachidananda". He emphasized that education
is not intellectual developmentalone; it should also develop aesthetic nature and creativity
among children. Further, he envisaged that education given to our children should aim
at the following:
encourage and foster freedom of thought, independent spirit and free will,
promote moral and spiritual development of an individual, and liberate him from
different kinds of bondages
develop the ability of assimilation and application of new ideas and knowledge,
and the ability of thinking and imagination
make the younger generation aware of their national cultural heritage and grasp
its significance for them; enable them to appreciate the cultures of other countries
too and also to learn from them. -
make Indian men and women more rational and less subject to meaningless
social and individual rituals.
help students to acquire 'scientific temper'. In other words, to stimulate
constructive doubt, the love of mental adventure, the coverage and longing to
conquer the world by enterprise and boldness in thought and in action.
develop the individual personality as well as the social characteristics,
develop fellow feeling among students and enable them to render social service
96 and service to the country.
 develop the finer feelings of heart thr~ughthe cultivation of Indian music and -
Aims of Education
Modern Thinkers
other forms of indigenous arts.
emphasize the earning of livelihood and material benefit.
On the whole, it can be concluded that the aims of education according to Rabindranath
Tagore are based on the three cardinal principles of freedom, creative self-expression
arid active communion with nature and man.

12.3.2 Mahatma Gandhi

Philosophy of Life
Mahatma Gandhi, the father of modern India, is one of the greatest teachers of mankind.
He was a11 apostle ofpeace, truth and non-violence. He says, "I believe in the essential
unity of man and for that matter of all that lives". To him 'Truth is God and God is
Truth'; "I have no God to serve but truth". "Truth is the end and non-violence is the
means', they are like two sides of the same coin. He regarded his own life as an
experiment with Truth.
Gandhi.ji be1ieved in human brotherhood and the establishment of "a universal community
. of free persons without artificial barriers of caste, creed, colour, wealth and power".
This community will be a "spiritual society and "man's ultimate aim is the realization of
God". He believed that God is to be found in the temple of humanity,'based on love, ,

tnith, justice and non-violence". Acc~rdingto him, the greatness of man lies in the
degree to which he works for the good of his fellowmen. He believed in simple living
and high thinking. He had strong faith in the close relations between spirit and matter;
so he advised for improving the economic conditions of the people with the help of
science arid technology.
In toto, rt can be said that Gandhiji's philosophy isdynamic as well as pragmatic. He ,

envisioned 'Rama Rajya', a new social order based on truth and non-violence, and
free from all kinds of exploitation and injustice he worked for setting up the same.
Although Gandhiji is more known as the emancipator and prophet in the arena of
politics, social service and spiritual dynamics, he is recognized as one of the greatest
teachers of mankind. His educational thoughts were relevant to life, needs and
aspirations of the emerging Indian society. His conviction was that education should
not only mould the new generation, but also reflect a society's fundamental assumptions -
about itself and the individuals, which compose it. His thoughts, values and principles
of life have been well retlected in his scheme of 'Basic Education' in particular and in
his philosophy of education in general.
k'
?
Gandhiji's basic education was an embodiment of his perception of an ideal society
consisting of small, self-reliant communities with his ideal citizen being an industrious,
self-respecting and generous individual living in asmall co-operative community. This
t
scheme implied a program of social transformation. But it proved a failure because of
many factors at the stage of its implementation
His philosophy is eclectic in the sense that there was fusion of three important
philosophical doctrines - naturalism, idealism, and pragmatism. Dr. S.M Patel has
rightly observed, "Gandhiji's philosophy of education is naturalistic in its setting, idealistic
in its aim and pragmatic in its method and program of work".

Aims of Education
According to Gandhiji, education means 'an all round drawing out of the best in the
child and man body, mind and spirit'. Hence, he believed in the total development of
the human personality through education. Education does not mean literacy alone, it is
a quest for truth and non-violence; training of body and mind and leading to an
awakening of one's soul.
97
Aims and Goals of Education In his view, vocational efficiency, cultural spiritual and character development are the
aims of education. In order to promote vocational efficiency, Gandhiji laid emphasis on
economic activities in his educational system. Thus, he emphasized craft-centered
education, which included training of both the mind and the body. "True education", he
emphasizes, "must stimulate spiritual,intellectualand physical facilities of the children".
Gandhiji emphasized that students should be inculcated with desirable values of culture.
In other words, education should promote cultural development, as it is more important
than literary development. Further, he upheld that education should provide for the
harmonious development of a child's personality and thus emphasized the education
of 3 Hs - Hand, Head and Heart - rather than the education of 3 Rs, (reading, writing
and arithmetic).Tender feelingsof love, sympathy, and fellow feeling are to be generated
and developed though suitable education and moral virtues like righteousness, integrity,
self-restraint, purity of character should be cultivated.
Spiritual development is one of the important aims of Gandhian education. According
to him, self-realization is the ultimate goal of education and it should be achieved along
with the educational goal of preparation for life. Gandhiji believed that an individual
can develop himself to the fullest extent only in the society and a society cannot
prosper without the well being of its individuals. Hence, social and individuaiaims of
education were considered as complementary to each other. In other words, individual
as well as social developments are mutually related or interdependent. He synthesized
both the ideals and evolved an eclectic perspective. Gandhiji mentioned in 'Young
India' dated 26IhMarch 1931, "A nation cannot advance without the units of which'it
is composed, and conversely, no individual can advance without a nation of which it is
a part, also advancing". He wanted that every school should be a community centre
where individual students are trained in social service and given all kinds of facilities
for unfoldment of their potentialities. He called for universal, free and compulsory
education within the age group of 7-14. He also allocated for citizenship education for
a democratic society.
To conclude, Gandhiji's educational philosophy is sound and scientific, psychologically
as well as sociologically. By introducing craft, he tried to remove the gap between
manual and intellectual labour, the educated and uneducated mass and promote dignity
of labour, social solidarity and national integration. He also desired that ideals of
democratic citizenship be inculcated in the children and regarded the school as a
democratic society where they would learn citizenship, knowledge, skills and values
like co-operation, love, sympathy, fellow-feeling, equality. Gandhiji's vision of the
democratic society is "Sarvodaya Samaj" characteristics of which are social justice,
peace, non-violence and modem humanism.

12.3.3 J. Krishnamurti
Jiddu Krishnamurti is regarded throughout the world as one of the greatest thinkers
and religious teachers of all times. He is a religious teacher who calls for a spirit of
doubt and enquiry (and not for blind faith and acceptance) in the field of the spirit. He
did not expound any philosophy or religion, but rather talked of the things that concern
all of us in our everyday life -the problems of living in modem society with its violence
and corruption; of the individual's search for security and happiness; and the need for
man to free himself from his inner burdens like fear, anger, hurt, sorrow and so on. He
unraveled with great precision the subtle workings of the human mind and pointed to
the need for bringing to our daily life a deeply meditative and religious quality.
Krishnarnurti himself belonged to no religion, sect or country; nor did he subscribe to
any school of political or theological thought. Contrary to this, he maintained that these
are the factors that divide man from man and bring about conflict and war. He upheld
the point that we are all human beings first, not Hindus, Muslims or Christians and we
should have a deep sense of reverence for nature and its creations. Thus, his teachings
98
transcend all man-made boundaries of religious belief, nationalistic sentiment and -
Aims of Education
Modern Thinkers
sectarian outlook, and gave a new meaning and direction to man's search for Truth or
God. His talks and discussions were based not on bookish knowledge, but on his own
insight into the human mind and his vision of the sacred.
Krishnamurti's philosophy is not just'thinking' but a 'doing'. He insisted that we read
the book of our life ourselves; no one else can do it for us. Self-knowledge is radically
different from academic knowledge enshrined in books and libraries. In self-knowledge
lies the clue to the clarification of all the 'world problems' that so disturb us, as
incoherences in society at large are but the echoes of the incoherences within individuals.
Hence, he urged people to be aware of the total contents of our being - of the restless
movements of the senses, and of thought, feeling and volition which try to appropriate
objects, people and every aspect of the world for their gratification.

Aims of Education
J.Krishnamurticriticized the conventionaleducation, which makes independentthinking
extremely difficult and hinders one's comprehension of himself as a total process. The
present system of education is making us subservient, mechanical and deeply
thoughtless; though it awakens us intellectually; inwardly it leaves us incomplete, stultified
and uncreative. He considered that the individual is made up of different entities and
education should bring about the integration of those separate entities - for without
integration, life becomes a series of conflicts and sorrows.
According to him, education is not merely acquiring knowledge, gathering and
correlating facts; it is to create human beings who are integrated and therefore
intelligent. In other words, the purpose of education is not to produce mere scholars,
technicians and job hunters but integrated men and women who are mature, free of
fear and who have self-awareness, love and goodness.
Another aim of education is to create new values. Education is intimately related to
the present world crisis and thus education should awaken intelligence and help the
coming generation not to bring about further conflict and disaster. Further, he
emphasized that the right kind of education consists in understanding the child as he is,
without imposing upon him an ideal of what we think he should be; and there should
not be any compulsion, as sensitivity can never be awakened through compulsion.
In Krishnamurti's view, another aim of education is to cultivate the right kind of
relationship, not only between individuals, but also between the individual and society.
The right kind of education will encourage thoughtfulness and consideration for others
without enticements or threats of any kind. True education enables one to understand
the deep significance of the k m a n life; but to understand, the mind must intelligently
free itself from the desire for reward which breeds fear and conformity. In other
words, education should provide for individual freedom through which love and goodness
can flower; should encourage the understanding of the inherited tendencies and
environmental influences, which condition the mind and heart and bring about an
integrated human being.

12.3.4 Gijubhai Badheka

(Gijubhai Girij Shankar Bhagmanji Badhekapopularly known as GijuBhai).

Philosophy of Education
Gijubhai, a great thinker from Gujarat, was a great pioneer in the field of pre-school
education in India and advocated cbild-cenwd education. Basically he was a teacher,
and then became the headmaster of a high school. He was not happy with the type of
education giveh to children. He resigned from the high schooland started BalMandir,
a school for children of 3+, on an experimental basis. In this experimentation, he could
Aims and Gauls of Education '
realize his dream of a school for children where there would be no fear of the cane; a
place to'which they would go willingly and not be dragged or bribed by parents.
Gijubhai was influenced by the theoretical base of Madam Montessori and evolved his
own method, rejecting the traditional way of educating children. His novel ideas about
education are reflected in his writing, "Divasapna", an imaginary story of a teacher
who rejects the orthodox culture of education. His educational theory, like that of
Gandhiji and Tagore, emphasized the child's need for an atmosphere of independence ,

and self-reliance.

Aims of Education
According to Gijubhai, :a child is a complete person who has intellect, emotions, mind
and understanding, strengths and weaknesses, likes and dislikes.. .' .It is very important
to understand the emotions of the child and create an atmosphere where children
learn from each other through play, stories and songs without the fear oE formal
examinations and gradations. He preferred the word 'Mandir' to 'school' (like Bal
Mandir, Kishore Mandir, Vinay Mandir instead of primary, middle and high school)just
to indicate that it is a place where the child would not be beaten, insulted or jeered at.
Gijubhai was emphatic in saying that instead of imposing adult ideas on children they
must be given an opportunity to learn something by doinglplaying according to their
age and interest. He rejected the artificial, harsh, unsympathetic methods of education,
which repressed all natural inclinations. Education, according to him, shonld be a
process of development into a rational, harmoniously balanced, useful, naturallife.
Like Montessori. Gijubhai believed that education of achild is from within; educatim
must help in the complete unfolding of the child's individuality. In other words, he
advocated education for the all round development of the child. Further, he recognized
the significance of sense training, motor efficiency and self learning in education of
children and emphasized that education must provide for these things. On the whole,
he upheld reverence for small children and professed 'education for learning through
living' in an atmosphere of complete freedom. ,

12.3.5 Sri Aurobindo Ghose

Sri Aurobindo Ghose is a well-known mystic and spiritual thinker, a patriot and a poet.
But his contribution to educational thought and practice is also outstanding. In order to
understand what the aims of education are according to him, we need to know his
philosophy of lifeteducation.

Philosophy of Life
Sri Aurobindo's philosophy emerged out of his own life, education, experiences and
insight. He had a very good background of Indian culture and heritage; an insight into
the modem scientific life and familiarity with the western civilization. As such, he
brought about a synthesis of the eastern and western cultures and of matter and spirit.
His vision of life blended the oriental and occidental cultures, spiritual and material
values, and Science and Vedanta. According to him, there is not only an evolution of
forms but also an evolution of consciousness. This evolution of consciousness does
not end with mind but extends to greater consciousness called Truth Consciousness,
Super Mind, Super Consciousness or Dynamic Divine. In other words, he emphasfied
the evolution of man to superman, and believed that man with a mind cannot be ignorant.
Aurobindo believed that as the cosmic energy is evolutionary, there are various grades
of evolution in the human mind and the mind has a dynamic relationship with the
higher levels of consciousness. He also upheld the point that Eason and intellect are
not adequate for acquiring knowledge, something more like intiition i.e. super
consciousness is very much required.
In toto, Aurobindo's philosophy emphasizes the whole man, the man together with Aims Education -
Modern Thinkers
Nature and Spirit which equally manifests in man, world and God, the integral experience
of 'Sachidananda'. In other words, his philosophy (of complete affirmation) affirms
~

the reality of the world from the ultimate standpoint and the meaningfulness of socio-
political action from the spiritual stand point (Chaudhuri, 1972). Sri Aurubindo ( Sri
Aurbindo in Sen. 1952 p.9) upheld the basic but commonly forgotten principle "The
Spirit", the living and vital issue that we have to do with, and there the question is not
between modernism and antiquity, but between an imported civilization and the greatei
possibilities of the Indian mind and nature; not between the present and the past, but
between the present and the future. According to him, in devising a true and living .
education, three things are to be taken into account-man, the individual in his
consciousness and his uniqueness, the nation or people and universal humanity.
Reflecting on the philosophy of Sri Aurobindo, we shall try to see in the following
paragraphs, what his conception of education and its ultimate goals are.

Aims of Education
Sri Aurobindo conceived of education as an instrument for the real working of the
spirit i n the mind and body of the individual and the nation. He professed 'Integral
Education' which emphasizes both the aspects 'matter and spirit'; it provides facilities
for a variety of faculties as well as subjects and various combinations of pursuits of
knowledge, power, harmony and skill in works leading to the natural process<;of
harmonious development. He insisted that the manifestation of Beauty, Power,
Knowledge and Love- must be the aim of integral education.
The discipline of "Beauty" should involve a programme of physical education in order
to build a body that is beautiful in form, harmonious in posture and powerful in functions,
and which is capable of serving as a potential instrument for higher consciousness.
'The austerity for 'power' refers to control of sensations, which should be trained to
acquire and develop knowledge. The discipline of 'knowledge' helps developing a
mental-makeup and an active and alert mind. The discipline of 'Love' is the formation
of desirable feelings and emotions, which should be directed towards whole-hearted
charity and good will towards others and communion with the Divine.
According to Sri Aurobindo, Mind or Antahkarana is the instrument of the educationist
and it consists of four layers- Chitta (store house of memory), Manas (mind proper,
the sixth sense of Indian Psychology), Buddhi (the intellect) and Genius (sovereign
discernment, intuitive perception of truth, inspiration of speech, direct vision of
knowledge). Thus, education shollld aim at developing these four aspects.
Further, Sri Aurobindo upheld the significance of moral education too and believed
that the best kind of moral education is to habituate man/ individual to the right emotions,
the noblest associations, and the best mental, emotional and physical habits. Religious
education is also considered important, but this is of no use 'unless it is lived' and the
use.of various kinds of Sadhana (spiritual self-training and exercise) is the only effective
prepasation'for religious living. He also advocated training of the senses and other
mental faculties, along with faculties of memory, judgement, observation, comparing
and contrasting and analogy which is indispensable aids in the acquisition of knowledge.
Aurobindo emphasized 'Imagination' as the most important and indispensable
instrument. Imagination consists of three functions - i) the forming of mental images
ii) the power of creating thoughts, images and imitations or new combinationsof existing
thoughts and images iii) the appreciation of the soul in things, beauty, charm, greatness,
hidden suggestiveness, the emotion and spiritual life that pervades the world.
S
He also advocated psychic education and spiritual or supramental education. Psychic
education is to discard selfishness whereas spiritual education is to realize self, which
means transformation of matter, the end of integral education. He calls it supramental
education as it will work, not only upon the consciousness of individual beings, but 101
Aims and Goals of Edueation upon the very substance of which they are built and even upon the physical environment
in which they live.
His concept of true education is integral education, which concerns five principal
'activities of the human being: the physical, the vital, the mental, the psychic and the
spiritual. Such a scheme of education not only helps the evolution of an individual but
also helps the evolution of the nation and finally humanity. Based on his philosophy of
education, he advocated three cardinal principles of education, which govern the process
of education. There are:
a) Nothing can be taught or improved from outside. According to the Mother,
"Fundamentally the only thing you must do assiduously is to teach them to know
themselves, and to choose their own destiny, the way they want to follow".
b) The mind has to be consulted in its growth. The aim of education is to help the
growing soul draw out its best.
C) Educational process must emphasize on "from near to the far, from that is to that
which shall be".
Now, let us summarize our discussion on the aims of education according to the modem
Indian thinkers.

12.3.6 A Critical Summary

All the Indian thinkers under reference appear to have more commonalities regarding
the aims of education. All of them have recognized all round development or total
development of the personality of an individual as the main goal of education. In many
respects, Tagore's ideas relating to the education of children resemble those of
Rousseau, Froebel, Dewey, Montessori and others. For instance, Rousseau considered
Nature as children's teacher, as does Tagore. Froebel and Tagore both advocated
harmony with all that exists to be achieved through education. Santiniketan is a
successful model for vernacular education.
Although, Gandhiji's educational philosophy is found to be sound and scientific,
psychologically as well as sociologically,his basic education system was an utter failure.
Sri Aurbindo's educational philosophy found its fullest expression in "Auroville' and
'Aurobindo International University Centre'. J.Krishnamurty7sphilosophy is not
just'thinking' but a 'doing'. He insisted on 'self knowledge' that we "read the book of
our life" ourselves for no one else can do it for us. Through this self-knowledge, we
can get a clarification for all the world problems that disturb us, and make our life
comfortable and peaceful. It appears so simple, but it is the toughest thing to achieve.
Gijubhai Badheka is to be complemented for having thought of a place for children
(Bal Mandir) where there would be no fear of cane, a place to which they would go
willingly and not be dragged to it by parents. He is considered as a great pioneer in
preschool education and well known in Maharashtra.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
I . Who advocated child-centered education?
a) Tagore b) Gandhiji c) Aurobindo d) Gijubhai Badheka
2. Describe J.Kiishnamurti's philosophy.
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