This material is CAPS and examination guideline aligned

NAME:……………………………………………………………………

SCHOOL:………………………………………………………………..
Agricultural sciences 1 Learning Material

Table of Content

Term 1
Topic 1.Animal nutrition

 Alimentary canal of ruminant and non-ruminant 03-15

 Components of feeds 15-20
 Digestibility of feeds 20- 21
 Quality of feeds, energy value of feeds & nutritive ratio 22-24
 Types of feeds, suppliments & growth stimulants 24-27
 Fodder-flow, type of ration & pearson square 27-28
 Animal nutrition note taking 29

Topic 2. Animal production

 Production systems & Farming systems 30-31

 Animal shelter,housing & protection 32-34
 Animal behavior and handling 34-39
 Animal production note taking 39

Topic 3 Animal reproduction

 Male and female reproduction system 40-47

 Oestrus and oestrus cycle 47-49
 Mating
 Arificial insemination 49-52
 Embryo transfer 52
 Cloning 52-54
Term 1 SBA Formal task: Practical investigation: 25%

: Control test 1: 75%

Term 2
 Fertilization 54-55
 Pregnancy 55-57
 Parturition 57-59
 Lactation 57-62
 Animal reproduction note taking 63

Topic 4 Animal disease and protection

 Animal health 64-67

 Animal disease 67-72
evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168
Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 2 Learning Material

 Animal pest and parasite 72-81

 Plant and metallic poisoning 81-84
 Animal disease note taking 84

Topic 5 Basic Genetics

 Genetics concept 85
 Genetic crosses 86-87
 Pattern of inheritance 88-90
 Variation & mutation 90-92
 Selection &breeding 92-97
Term 2 SBA formal task: mid-year examinantion

Term 3
 Genetic modification 97-100
Topic 6 Production factors

 Land 102-103
 Labour 103-108
 Capital 108-113
 Management 114-117
 Note taking 118

Topic 7 Agricultural marketing

 Marketing functions 119-121

 Price determination (demand and supply) 121-130
 Market development 130-131
 Marketing approach and sustainable marketing 131-132
 Marketing systems 132-136
 Marketing chain 137-138
 Note taking 139
Topic 8 Agricultural entrepreneurship and business planning

 Entrepreneur and entrepreneurship 140

 Business plans 141
 Swot analysis 141-143
 Note taking 144
Term 3 SBA formal task: trial examinations
evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168
Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 3 Learning Material

Paper 1

Question 2

ANIMAL NUTRITION

This refers to the foods consumed by animals and how it is digested to help to keep the body of
an animal healthy and warm
Different animals has different digestive system that suit their feeding standard and requirements

1. Alimentary canal of farm animals

Differences between Ruminants and non-ruminants
Structural differences:
 Ruminant: has a complex stomach
: has four stomach compartments
 Non-ruminant: has a simple stomach
: has less than four stomach compartment

Differences in feed utilized:

 Ruminant : can feed on roughages (because of the presence of micro-organism in the rumen that assist
in digestion of roughage)
: can utilize urea (since micro-organism can change urea into microbial proteins)
 Non-ruminant: cannot feed on roughage ( such animal doesn’t have rumen hence no micro-organism
that assist in digestion of roughage)
: cannot utilize urea (doesn’t have micro-organism that change urea into microbial protein,
hence excess urea will be changed into ammonia which is very dangerous for such animals)

ALIMENTARY CANAL OF A PIG AS A NON RUMINANT

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 4 Learning Material

DIGESTIVE GLANDS AND DIGESTIVE JUICES

 In the mouth

Name digestive glands: salivary gland (3 pairs)

Name of digestive juice produced: saliva

 In the stomach

Name of digestive gland: Gastric glands

Name of digestive Juice produced: Gastric juice and Hydrochloric acid (hcl)

STOMACH REGIONS OF NON RUMINANTS

Simple stomach of non-ruminant has the following regions:

CADIAC REGION: secretes mucus to protect stomach linings against Hydrochloric Acid
PYLORIC REGION: controls the exits of foods
FUNDIC REGION: secretes Hydrochloric Acid, renin and pepsin

 In the small intestine

Name of digestive glands: gland of liberkuhn

Name of digestive juice produced: succus entericus

 In the accessory glands

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 5 Learning Material

1. Name of gland: liver (largest gland in the body)

Digestive juice produced: Bile (alkaline juice without enzymes)
Functions of bile
 Neutralizes acid chyme from the stomach
 Emulsifies fats
 Assist in absorption of fat

2. Name of gland: Pancreas

Digestive juice produced: pancreatic juice

DIGESTIVE ENZYMES AND Ph. CONTENT OF A PIG

 In the mouth
Name of enzyme: Salivary amylase
Function of the enzyme: change starch into maltose
Ph. content in the mouth of pig: alkaline (The alkaline ph. in the mouth create suitable
environment for normal functioning of enzyme amylase)
 In the stomach
Name of enzyme: Renin & pepsin
Functions of enzyme: Renin- change caseinogen into casein
: Pepsin- change protein into peptons

Ph. content in the stomach of pig: acidic

 In the small intestine

Name of enzyme: Sucrase
: Maltase
: Lipase
: Trypsin
Function of enzymes: Sucrase- change sucrose into glucose and fructose
: Maltase- change maltose into glucose
: Trypsin- change peptides into amino acids
: Lipase- change lipids into fatty acid and glycerol

FUNCTIONING OF PARTS OF ALIMENTARY CANAL OF A PIG

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 6 Learning Material

 Function of the mouth: intake of food

 Function of the oesophagus: transport food from mouth to the stomach
 Function of stomach: temporal storage of food
 Function of small intestine: responsible for absorption of nutrients
 Function of large intestine: absorption of water from undigested feed
 Function of anus: expel waste material away from the body

PROCESSES TAKING PLACE IN THE ALIMENTARY CANAL OF A PIG

 In the mouth
Processes taking place: Ingestion (intake of feed)
: Digestion (breaking down of food into smaller pieces

Digestion in the mouth of a pig is divided into;

1. Mechanical digestion- Is the physical breaking down food into smaller pieces
2. Chemical digestion- Is the breaking down of food into smaller pieces by enzymes
: Mastication- is the physical mixing of food with saliva

 In the stomach
Process taking place: chemical digestion (due to the presence of enzyme)
 In the small intestine
Process taking place: absorption ( transport of nutrients into blood stream
: assimilation ( process when nutrients are taken up by cells)
: chemical digestion (due to presence of enzymes)
 In the large intestine
Process taking place: microbial fermentation ( has micro-organism in the hind-gut (caecum)
 In the Anus
Process taking place: egestion/ excretion (expelling of waste)

ADAPTATION OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE AIIMENTARY CANAL OF A PIG

 In the mouth
has three pairs of salivary gland:
1. Parotid- situated below the ear
2. Sublingual- situated below the tongue
3. Submandibular- situated in between the parotid and sublingual

 In the oesophagus
Has muscles that relax and contract to move food in the alimentary canal
Has a cardiac sphincter that controls food entering the stomach

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 7 Learning Material

 In the stomach
Has a pear shape
Has a pyloric sphincter that controls food leaving the stomach
 In the small intestine
Divided into three parts:
 Duodenum – secrets digestive enzyme
 Jejunum- absorption of nutrients
- Presence of villi
 Ileum- absorption of feeds
Structural adaptation of small intestine
 The folds increase surface area for absorption
 The length increase surface area for absoption
 It is covered with numerous villi to increase surface area

Structure of a villi

B- Blood capillarity- absorbs nutrients (glucose , amino acid, vitamin and minerals)
C- Lacteal- absorbs fats

Absorption processes taking place in the small intestine

Absorption processes are divided into;

1. Active absorption- it requires energy to transport nutrients from low concentration to high
concentration against concentration gradient

2. Passive absorption – it doesn’t require energy to transport nutrients from high concentration to low
concentration along concentration gradient e.g diffusion and osmosis

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 8 Learning Material

A- Passive transport
B- Active transport
C- Permeable membrane

FOWL AS A NON RUMINANT

Alimentary canal of fowl

A. Beak E. Proventriculus I Ileum N Cloaca

B. Mouth F. Ventriculus J Small intestine
C. Oesophagus G. Dudenun K caeca
D. Crop H. Jejunum L Colon

FUNCTIONING OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF ALIMENTARY CANAL OF A FOWL

BEAK – Collect food particles from the soil (perking)
CROP - Moistening, soaking, softening and storage
GIZZARD – Grinding of food
SMALL INTESTINE – Absorption of nutrients

LIVER – Secret bile

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168
Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 9 Learning Material

- Store glucose
- Store fat soluble vitamin
-detoxifies harmful substances
LARGE INTESTINE – absorption of water from undigested food
CLOACA - expel both urine and faeces
PROCESSES OCCURING IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF ALIMENTARY CANAL OF FOWL
BEAK – ingestion
OESOPHAGUS – Peristalsis
CROP – Moistening of food
PROVENTRICULUS – Chemical digestion
VENTRICULUS – Mechanical digestion /physical digestion
ADAPTATION OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL OF A FOWL
It has TWO stomach compartment:

 VENTRICULUS (muscular stomach)

Contain small stones that help in grinding of food (mechanical digestion)
Contain a layer of muscle that help in grinding of food (mechanical digestion)

 PROVENTRICULUS (glandular stomach)

Has both enzyme RENIN and PEPSIN that help in CHEMICAL DIGESTION

 CLOACA – It is urogenital (excretion of faeces and urine)

ALIMENTARY CANAL OF RUMINANT

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 10 Learning Material

PATHWAY OF FOOD IN THE ALIMENTARY CANAL OF RUMINANT

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 11 Learning Material

1. Food moves from the oesophagus from the mouth by PERISTALSIS into the rumen.
2. Food REGURGITATE from the reticulo-rumen back to the mouth for re-chewing
3. After re-chewing food is moved back through RETRO-PERISTALSIS into Omasum and abomasum
Functioning of different parts of alimentary canal of ruminants

 MOUTH – Food is taken in

 OESOPHAGUS – Transport food to the stomach
 STOMACH- Temporally storage of food
- Divided into four compartments:
RUMEN
RETICULUM
OMASUM
ABOMASUM

 SMALL INTESTINE – absorption of nutrients

 LARGE INTESTINE – absorption of water from undigested feed
 ANUS – expel waste material away from the body
PROCESSES TAKING PLACE IN DIFFEERENT PARTS OF ALIMENTARY CANAL OF
RUMINANTS
 MOUTH
Process taking place: Ingestion (intake of food)
: Digestion (breaking down of large food molecule into smaller pieces)
NB: ONLY MACHANICAL DIGESTION TAKES PLACE IN THE MOUTH OF A RUMINANT.

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 12 Learning Material

Reason: The slightly acidic Ph in the mouth doesn’t favour the functioning of salivary amylase in the
mouth, hence the enzyme denatures.
 OESOPHAGUS
Process taking place: Peristalsis (alternative contraction and relaxation of muscles responsible for
movement of food in the alimentary canal)
 STOMACH
Process in the Rumen: Microbial digestion (presence of micro-organism)
: Heat production (presence of papillae)
Process In the Reticulum: Storage of foreign objects
Process In the Omasum: Water absorption (folds increase surface area for water absorption)
: Grinding of food (folds assist in grinding of food)
Process In the Abomasum: Chemical digestion (presence of enzyme renin and pepsin)
ADAPTATION IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF ALIMENTARY CANAL OF RUMINANT
 IN THE MOUTH
Has three pairs of salivary glands;
i.e 1. Parotid- below the ear
2. sublingual- below the tongue
3. submandibular – in between the parotid and sublingual
Has teeth that assist in mechanical digestion
Ph. Is acidic
Saliva has no enzyme salivary amylase
No chemical digestion
 IN THE OESOPHAGUS
Has a ring of muscle called CARDIAC SPHINCTER that controls food entering the stomach
It has muscles that contract and relax to move food into the stomach
 IN THE STOMACH

1. RUMEN
Is the largest stomach compartment of ruminant
Contain papillae that act as a heating rod (heat production)
Contain micro-organism (bacteria and protozoa )
evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168
Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 13 Learning Material

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FEED INTAKE AND POPULATION OF BACTERIA IN THE

RUMEN
Cellulolytic bacteria: Digest cellulose
: Population increase with increase in cellulose intake
: Secrete enzyme CELLULASE
Amylolytic bacteria: Digest starch
: Population increase with increase in starch intake
: Secrete enzyme MALTASE
Proteolytic bacteria: Digest protein
: Population increases with increase in protein intake
Note: Rumen bacteria are very sensitive to feed changes, therefore frequent and sudden changes in
diet may disturb rumen functions
FUNCTIONS OF RUMEN MICRO-ORGANISM
1. DIGESTION OF CELLULOSE / ROUGHAGE
Micro-organism digest cellulose to form Fatty acids, carbon dioxide and methane
Over accumulation of methane can cause animal to bloat
2. SYNTHESIS OF VITAMIN
Micro-organism can make vitamin B and K
It is not important to include vitamin B Complex and vitamin K in the feed of ruminant
3. SYNTHESIS OF AMINO ACIDS
So micro-organism in the rumen can make all the amino acid needed by animals
NB:This amino acid will be utilized to synthesise microbial protein with high quality.
4. HYDROLYSIS OF PROTEIN
Micro-organism break large protein molecule into amino acids (smaller compound)
5. DIGEST STARCH
Micro-organism digest starch into maltose (simpler substance)
REASON WHY PROTEIN QUALITY IS LESS IMPORTANT TO RUMINANTS
Micro-organism in the rumen are able to utilize amino acids to synthesize microbial protein that has
higher biological value.

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 14 Learning Material

REQUIREMENTS FOR MICRO-ORGANISM / IDEAL CONDITION FOR RUMEN MICRO-

ORGANISM
SUITABLE pH
pH 6.4
SUITABLE TEMPERATURE
Warm temperature between 39ºc and 40ºc
SUFFICIENT NITROGEN
Micro-organism need nitrogen from urea or biuret to form a protein
REGULAR INTAKE OF FOOD
OXYGEN-FREE ENVIRONMENT
2. RETICULUM
It is known a honeycomb stomach or a hardware stomach
It is where foreign objects are stored
3. OMASUM
It is known as a leaf stomach
It has many folds that help in water absorption
It has many folds that help in grind of food
4. ABOMASUM
It known a TRUE STOMACH or milk stomach
It corresponds with the simple stomach of a pig and a Proventriculus of a fowl
This stomach is supplied with the following:

 Digestive Glands: gastric gland

 Digestive juice produced: gastric juice and hydrochloric acid
 Digestive enzymes: renin and pepsin
 Ph. medium: acidic
 Process: chemical digestion / enzymatic digestion
Alimentary of young ruminant

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 15 Learning Material

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN YOUNG RUMINANT AND ADULT RUMINANT

YOUNG RUMINANT MATURED RUMINANT
Fore stomach is underdeveloped Fore stomach is fully developed
Only the abomasum is functional All the four stomach functions
Oesophageal groove is present Oesophageal groove is absent

2. Components of feeds
Animals require all the essential nutrients to balance their daily ration. These nutrients become
indispensable for life. All the major nutrients includes; WATER, CARBOHYDRATES, PROTEIN,
LIPIDS, MINERALS AND VITAMIN.
These nutrients are needed for many purpose which includes:
Regular function of the animal’s system
Protection of body system
For growth
For production
For reproduction
To perform work
1. WATER
Made up of 2 hydrogen atom and 1 oxygen atom (H2O)
Water is the cheapest nutrients.
It is a basic unit for all fluid in the animal’s body
Animals can survive for long without food, but only few days without water
evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168
Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 16 Learning Material

SOURCE OF WATER (WAYS IN WHICH ANIMAL OBTAINS WATER)

Drinking water
Water from the feed it eats
Metabolic water (water produced by chemical reactions in the animal’s body)
IMPORTANCE OF WATER IN ANIMALS
Regulates body temperature (act as a cooling agent)
Medium for chemical reaction
Act as a transport medium/ transport nutrients
Act as a lubricant
Act as a solvent
Protect sensitive tissues in the body
WATER USAGE AND FEED INTAKE IN RELATION TO TEMPERATURE AND OTHER
FACTORS

 ON A COLD DAY (low temperatures)

Animal drink LESS and eat MORE feed
REASON: energy released from feed is used to keep the animal warm

 ON HOT DAY (high temperatures)

Animal drink MORE water and eat less feed
REASON: large amount of water help the animal to cool down
2. CARBOHYDRATES
It is created by PLANTS through photosynthesis
It is an ORGANIC COMPOUND
It includes:
SIMPLE CARBOHYDRATES: GLUCOSE
COMPLEX CABOHYDRATE: STARCH
INSOLUBLE CARBOHYDRATES: CELLULOSE and LIGNIN
Made of element carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
Has HIGH CRUDE FIBRE CONTENT
FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 17 Learning Material

Needed for fattening of farm animals

Provide bulkiness of ration
Important source of energy
BUILDING BLOCK OF CARBOHYDRATES
Glucose
EXAMPLES OF CARBOHYDRATE RICH FEEDS
Maize
Wheat
Sorghum
Oat
3. PROTEIN
It is the most expensive feed
It is an ORGANIC COMPOUND
It is divided into :
CRUDE PROTEIN- all proteins found in feed
DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN- amount of protein that was not excreted in faeces but to be used by the
animal
Made up of element carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur
Has low crude fibre content
FUNCTION OF PROTEIN
Needed for growth
Needed for reproduction
Needed for production (meat, eggs and milk)
Repair worn out tissues
BUILDING BLOCK OF PROTEIN
Amino acid
EXAMPLES OF PROTEIN RICH FEED
Soya bean
Fish

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 18 Learning Material

Bone meal
Sunflower oil cake
Peanut oil cake
Lucerne
PROTEIN SUPPLIMENT
Proteins can be supplemented by SOURCE OF NPN;
UREA- cheap source
BUIRET- expensive feed
4. FATS AND OIL (LIPIDS)
It is an ORGANIC COMPOUND
Differences between FATS and OIL
FATS – Originates from animals
- Solid at room temperature
OIL – originate from plants
-liquid at room temperature
FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS
Protects important organs (such as heart, liver, and lungs)
Act as a shock absorber
Act as an insulation material
BUILDING BLOCK OF LIPIDS
Fatty acids and glycerol
5. VITAMINS
EXAMPLES OF VITAMINS AND THE RESPECTIVE DEFICIENCY DISEASE
DEFICIENCY
Example of fat soluble vitamin
Vitamin A
Night blindness
Keratomalaise
Poor vision

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 19 Learning Material

Vitamin D (needed for absorption of calcium and phosphorus)

Oestomalacia
Rickets
Vitamin E (act as antioxidant)
Stiff lamb disease
Vitamin K
Poor blood clotting
Example of water soluble vitamin
Vitamin B1
Polyneuritis
Vitamin B2
Curled-toe paralysis
Vitamin B12 (it contain element cobalt)
Poor hatching of chicken
Wasting disease
6. MINERALS
This are inorganic substances that are required for normal body functioning
They are divided into:
MARCRO MINERAL – are minerals that are needed in large quantities
MICRO MINERAL - are minerals that are needed in small quantities
They can cause metabolic disease when they insufficient
Mineral Deficiency

Calcium Rickets and Oestomalacia

Pica (animal feed on non-feeding object)

Phosphorus

Iodine Goitre (enlargement of thyroid

gland)
Anaemia (low haemoglobin in blood)
Iron

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 20 Learning Material

Parakeratosis ( rough skin in pigs)

Zinc
Keratinization (hairlessness)

Copper Swayback

Cobalt Wasting disease

3. DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDS
DIGESTIBILITY -Amount of feed that is not excreted in faeces but restored in the animal’s body
DIGESTIBILITY COEFFECIENT- proportion of a nutrient taken absorbed by animal expressed in
percentage

FACTORS DERTEMINING DIGESTIBILITY OF FEED

TYPE OF ANIMAL
Feed with high crude fibre are mostly digested by ruminants than by non-ruminants
AGE OF PLANT
Hay made from younger plants are more digestible than hay made from older plants (older plants has
lignin that is not easily digested)
INDIVIDUALITY
Individual animals differ based on their ability to digest feed
COMPOSITION OF FEED
High percentage of crude fibre in a feed results in lower digestibility
NUTRITIVE RATIO
Feed with wide nutritive ratio are less digestible than feed with narrow nutritive ratio
WAYS TO IMPROVE / INCREASE DIGESGTIBILITY OF FEEDS
GRINDING
SOAKING
ROASTING
BOILING
PELLETING
evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168
Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 21 Learning Material

ADD MOLASSES (to increase palatability and digestibility of a carbohydrate)

DIGESTIBILITY COEFFECIENT
Let’s assume that 70kg of feed was taken in and only 30kg was excreted, one must assume that 40kg was
digested and absorbed in the body of animal.
(70kg – 30kg = 40kg) This means that 40kg of the 70kg is absorbed by the animal
Example: calculate the digestibility coefficient of the following ration of a matured animal
Animal ingested 25kg of grass with the moisture content of 75%. 8kg of feed was excreted in faeces with
a moisture content of 80%
75
𝐦𝐨𝐢𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐤𝐞: × 25Kg
100

=18,75kg
Therefore: 25kg – 18.75kg
=6.25kg (dry matter intake)
80
Moisture excreted:100 × 8𝑘𝑔

=6.4kg
∴ 8kg – 6.4kg
=1.6kg (dry matter excreted)
DIGESTIBILITY COEEFFECIENT % =DM intake (kg) – DM excreted (kg) x100
DM intake (kg)
= 6.25kg ˗˗ 1.6kg x100
6. 25kg
= 74.4%
IMPLICATION OF THE CO-EFFICIENT ABOVE
74.4% of the feed is absorbed in the body of the animal, hence 25.6% is excreted in faeces
Note the interpretation of digestibility co-efficient
: Above 70% - very high (good digestibility)
: 60-70% - high (moderate digestibility)
: 40-59% - low digestibility
: Less than 40% - very low digestibility

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 22 Learning Material

4. QUALITY OF FEED
Different feeds has various physical chemical characteristics that determine its quality
BIOLOGICAL VALUE (BV) OF PROTEIN
Is the index used to measure the quality of protein in a feed
It is determined by;
 Amino acid composition
 Ratio of amino acid
 Amount of nitrogen supplied
Note: FEED WITH HIGH AMINO ACID CONTENT IS A GOOD QUALITY FEED AND HAS
HIGH BIOLOGICAL VALUE
ESSENTIAL AMINO ACID AND NON ESSENTIAL AMINO ACID
ESSENTIAL AMINO ACID- Amino acid cannot be synthesized and need to be taken in feed
NON-ESSENTIAL AMINO ACID – Amino acid that can be synthesized by animal’s body
TYPE OF FEED BV %
EGG PROTEIN 1OO
MILK PROTEIN 95
FISH MEAL 90
WHEAT 75
MAIZE 60
5. ENERGY VALUE OF FEED
Energy in animals is provided by feed taken in and expressed in kilojoules
TYPES OF ENERGY VALUE OF FEEDS
GROSS ENEGY (GE) - is the potential energy (total energy value of feed)
- is the energy released when feed is completely burnt (Combustion) to its final product
DIGESTIBLE ENERGY (DE) – is gross energy minus energy lost in manure (faeces)
METABOLIC ENERGY (ME) – is gross energy minus energy lost in manure, urine and gases
(methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (co2)
NET ENERGY- is the gross energy minus energy lost in manure, urine gases and body heat

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 23 Learning Material

Illustration showing energy flow in animals

IMPORTANCE OF NET ENERGY

 Needed for production 

 Needed for maintance 
 Needed for growth
REASON FOR CALCULATING ENERGY VALUE OF FEED
To determine animals diet
To determine feeding standards
To determine ration formulation

6. NUTRITIVE RATIO
Is the measure of protein content in a feed
EXAMPLE OF NUTRITIVE RATIO
A feed has 75% TDN (TOTAL DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS) AND 25% DP (DIGESTIBLE
PROTEIN). Calculate the nutritive ratio of this feed.

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 24 Learning Material

NR=1: TDN – DP
DP
=1: 75% ˗ 25%
25%
= 1: 50
25
= 1:2 (narrow)
Meaning for every 1 part of digestible protein there’s 2 parts of other nutrients
ANALYSIS OF NUTRITIVE RATIO

• RATIO ABOVE 1:6

It’s a WIDE RATIO
Has LESS PROTEIN and MORE CRBOHYDRATES
NOT SUITABLE for growth and production but SUITABLE for fattening and maintenance

• RATIO BELOW 1:6

It’s a NARROW RATIO
Has MORE PROTEIN and LESS CARBOHYDRATES
MOST SUITABLE for growth and production but NOT SUITABLE for fattening and maintenance

7. TYPES OF FEEDS
CONCENTRATE – feed with small volume per unit mass (not bulky)
ROUGHAGE – feed with large volume per unit mass (bulky)
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ROUGHAGE AND CONCENTRATE
ROUGHAGE (HAY) CONCENTRATE (MEAL)
%TDN: Low (not easily digestible) %TDN: High (easily digestib
%Crude fibre: high %Crude fibre: low
%crude protein: low %crude protein: high

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
 Agricultural sciences 25 Learning Material

Cost: cheap Cost: expensive

Animal utilised: ruminants only Animal utilized: both ruminants and non-ruminants
Bulkiness: it is bulk Bulkiness: less bulk

TYPES AND EXAMPLES OF CONCENTRATES

CONCENTRATES

PROTEIN RICH CONCENTRATE

CARBOHYDRATES RICH
Plant origin
CONCENTRATES
Lucerne, sunflower-oil-cake meal, groundnut
Maize meal, oatmeal, sorghum meal
oil cake meal, peanut oilcake meal

Animal origin

Fish meal, blood meal, meat meal

TYPES AND EXAMPLES OF ROUGHAGE

ROUGHAGE

DRY ROUGHAGE SUCCULENT ROUGHAGE

Protein-rich Silage

Lucerne hay, groundnut hay

Carbohydrates-rich

Oat straws, maize stalks

8. SUPPLIMENTING RATION
This is additional feed given to animal to stimulate growth and production

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 26 Learning Material

WAYS TO SUPPLIMENT MINERALS

 MINERAL LICKS
block containing mineral salts that are placed near drinking water
It is used to supplement: Urea
: Sodium
: Potassium
 INJECTION
Iron injection in piglets to prevent anaemia
 CAFETIRIA STYLE/ FREE CHOICE/AD LIB
Minerals are supplied to the feeding station that is usually controlled by a computer system
Animal can feed on nutrients as much as the like
 ADD SOIL SOD
To supplement iron to pigs kept in a pen with a concrete floor
 DOSING BY MOUTH
Taking mineral into the mouth of animal
 SUPPLIMENTING RATIONS
Adding mineral with feed
 ADD MINERAL IN DRINKING WATER
Mineral salts are dissolved in drinking water
WAYS TO SUPPLEMENT VITAMIN
 Mix vitamin with feed
 Free choice/ cafeteria style
 Mix vitamin A with water
 Injection
 Dosing
PROTEIN SUPPLEMENT
Protein can be supplemented by adding NON-PROTEIN NITROGEN (NPN) SOURCES;
UREA
Cheap source of NPN
Can be utilized by ruminants to make protein
It is poisonous when taken in large quantities
evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168
Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 27 Learning Material

Can dissolve in water when there is rain and become poisonous to animals drinking this water
BIURET
Expensive source of NPN
It is less soluble and safer to use
It cannot dissolve in water

9. GROWTH STIMULANTS
This are substances that are used to influence growth rate
TYPE OF GROWTH STIMULANTS
TRANQUILISER/ SEDATIVE – Keep animal calm and eat more feed
ANTIBIOTICS –Prevent disease that can affect growth rate in animals
THYROID REGULATOR – It stimulates animal’s metabolism and growth rate
HORMONES – growth hormone in pellets are planted under the skin of animal to stimulate growth

10. PLANNING FODDER FLOW PROGRAMME

It is a strategic plan used by farmer to ensure that enough feed is available over a given period of time

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN PLANNING A FODDER FLOW

Resources available (e.g. pasture or supplement)
Animal requirements
Cost of feed
Season
evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168
Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 28 Learning Material

COST EFFECTIVE WAYS OF USING THE AVAILABLE FEED

Storage
Making hay
Cutting
Reduce number of animal
TYPES OF RATION
MAINTANANCE RATION – amount of feed given to animal doing no work producing no product
PRODUCTION RATION – it’s over and above maintenance given to animal doing work and
producing products

11. THE PEARSON SQUARE METHOD

Is a tool for balancing nutritional value of a feed mixture
EXAMPLE OF PEARSON SQUARE
A balanced ration of maize with 10%DP and soya meal with 42%DP was prepared for dairy cattle to meet
the nutritional requirement of 16%DP
Maize10 26 parts of maize

Soya meal 42 6 parts of soya meal

26:6/ 6:26
CALCULATING PERCENTAGES OF FEED MIXTURES ON A PEARSON SQUARE
26 + 6 =32(make this your denominator)
26
% of maize=32 × 100

=81.25%
6
% of soya meal= × 100
32

=18.75%

YOU’RE NOW READY TO GRAB THE FIRST 50 MARKS OF YOUR PAPER 1

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 29 Learning Material

NOTES

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 30 Learning Material

TOPIC 2
QUESTION 3

ANIMAL PRODUCTION PAPER 1

 To increase production of animal farmers should plan on which production system to be

used according to the aim and economic standard of an individual farmer
1. ANIMAL PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
Animal production system are divided into:
Intensive production system
This It is a production system that is characterized by high inputs of capital, labour and usage of
technology
Animals are kept on high densities and are fed with special formulated feed
Animals are controlled and closely supervised
Has more environmental effects as animal produce lot of waste
Extensive production system
This is a production system that uses few inputs of capital, less labour and less use of technology
There is less human interference since animal are kept on a natural pasture
It has less environmental effects as it use vegetation sustainably
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE PRODUCTION SYSTEM

INTENSIVE PRODUCTION EXTENSIVE PRODUCTION

GOAL Making profit Minimizing risk
PRODUCTION OUT-PUT High production out-put Low production out-put
CAPITAL INVESTMENT High capital investment Low capital investment
LABOUR More labourers Less labourers
AREA OF LAND Occupies small area Occupies large area
MANAGEMENT Animal are carefully managed Animals are less managed
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS More environmental effects Less environmental effects
FEEDING Animal kept in feedlot, broiler Animals kept in the veld to
unit, layer units, furrowing pen graze on natural pasture
and are fed with special
formulated feeds

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 31 Learning Material

FACTORS DETERMINING PRODUCTION UNDER INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE

PRODUCTION
UNDER INTENSIVE PRODUCTION SYSTEM
Feeding – farmer need to produce or buy feed for the animal (specifically feed suitable for growth and
production)
Environment – shelter should be provided to control environmental conditions (installation of heaters
and fans)
Breeding – the farmer select animal with desired characteristics (such as those that are adapted to
produce high quality products, resistant to disease and pests) to be used for breeding purpose
UNDER EXTENSIVE PRODUCTION SYSTEM
Feeding – farmer optimise the use of natural pasture for nutrition
Environment – they don’t have artificial shelter, they rely on trees or other natural structures for
protection against environmental conditions
Breeding - nature select animals with desired characteristics that are adapted to the environment to
survive
2. FARMING SYSTEMS
Farming system are divided into:
Small-scale (subsistence) farming system
. Farmer grows crops and keeps livestock to feed their families rather than to sell
.It is practiced intensively in rural areas of South Africa
.Less use of technology
.They have small plot “small-scale”
Large-scale (commercial) farming system
.Farmer grows crops and keeps livestock to sell at the market to make profit.
.Modern technology is used
.Contribute to environmental pollution
.They have large plots “large-scale

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 32 Learning Material

3. ANIMAL SHELTER, HOUSING AND PROTECTION

REASON FOR PTOVING SHELTER TO ANIMALS
Shelter provide protection of animals against:
Protect against extreme heat
protect against extreme cold
protect against wetting by rain
protect against theft
protect against predation
DIFFERENT STRUCTURES USED FOR SHELTER
Feedlot- restricted area where large animals are kept for maximum production of meat

Battery system- restricted area where chickens are kept for maximum production of eggs
 Chickens that produced eggs are called layers

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 33 Learning Material

Broiler unit – restricted area where chickens are kept for maximum production of meat
 Chickens that produce meat are called broilers

Backyard system- is the system of keeping animal in a a small home-based enclosure

Free range system- animals are allowed to roam around during the day and they kept in shelter during
the night

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 34 Learning Material

BASIC LAYOUT OF HOUSE FOR ANIMALS (chickens)

Built on slight slope
 For water run off
Dry bedding (use straws, sawdust or wood shaving)
 Protect animals against cold
Cemented floor
 Easy to clean (prevent parasite infestation)
 Avoid mud when wet
Long building side face east
 Warm in winter and cool in summer
Sufficient light
 For animal to utilize feed even at night

4. BEHAVIOUR AND HANDLING OF FARM ANIMALS

ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR
This is the way in which animals interact and reacts with human, other animals and the environment
FACTOR DERTEMINING BAHAVIOURS OF ANIMALS
Tameness
Type of breed
Age
Physiological state
Health status
Flight zone
THE FLIGHT ZONE
Is the distance that the animal likes to keep between themselves and threat of danger

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 35 Learning Material

A= HANDLERS POSITION
 Handler should be outside the edge of flight zone.
 In this position the handler is not a threat to the animal
 Handler initiate movement
B= FLIGHT ZONE
 The distance the animal keep between themselves and threat to danger
C= BLIND SPOT
 Area in which animal will kick when approached
D= BALANCE POINT
COMMON BEHAVIOURS OF DIFFERENT FARM ANIMALS
COMMON NORMAL BEHAVIOUR OF CATTLE (large animal)
GRAZZING: they divide a day into periods of GRAZZING, REGURGITATION AND REST
SIGHT: position of eye give them a wide angle view (without turning their heads)
HEARING: They have strong sense of hearing (can be stressed when exposed to too much noise)
SOCIAL INSITINCTS: they have herd instinct (can be agitated and stressed when isolated)
: They may refuse to cross a shadow (due to poor depth perception)
ABNORMAL BEHAVIOUR OF LARGE CATTLE UNDER DISTRESS
o PAWING ( scrapping soil with hooves)
o RAPID TAIL MOVEMENT
o RAISED BACK FUR

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 36 Learning Material

o SNORTING (making sudden explosive sound through the nose)

COMMON NORMAL BEHAVIOUR OF SMALL ANIMALS:
SHEEP AND GOATS
They have a flock instinct
They urinates and defecates when disturbed
They have strong eye sight
They have very strong fear response
PIGS
It is the cleanest and most ordered farm animal
They reserve a place for urination and defecation and a dry place for sleeping (they don’t defecate
where they sleep)
ABORMAL BEHAVIOR OF PIG UNDER DISTRESS
o TAIL BITING
o EAR BITING
o CANNIBALISM (kill and eat other pigs in the pen)
o BELLY NIBBLING (taking small bite of the belly quickly and repeatedly)
ANIMAL HANDLING
It is when you touch, hold or move animal one place to another
REASON FOR HANDLING FARM ANIMALS
When administering medication to animals
• When doing management practice (dehorning, castration and docking, branding,AI)
• When milking
• When transporting animals
• When generating data (body weight, temperature)
pregnancy testing
• When slaughtering
TOOL, TECHNIQUES AND EQUIPMENTS USED FOR HANDLING OF FARM ANIMALS
WHEN HANDLING A CATTLE:
HALTER

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 37 Learning Material

USE OF HALTER
 restrain animal by its head usually when milking
CRUSH

USE OF CRUSH
 restrain large animals
DESIGN FEATURES OF A CRUSH
 High and strong solid sides
 Wide and straight to provide clear path
 No sharp pointing objects
LOADING RAMP

USES OF RAMP
 To load and unload animals
DESIGN FEATURE OF A LOADING RAMP
 Should not be slippery
 Should not be too steep
 Should not ne too high

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 38 Learning Material

SPOTLIGHT
STRONG ROPE
ELECTRIC FENCE
WHIP
GUIDING DOGS
RED FLAG
USE OF RED FLAG
 used when animals are crossing busy roads
WHISTLE
WHEN HANDLING A PIG
 PLYWOOD BOARD
 PLASTIC SHAKERS
 BOX
 CRUSH
GUIDELINE WHEN HANDLING FARM ANIMALS
Use correct handling equipment
Use correct handling facility
Handler should be skilled
Walk calmly and quiet
Beware of flight zone
Avoid chasing and grabbing
Never approach animal from the back (blind spot)
Do not mix animal in one crush
GUIDELINE WHEN TRANSPORTING AND MOVING ANIMALS
Keep animal together for few days before transporting
Dehorn animal before transporting
Do not mix animal
Permit should be completed
Animals should be transported when roads are not too busy
Truck floor must not be slippery

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 39 Learning Material

Truck must be ventilated

Do not load animal too long before departure
INCORRECT HANDLING METHODS OF FARM ANIMALS
Throwing objects to animals
Handling chicken with feathers (should be handled with feet or wings)
Handling sheep with wool (should be handled with hind legs)
Kicking and beating animal
You are now ready to tackle your question 3 of your paper one. But only one topic pending (animal
disease and animal pests) to complete your entire question 3 of paper 1
Notes

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 40 Learning Material

ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
 For farm animal to thrive, they must be able to reproduce
 Proper functioning of male and female reproductive system is the key to successful production of
offspring

1. MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

A= seminal vesicle. B= Prostate gland. C = Cowper’s gland. D= Sperm duct. E=Urethra. F=

Penis. G= Epididymis. H= Testis. I= Scrotum.

FUCTIONING OF MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

SCROTUM
 Holds and protect the testis
 Regulates temperature for normal sperm production
TESTES
 Produce sperm (male gamete)
 Produce testosterone (male hormone)
 TESTOSTERONE
Stimulate production of sperm
Development of male characteristics
EPIDIDYMIS
 Stores , matures and transport sperm
SPERM DUCT
 Transport sperm to the urethra

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 41 Learning Material

URETHRA
 Transport both urine and semen to the outside
PENIS
 Deposit semen to the female’s body during mating
MALE ACCESSORY GLAND
 SEMINAL VESICLE
Is the largest sex gland
Secretes sticky fluid that that provide energy for sperm
 PROSTATE GLAND
Forms a ring around the urethra
Secrete a milky, alkaline fluid that regulates ph.
 COWPER’S GLAND
Secrete fluid that lubricate and clean the urethra

ADAPTATION OF MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

ADAPTATION OF THE TESTES: contain specialized cells;

 SERTOLI CELLS- supply sperm with nutrients
 LAYDIG CELLS- produce hormone testosterone
 EPITHELIAL CELLS- produce sperm

PROCCESS OCCURING IN MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

SCROTUM
Process: Temperature regulation
TESTES
Process: Meiosis (cell division)
: Spermatogenesis (sperm formation)
EPIDIDYMIS
Process: Sperm maturation
SPERM DUCT
Process: Ejaculation
PENIS
Process: Copulation

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 42 Learning Material

SPERMATOGENESIS

Is the process that involve the formation sperm

PROCESS OF SPERMATOGENESIS

1. SPERMATOGONIUM (the undifferentiated male germinal epithelial cell) found in the wall of the
seminiferous tubule divides by MITOSIS to form a primary spermatocytes that are diploid (2n)
2. PRIMARY SPERMATOCYTE divides by MEIOSIS 1 to form secondary spermatocytes
3. SECONDARY SPERMATOCYTE divides by MEIOSIS 2 to form haploid spermatid
4. SPERMATID undergo differentiation (change) and develop into a MATURE SPERM
STAGES OF SPERMATOGENESIS
1. Formation of primary spermatocyte
2. Formation of secondary spermatocyte
3. Formation of spermatid
4. Formation of spermatozoa

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONING OF SPERM CELL

ACROSOME- contain enzyme that digest the outer membrane the egg during fertilization
NUCLEOUS- contain genetic material

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 43 Learning Material

CENTRIOLES- help with cell division

MITOCHONDRIA –supply energy
TAIL – enable sperm to move (propels the sperm forward)
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SPERM CELL AND SEMEN
SPERM CELL- is a male gamete
SEMEN- is a fluid containing sperm

ABNORMALITIES IN THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

 These abnormalities may cause the inability of a bull to serve and fertilize a cow.
 Abnormalities can be either permanent or temporal
STERILITY AND INFERTILITY
STERILITY
 Is a permanent inability to reproduce
 Is a total loss of fertility
Caused by congenital defect (defects that are present from birth)

FACTORS CAUSING STERILITY

HYPOPLASIA –underdevelopment of one or both testes

CRYPTORCHIDISM – failure of one or both testes to descend from abdominal cavity
HERMAPHRODISM – animal having both male and female reproductive system
AZOSPERMIA – absence of sperm in semen
AGE- older animals permanently lose their libido
Castration
INFERTILITY
 Temporal inability to reproduce
 Fertility is not totally lost
 It can be corrected and reclaim the animal’s ability to reproduce

FACTORS CAUSING INFERTILIY

Obesity
IMPORTANCE – inability to copulate
Injuries
Experience

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 44 Learning Material

Lack of libido
Climate
Malnutrition
2. FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

A= Ovary. B= Oviduct. C= Uterus. D= Cervix. E= Vagina. F= Clitoris. G= Vulva

FUCNTIONING OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

OVARIES
Function: Produce female gamete (ovum)
: Produce female hormone (Oestrogen & Progesterone)
 OESTROGEN
Function: Stimulate oestrus
: Stimulate the thickening of endometrium
: Development of female characteristics
 PROGESTERONE
Function: Maintain pregnancy
: Prepare the wall of uterus for implantation

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 45 Learning Material

INFUNDIBULUM
Function: Catch the egg during ovulation
OVIDUCT
Function: Transport fertilized egg to the uterus
UTERUS
Function: Implantation of fertilized egg
CERVIX
Function: Secretes mucous that prevent bacterial infection
: Secretes fluid that neutralize the acidity of the vagina
VAGINA
Function: Receives semen during copulation
: Serves as a birth canal

PROCESS OCCURING IN THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

OVARIES
Process: Oogenesis (formation of egg)
: Meiosis (cell division)
OVIDUCT
Process: Fertilization (site of fertilization)
UTERUS
Process: Implantation
VAGINA
Process: Copulation

ABNORMALITIES IN THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

STERILITY AND INFERTILITY

STERILITY
Permanent inability to conceive
It is caused by congenital defect and genetic defects

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 46 Learning Material

FACTORS CAUSING STERILITY IN COWS

HYPOPLASIA – underdevelopment of one or both ovaries

FREEMARTINISM
HERMAPHRODISM –having both male and female reproductive organs
DOUBLE CERVIX
ABNORMAL HYMEN
INFERTILITY
Temporal inability to conceive
It can be corrected and reclaim the reproduction of animal

FACTORS CAUSING INFERTILITY IN COWS

MALNUTRITION
ANOESTRUS – animal showing no signs of oestrus
NYMPHOMANIA – cow is permanently on oestrus
REPEAT BREEDING SYNDROM – failure of animal to conceive after several attempts of mating
DISEASE- such as infection of the uterus (Metritis)
EXPERIENCE
3. OESTRUS AND OESTRUS CYCLE
Is the hormonal controlled cycle of activities taking place in the female reproductive system over 21 days
Can be disturbed by PREGNANCY, DISEASE & CLIMATE

FEMALE HORMONES THAT CONTROL THEN OESTRUS CYCLE

GONADOTROP IC RELEASING HORMONE(GnRH)

 Secreted by hypothalamus in the brain
Function: Stimulate release of FSH & LH
FSH

 Secreted by hypophysis in the brain

Function: Stimulates development of follicle of the ovaries
OESTROGEN

 Produced by the follicle of the ovary

Function: Stimulates oestrus
evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168
Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 47 Learning Material

: Stimulate development of female characteristics

: stimulate development of endometrium
LH
 Secreted by the hypophysis in the brain
Function: stimulate ovulation (cause developed follicle to burst and egg is released)
: stimulate formation of corpus luteum
PROGESTERONE

 Secreted by the corpus luteum of the ovary

Function: maintain pregnancy

STAGES OF OESTRUS CYCLE IN COWS

1. PRO-OESTRUS
Last 2-3 days
First stage in the cycle
FSH level start increasing
Follicle start growing and developing
Oestrogen level start increasing
2. 0ESTRUS
Is the stage in the oestrus cycle where female is receptive to male and allow mating
Last 12- 18 hours (18 hours is the average length)
Shortest stage in the cycle
Oestrogen level reach peak (high)
Animal start showing signs of oestrus

SIGNS OF OESTRUS (HEAT) IN COWS

Red swollen vulva

Restlessness
Mount other cows and allow them to mount her
Mucous discharge appear on the vulva

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 48 Learning Material

ALTERNATIVE METHODS OF DETECTING AN ANIMAL ON OESTRUS (HEAT)

CHIN-BALL MARKER- is a device strapped on the chin of animal expected to mount a cow on heat.
The ink of the marker will leave a streak on the back of the cow that was mounted or attempted to be
mounted
TAIL –CHALKING- the chalk is rubbed on the back within the tail of the cow to be detected.
PEDOMETER- is a device that is strapped around the lower leg of a cow to detect movement
HEATMOUNT DETECTOR- is a device glued at the back of the cow suspected to be on heat.
Pressure from the chest of mounting animal will turn the originally white detector to be red
3. MET-OESTRUS
Last 3-4 days
LH level increases
Ovulation take place (bursting of the follicle and the release of egg)
Corpus luteum start developing
Progesterone level starts increasing
4. DI-OESTRUS
Last 12-16 days
Longest stage in the cycle
 IF FERTILISATION TOOK PLACE (animal is pregnant)
Corpus luteum is fully developed
Progesterone level reach peak
 IF FERTILISATION DID NOT TAKE PLACE (animal is not pregnant)
Corpus luteum regress (degenerates)
Progesterone level decrease

GRAPH SHOWING OESTRUS CYCLE

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 49 Learning Material

Graph represents: A- OESTROGEN

: B- PROGESTERON
: C- OVULATION

SYNCHRONISATION OF OESTRUS

Is the process involving making group of animals to come to oestrus approximately at the same time

HORMONES USED DURING SYNCHRONISATION

MGA- it is mixed with feed

PROGESTERONE INJECTION
PROSTAGLANDIN INJECTION
OESTROGEN INJECTION
GONADOTROPIN RELEASING HORMONE INJECTCTION

5. MATING
Mating is divided into: natural mating and artificial mating

NATURAL MATING

Stages of natural mating

Courtship
Mounting
Copulation
Ejaculation
Dismounting

Factors regulating mating behavior

Experience
Environment
Genetics

ARTIFICIAL MATING

Divided into:
 Artificial insemination
 Embryo transfer

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 50 Learning Material

 Cloning
ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION (AI)
Is a technique where semen is collected from a male animal and deposited into the uterus of a female
animal for fertilization

 REQUIREMENTS FOR ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION

Animal must be on oestrus

Inseminator must be skilled
Equipment must be clean

 COLLECTION OF SEMEN

Method of collection includes:

ARTIFICIAL VAGINA
ELECTRO-EJACULATOR- involve application of a series of short, low voltage pulse of currents
into the rectum and results in ejaculatory response

 SEMEN DILUTION (treatment)

Semen is diluted using:

SKIMMED MILK – control Ph.
EGG YOLK- protect semen from change in temperature
GLYCEROL- prevent semen from freezing
ANTIBIOTICS- prevent bacterial infection

 SEMEN EVALUATION

MACRO SCOPIC EVALUATION (with naked eyes)

Characteristics of semen seen with naked eye;
Colour
RED- represents fresh blood
BROWN- represents infection
GREY- represents old blood
Density
Ph. (6, 9)
Volume

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 51 Learning Material

MICROSCOPIC EVALUATION (with a microscope)

Characteristics of semen seen under a microscope;
Sperm mobility (movement)
Sperm abnormalities
Percentage of living sperm cell

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD QUALITY SEMEN

Its opaque or milky

it should be sticky
Have more than 80% living sperm cell (sperm count)
Have less that 20% dead or having abnormalities (sperm count)
Have no infections

CHARACTERISTICS OF POOR QUALITY SEMEN

Reddish indicates presence of blood

Brown indicates infection
Abnormal sperm count (less than 80% living and more than 20% dead sperm cell)
Abnormal sperm movement
Abnormal sperm structure (morphology)

SEMEN STORAGE AND THAWING

Semen is stored in straws

 FOR LONG PERIOD : -196°C on a liquid nitrogen
Thawing of semen:
 Place straws in 37°C water for 30-40 sec

TIMING OF INSEMINATION

If the animal shows signs of oestrus in the morning it should be inseminated in the afternoon. If it
shows signs of oestrus in the afternoon should be inseminated next morning
Should be inseminated 12 hours after the visible signs of oestrus

ADVANTAGES OF AI

Less spread of infection

Semen from one bull can inseminate many cows
evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168
Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 52 Learning Material

Semen can still be used after the death of the male animal
Semen from bulls from overseas can be used

DISADVANYAGES OF AI

It is expensive
Disease can spread rapidly
Cow maybe injured if the inseminator is not skilled
Time consuming
EMBRYO TRANSFER
Is the transfer of fertilized egg (embryo) from the DONOR to the RECIEPIENT
The DONOR has superior characteristics
The RECIEPIENT has genetically inferior characteristics

STEPS OF EMBRYO TRANSFER

1. Synchronization of donor and recipient

2. Superovulation of donor
3. AI of donor
4. Embryo flushing from the donor
5. ET to the recipient

ADVANTAGES OF EMBRYO TRANSFER

Large number of offspring can be produced within a short space of time

Prevent extinction of endangered species
Genetics are conserved

DISADVANTAGES OF EMBRYO TRANSFER

It is expensive
Skills is required
Higher chances that recipient abort the calf
CLONNING
Is the breeding of animal to produce offspring that is genetically identical to the original organism
STEPS OF THE CLONNING PROCESS
Nucleus from Somatic cell (2n) is collected from the animal to be cloned (donor)
evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168
Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 53 Learning Material

Egg cell (n) is collected from the animal to be cloned

Nucleus is removed from the egg cell (enucleation)
Nucleus from the somatic cell (2n) is fused with the enucleated egg cell
Electrical shock stimulates cell division
Egg cell divides to form an embryo
Embryo is placed in the uterus of a surrogate
And a clone is born
TYPES OF CLONNING
REPRODUCTIVE CLONNING
Result in the formation of a whole organism
The cloned embryo is placed in the uterus of a female animal

THERAPEUTIC CLONNING
Used in production of organs, cells and tissues
It aim on finding cure for disease (intention is not to create an offspring) through the use of stem cells

AIMS OF CLONNING

To produce large number of genetically identical animal

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168
Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 54 Learning Material

Produce offspring from superior animals

To achieve high quality meat and dairy product zygote
FERTILIZATION
MONOZYGOUS TWINS
Identical twins
They of same sex
Develop from fertilization of single egg
They share same placenta

DIZYGOUS TWINS
Non-identical twins
They are of opposite or same sex
Develop from fertilization of two separate eggs
They share different placenta

FREEMARTINISM
Infertile or sterile female calf that develop in the uterus with the normal male calf

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 55 Learning Material

Male hormone of the developing bull calf affects the female calf.

6. PREGNANCY/ GESTATION
Is the period between fertilization and birth (it starts when the egg is fertilized until the animal give
birth
DURATION: 280 days

STAGES OF PREGNANCY

OVUM PERIOD
First stage of pregnancy
During this stage the following occur:
The fertilized egg (zygote) travels along the oviduct to the uterus
Last from fertilization until implantation
Zygote divides by mitosis (this is called CLEAVAGE) to form a blastocyst
Blastocyst attach to the wall of uterus (this is called IMPLANTATION)
EMBRYONIC PERIOD

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 56 Learning Material

Second stage of pregnancy

During this stage the following occur:
Blastocyst divides to from an embryo
Cells differentiates to form tissues, organs and system (e.g. urinary system and digestive system etc.)
Extra-embryonic membrane that covers the embryo develop as follows;
 CHORION
Is the outer membrane
Attached to the uterus
 AMNION
Is the inner membrane
It encloses amniotic fluid
Embryo is connected to the amnion by umbilical cord
 ALLANTOIS
It grows out of the urinary system
It collects urine from the unborn calf
PLACENTA attach the embryo to the wall of uterus
It brings blood of the mother and the embryo in close contact but there is no mixing
It allows exchange of nutrients, gases, and elimination of waste material
In the early embryonic development cells migrate to the interior of the embryo, forming the
three primordial germ layers:

Ectoderm

Is the outer layer

It gives rise to the nervous system and the epidermal skin cells

Mesoderm

Is the middle layer

It gives rise to the skeletal muscles, bone cartilage, joints and urogenital organ

Endoderm

Is the inner layer

It gives rise to the digestive system and other internal organs

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 57 Learning Material

FOETAL PERIOD
Is the third stage of pregnancy
During stage the following occur;
The organs of the embryo grows and develop
Embryo develops into a foetus
Foetus increase in volume and mass
Foetus grows and show characteristic of normal mammal
7. ABORTION
Is the termination of pregnancy before normal parturition
CAUSES OF ABORTION
Hormonal disturbance
Stress and injuries
Poison
Allergies
Multiple birth (twinning)

OTHER FACTORS THAT MAY CAUSE FOETUS TO DIE:

MUMMIFICATION- foetus dies after the skin and skeleton have already been formed i.e.
amniotic fluid and placenta dries out
RESPORPTION- termination of pregnancy without signs of loss of foetus loss i.e. foetus is
attached to the uterus
MACERATION – is the decaying of soft tissue leaving behind only bones (may lead to bacterial
infection)
HYDRO-FOETUS- excessive amniotic fluid collets in the chorion and under the skin and
between muscles of the foetu
8. PARTURITION (BIRTH)
Is the normal separation of offspring from the body of the mother

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 58 Learning Material

SIGNS OF PARTURITION (signs of a cow about to give birth)

Isolates herself
Urinates and defecates often
Loss of appetite
Drop in milk production
Vulva enlarges and become soft

STAGES OF PARTURITION

 PREPARATORY STAGE
First stage of parturition
Foetus moves to the normal birth position
Vagina and cervix enlarges
Membrane covering the foetus breaks and amniotic fluid flows
 EJECTION STAGE
Second stage of parturition
Head and front legs of the foetus appear on the vulva
Female lies on the ground and foetus move out the body of the female
Second stage of parturition
Head and front legs of the foetus appear on the vulva
Female lies on the ground and foetus move out the body of the female
 EXPLUSION OF PLACENTA
Is the third stage of parturition
After 30 min of birth the placenta or the after birth is expelled
Note: With after birth we mean the umbilical cord and foetal membranes.
: There are some case in which the placenta or after birth is retained in the body of the female

FACTORS CAUSING RETENTION OF PLACENTA

Vitamin A deficiency
Mineral deficiency
Premature birth
Abortion
evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168
Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 59 Learning Material

Disease
9. DYSTOCIA
Is the difficulty of giving birth

Under normal circumstance the young animal is born head and forelegs first, with the head lying on the
forelegs

CAUSES OF DYSTOCIA

Deviation of the head – head is displayed sideways, upwards or downwards

Retention of both forelegs- forelegs are trapped inside only head appears on the vulva
Hydrocephalus –when there is accumulation of fluid in the brain which cause the skull to be large
three to four times the normal size
Twins -
Posterior presentation-all the four legs enters the pelvic ring simultaneously
Clone – cloned animals are usually abnormally large
Large foetus
Congenital defect-newly born calf might have crooked legs and wry neck

INDEGENOUS TREATMENT OF DYSTOCIA

Use animal fats

Use soap
Rope

10. LACTATION
Is a milk production process
Duration: 305days after that the milk dries up

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 60 Learning Material

STRUCTURE OF THE UDDER

FUNCTIONING OF THE UDDER

ALVEOLI
 It is where milk is produced or synthesized
MILK ARTERIES
 It pump deoxygenated blood from the udder to the heart and the lungs
MILK VEIN
 Supply the udder with oxygenated blood
LYMPH VESSEL
 Transport waste products away from the udder

HOMORNES INVOLVED IN MILKING REFLEX

PROLACTIN
 Stimulates production of milk
OXYTOCIN
 Stimulates release of milk
ADRENALIN
 Stops milk production


evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 61 Learning Material

MILKING STIMULI

The udder has nerves that respond to stimuli

Example of milk stimuli:
SIGHT OF A CALF
SOUND OF MILKING MACHINE
TOUCHING THE UDDER
SUCKLING CALF

Oxytocin

ALL THIS STIMULI STIMULATE THE BRAIN TO RELEASE HORMONE OXYTOCIN.

COLOSTRUM
Is the first milk produced after calving (usually after 3 day)
It is yellower than normal milk

CHARACTERISITIC OF COLOSTRUM

Contain extra nutrients

 Protein
 Fats
 Lactose
Contain extra minerals
 Calcium
 Phosphorus
Contain antibodies
 Increase resistance to disease

LACTATION CURVES SHOWING BUTTER FAT AND MILK PRODUCTION

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 62 Learning Material

 When milk production increase butterfat content decreases.

 And again when milk production start decreasing butterfat content increase.
 After 3 days the cow will start producing normal milk (no more colostrum)
 Milk production reach peak about 8 weeks and continue until it dries out

LACTATION CURVE SHOWING MILK PRODUCTION IN RELATION TO FEED

INTAKE AND BODY MASS

 When milk production INCREASE the animal eats a LOT but body mass DECREASES.
 When milk production DECREASE animal eat LESS and body mass INCREASES

DRYING-OFF PERIOD
Is the natural end of lactation

REASON FOR DRYING OFF OF COWS

It allow the udder tissue to repair and rejuvenate to prepare for next lactation
To prevent new infections from occurring (since the udder is exposed to new infections at the
beginning and end of dry period

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 63 Learning Material

Notes

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 64 Learning Material

TOPIC 5

ANIMAL DISEASE AND PROTECTION

 The main important task for the farmer is to maintain the health of their animals
 Healthy animal mean increased profit and successful farm business
 It is usually very cheap to control and protect animals from disease than treatment

1. ANIMAL HEALTH

SIGNS OF GOOD HEALTH AND POOR HEALTH IN ANIMALS

Signs of good health Signs of poor health

1. Urine and faeces appear normal 1. Urine may be discoloured and feaces too
soft or too hard
2. Normal milk production 2. Low milk production
3. Animal walk normal 3. Animal walk slow
4. Normal breathing 4. Forced breathing
5. Normal body temperature 5. High body temperature
6. Normal pulse rate 6. Abnormal pulse rate
7. Animal eat well 7. Animal lose appetite

TESTING ANIMAL HEALTH

It is very important to take careful precaution when testing animals, this

precautions includes:

Animal to be tested should be separated from other animals

Large animals should be restrained before being tested
Animals are restrained in different ways depending on TYPE and SIZE animal to be tested

ANIMAL RESTRAINING METHODS

HEAD GATES

 Trap the head of large animals

 Example of animal restrained: bulls
HALTER
 used to lead animal and tie it on a post
 Example of animal restrained: cattle and horse

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 65 Learning Material

NOSE LEAD
 Hold large animals by nose
 Example of animal restrained: bulls
CRUSH
 use to handle large ruminants

ANIMAL TESTING METHODS

TESTING ANIMAL’S BODY TEMPERATURE

 Instrument used : rectal thermometer

 Site of insertion : rectum
 Normal body temperature : 37°c - 40°c
 Precautions : Tie thermometer with a string so that it does not get lost in the body of animal
: Coat thermometer with a sterile jelly to lubricate it
TESTING PULSE RATE
 What is pulse rate?: equal number of heart beats in a minute
 Instrument used : stethoscope
TESTING RESPIRATORY RATE
 What is respiratory rate?: equal number of breaths in a minute
 Determining respiratory rate: watch the rib cage movement and count the number of breaths in
one minute
 Instrument used : stethoscope
TREATMENT OF SICK ANIMAL
If an animal become sick, it must be given be given medication so that it can return to good health

METHOD OF ADMINISTERING MEDICINE

ORAL ADMINISTRATION
Medication is taken directly into the mouth of animal
It includes:

 Pills- use a balling gun (device to place pill in animal’s throat)

 Powder- mix powder with water or feed
 Liquids- use a drenching gun or a syringe to give medicine in a form of liquid to animals

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 66 Learning Material

Balling gun drenching gun dosing syrenge

TOPICAL ADMINISTRATION
Medication is applied directly to the wound or skin
It includes :

 Creams
 Sprays
 Dips

Spray race plunge dipping

INJECTION
Administering medicine using a syringe and a needle

Injection syrange syrange with needle

It includes:

 Intravenous- into the vein (effect is very fast)

Site: on the either side of the neck (above the oesophagus)
 Intramuscular – into the muscle
Site: in the muscle of the hip of thigh
evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168
Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 67 Learning Material

 Subcutaneous – under the skin

Site: behind the shoulder
 Intradermal – between the layers of skin
Site: inner surface of the forearm
 Intramammary injection- into the udder
VAGINAL ADMINISTRATION
Drug for retained placenta or vaginal infection is inserted into the vagina

SUSTAINABLE USE OF MEDICINE

Check expiry date

Storage
Dosage
Method of administration
Medicine registration
2. ANIMAL DISEASE
Most animal disease are caused by small organism called PATHOGEN (Bacteria, virus, fungi and
protozoa)
Different pathogen cause different animal diseases
VIRUS
This pathogen causes viral disease
Most viral disease are highly contagious and zoonotic
Most viral disease are epidemic
Most viral disease are non-curable
Note:
CONTAGEOUS DISEASE- disease that spread through contact
ZOONOTIC DISEASE- disease that can spread from animals to human and vice versa
EPIDERMIC DISEASE- disease that affect large number of animals
NOTIFIABLE DISEASE- disease that need to be reported after seeing symptoms

EXAMPLES OF VIRAL DISEASE

FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE (FMD)

Animal affected: ALL FARM ANIMAL

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 68 Learning Material

Symptoms: SORES IN THE MOUTH, TONGUE AND TOES (HOOVES)

HIGH FEVER
Mode of transmission: INGESTING CONTAMINATED FEED
:CONTACT WITH SECRETIONS AND
: EXCRETIONS FROM INFECTED
ANIMAL
Treatment: VACCINATION
: QUARANTINE INFECTED ANIMALS
: SLAUGHTER AND BURN INFECTED ANIMALS
RABBIES
Animal affected: ALL FARM ANIMALS
Symptoms: HIGH FEVER
: AGGRESSION
: EXCESSIVE SALIVATION
: EXCITEMENT
: PARALYSIS OF HINDQUATERS
Mode of transmission: BITE FROM AN INFECTED ANIMAL
Treatment : VACCINATION
:INFECTED ANIMALS SHOULD BE DISTROYED
AND MEAT BURNT
RIFTY VALLEY FEVER(RVF)
Animal affected: ALL FARM ANIMALS
Symptoms: HIGH FEVER
: ARBOTION
Mode of transmission: BITE FROM AN INSECT (MOSQUITO)
: HANDLING AFFECTED ANIMAL
MEAT OR BLOOD
Treatment: VACCINATION
: SLAUGHTER AND BURN INFECTED ANIMALS
NEW CASTLE DISEASE (NCD)
Animal affected: POULTRY
Symptoms: TWISTED NECKS
: GREEN DIARRHOEA
: RAPID BREATHING

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 69 Learning Material

Mode of transmission: CHICKEN EATING CONTAMINATED

FEED
: DRINKING CONTAMINATED WATER
Treatment: VACCINATION
: QUARANTINE
ALL THE ANIMAL’S FLU
SWINE FLU – affects pigs
AVIAN FLU – affects poultry
Treatment : vaccination and good farm management

BACTERIA
This pathogen causes bacterial disease
Many bacteria are harmless (not deadly)
Bacterial disease can be cured with ANTIBIOTICS
Most bacterial disease are contagious

EXAMPLES OF BACTERIAL DISEASE

MASTITIS
Animal affected: DAIRY CATTLE
Symptoms: SORES IN THE UDDER
: DROP IN MILK PRODUCTION
Treatment: ANTIBIOTICS INSERTED IN THE UDDER
ANTHRAX
Animal infected: ALL FARM ANIMAL
Symptoms: SWELLING OF THE NECK AND BODY
: HIGH FEVER
Treatment: ANTIBIOTICS
TB
Animal affected: ALL FARM ANIMALS AND HUMAN (it is
zoonotic)
Symptoms: CHRONIC COUGHS
: INCREASED RATE OF BREATHING
Treatment: ANTIBIOTICS
evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168
Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 70 Learning Material

PROTOZOA
They cause protozoan disease
Many protozoan disease are deadly
Many protozoan disease are non-curable
VECTOR carrying protozoan disease is a TICK
Protozoan disease are common in grassy areas

EXAMPLES OF PROTOZAN DISEASE

RED WATER
Animal affected: CATTLE , SHEEP AND GOAT
Type of tick causing: BLUE-TICK
Symptoms: HIGH FEVER , RED OR BROWN URINE , ANAEMIA
Treatment: VACCINATION
: ERADICATE VECTOR
HEART WATER
Animal affected: ALL RUMINANTS ( cattle , sheep and goats)
Type of tick causing: BONT-TICK
Symptoms: HIGH FEVER , DIARRHOEA
Treatment: vaccination
ANAPLASMOSIS / GALL SICKNESS
Animal affected: CATTLE SHEEP GOAT
Type of tick causing: BONT TICK AND BLUE TICK
Symptoms: HIGH FEVER , ANAEMIA
Treatment: vaccination
COCCIDIOSIS
Animal affected: most farm animals and human ( it is zoonotic)
Type of tick: bont legged tick
Symptoms: high fever , watery faeces , rapid dehydration
Treatment: vaccination and isolation

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 71 Learning Material

FUNGI
They cause fungal disease
Most fungal disease are CHRONIC
Most fungi consist of fine tubes called HYPHAE
Many fungal disease are not deadly

EXAMPLE OF FUNGAL DISEASE

RINGWORM
Animal affected: all farm animals including human ( it is zoonotic)
Symptoms: a round wound with a scabby surface
Treatment: apply ointment ( topical application)
LYMPHY WOOL
Animal affected: sheep
Symptoms: sores in the skin
:secrete pus and form a scab (A Scab is tissue covering that
form when your skin is damaged)
Treatment: Dipping after shearing
: Topical application

PREVENTION OF ANIMAL DISEASE

Vaccination
Quarantine affected animals
Ban imports
Restrict movements of animals (movement permits)
Breed animals that are resistant to disease
Public awareness

ECONOMIC IMPICATION OF ANIMAL DISEASE

High cost of treatment

Decreased production
Food insecurity
loss of profit
evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168
Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 72 Learning Material

INDEGENOUS METHOD OF CONTROLING ANIMAL DISEASE

Rotational grazing
Burning infected pasture
Use herbal remedies
3. ANIMAL PEST AND PARASITE

Parasites are organism that spend most of its life in the body of another organism
They suck blood and transmit disease.
They cause great economic loss
Parasites are catagorised according to their life cycle

TWO TYPES PARASITE

 Internal parasite
 External parasite
INTERNAL PARASITE / ENDOPARASITE
They live and survive inside the body of animal called HOST
They rob the HOST’s nutrients and transmit disease
The effects cannot be seen as they leave no scar

Examples of internal parasites

Liver fluke
Tape worm
Round worn
LIVERFLUKE
A worm with a flattened body
 PART OF BODY AFFECTED: Liver
 METHOD OF INFESATION: Through grazing infected pasture
 NUMBER OF HOST ON THE CYCLE: horse/cattle (first host)
: Snail (intermediate
host)

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 73 Learning Material

LIFE CYCLE OF LIVERFLUKE

5 4

1. ADULT FLUKE in the liver of primary host (horse) laid eggs in the liver
2. EGGS are released in faeces
3. Eggs hatch into a LARVAE (maracidium) in the grass
4. Larvae swim to enter INTERMEDIATE HOST (snail)
5. Larvae leave the snail and form a CYSTS on the grass (resting stage)
6. Cysts on the grass is eaten by the animal and grow into a FLUKE (and affect the liver)

WAYS TO CONTROL LIVERFLUKE

 Destroy all the intermediate hosts

 Burning the veld
 Rotational grazing
TAPEWORM
A long narrow and flat organism with many segments

 PART OF THE BODY AFFEECTED: Intestine

 NUMBER OF HOST: pig and human (TWO)
 METHOD OF INFESATION: ingesting raw meat that is infected
evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168
Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 74 Learning Material

 ANIMAL AFFECTED: pigs, sheep and goat

LIFE CYCLE OF TAPE WORM

1. Adult worm lay EGGS in the intestine of a HUMAN

2. Eggs are released in FAECES into the soil
3. PIG ingest eggs from the soil
4. Eggs hatch into a LARVAE inside the body of pig (and form a cysts in muscles)
5. Human eats raw meat infected with the CYSTS
6. Cysts into the human’s INTESTINES and develops into a TAPEWORM
ROUNDWORM
Is a small white thread-like organism

 PART OF BODY AFFECTED: lungs

 NUMBER OF HOST: one
 METHOD OF INFESATION: grazing on a infected pasture
 ANIMAL INFECTED: cattle, sheep and goat

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 75 Learning Material

LIFE CYCLE OF ROUND WORM

1. Adult worm lay EGGS in the small intestine of a cow

2. Eggs are released in FAECES of the cow
3. Eggs are eaten by cow when grazing on the grass
4. Egg hatch into a LARVAE in the intestine of a cow and moves into the LUNGS
5. Larva is coughed up and swallowed
6. Larvae matures and move to the small intestine

PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF ALL EXTERNAL PARASITES

Rotational grazing
Fencing off infected areas
Destroying intermediate hosts
Dosing animals with chemicals
Breed animals that are resistant to parasites

ECONOMIC EFFECT OF INTERNAL PARASITES

High treatment cost

Low production
Decrease GDP of a country
evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168
Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 76 Learning Material

EXTERNAL PARASITE / ECTOPARASITE

They live on the outside the body of animal called a HOST
They rob host nutrients and transmit disease like ANAEMIA
Their effects can be seen as they leave scars

EXAMPLESS OF EXTERNAL PARASITES

TICKS
BLOWFLY
MITES
LICE
NASAL WORM
MOSQUITO
TICKS
Ticks causes protozoan disease

 REGION WHERE THEY OCCUR: warmer / humid region of the country

 EFFECTS OF TICKS: They bite, suck blood, transmit disease, cause death to animals and low
production (loss of wool , meat and milk)
TYPES OF TICKS
Ticks are divided into THREE according to number of host in their life cycle
To control the effect of ticks as parasites farmers need to know about the life cycle and habits of
ticks

GENERAL LIFE CYCLE OF TICKS:

ADULT TICK EGGS LARVA NYMPH

(i) BLUE-TICK

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 77 Learning Material

 has a single host in its life cycle

 Disease caused : red water and Anaplasmosis

LIFE CYCLE OF BLUE-TICK TICK

(ii) BONT-LEGGED TICK

 Has two hosts in its life cycle
 Disease caused: Red water

LIFE CYCLE OF BONT-LEGGED TICK

(iii) BONT-TICK
 Has three host in its life cycle
 Disease caused: Heart water and Congo fever

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 78 Learning Material

LIFE CYCLE OF BONT-TICK

A. ADULT TICK lay eggs on the ground

B. Eggs hatch into a LARVAE (after 6 weeks)
C. Larvae feed on the FIRST HOST
D. Larvae develop into a NYMPH (nymph feed on the 2nd host)
E. Nymph develop to an ADULT ( adult feed on the 3rd host)

MITE
MITES CAN SPREAD FROM ANIMAL TO ANIMAL.
THEY LIVE PERMEMANTLY IN THE BODY OF HOST

EFFECTS OF MITES: Cause skin irritation

: Loss of hair ,wool and hide
: Transmit disease called SCAB and MANGE
Mange- is a skin condition that appear as red blister and itchy
APPEARANCE: Has four pairs of legs and a sucking mouth

LICE
They are big enough to be seen with naked eyes
They can be transmitted from one animal to another

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 79 Learning Material

EFFECTS OF LICE: Cause skin irritation

: Decrease production
: Suck blood and transmit disease
APPEARANCE: Have three pairs of legs with big bums and hips

TYPES OF LICE
SUCKING LICE – have pointed heads and piercing style of sucking
BITTING LICE – have rounded heads and chewing mouth parts

BLOWFLY

ANIMAL AFFECTED: sheep

EFFECTS OF BLOWFLY: sheep spend less time grazing and more time tail wagging
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS THAT FAVOURS GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF
BLOWFLY
: Wet conditions
: Availability of grass
: Soil below tail
: Open wounds

WAYS TO CONTROL BLOWFLY INFESATION

Tail docking – removal of tail
Crouching – removal of wool in the tail area and legs
Wool shearing- removal of wool
Dipping
Treatment of wounds

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 80 Learning Material

LIFE CYCLE OF BLOWFLY

NASAL WORM

ANIMAL AFFECTED: sheep

EFFECTS OF NASAL WORM: It blocks the nasal cavity
: Cause discomforts to animal
: Sheep will shake its head trying to get rid of the worm

PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF ALL EXTERNAL PARASITES

Dipping with chemicals

Rotational grazing
Fence off infected areas
Burning of the veld
Breed animals that are resistant to parasite

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF EXTERNAL PARASITES

Use parasite natural enemy

Use macro-fungi
evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168
Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 81 Learning Material

Breed animal that are resistant to parasites

NOTE: MICRO-FUNGI eat the parasite’s eggs or larvae on the ground.
4. PLANT POISONING
 Wide range of plants can be poisonous to livestock.
 Farmers should be aware of plants that poses threat to their livestock and take measures to
prevent animals from grazing poisonous plants
 Plant poison is not very common , it occur when the pasture is overgrazed and only poisonous
plants remains
 There are THREE main important poisonous plants ;
 MAIZE FUNGUS
 THORNE APPLE
 POISON BULB

ANIMALS SUSCPETIBLE TO POISONOUS PLANTS

Young animals
Pregnant animals
Very old animals
Exotic breeds
EXAMPLES OF POISONOUS PLANTS
 MAIZE FUNGUS
Is a mould often associated with grains (maize cob,peanuts and sorghum)
It occur from eating maize that is stored in damp condition
SYMPTOMS OF MAIZE FUNGUS

 Lack of appetite
 Stomach pain
 Sweating
 Vomiting
TREATMENT OF MAIZE FUNGUS

 Keep affected animal calm to reduce further infection

 Increase supply of proteins and vitamins
PREVENTION / CONTROL OF MAIZE FUNGUS

 Remove infected feed from animals

 Remove source of poisoning
 Avoid over grazing
 Practice rotational grazing
 POISON BULB
This type of poison is mainly caused by bulbs such as a ONE-
LEAF CAPE TULIP
About a kilogram of leaf is enough to cause death overnight

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 82 Learning Material

PREVENTION OF POISON BULB

 Remove infected feed from animals
 Remove source of poison
 Avoid over grazing
 Practice rotational grazing
 THORN APPLE
Is a bushy plant with flowers covered with sharp spines nearly all summer
Thorn apple does not pose much threat since most animals cannot graze it due to: BAD
SMELL.BAD TASTE and THORNS

SYMPTOMS OF THORN APPLE

 Loss of appetite
 Extreme mouth dryness
 Slow growth
 Pupil dilation
TREATMENT OF THORN APPLE
 Use activated charcoal
PREVENTION / CONTROL OF THORN APPLE

 Remove infected feed from animals

 Remove source of poisoning
 Avoid over grazing
 Practice rotational grazing

5. METALIC SALT POISONING

Poison due to heavy metals produced by industries can be a serious problem
Many metals may enter into production animal’s production system through pollution.
These toxic metals will then accumulate in vital organs such as the liver an the heart
EXAMPLES OF METALIC POISONING

(i) SALT POISONING

CAUSES OF SALT POISONING

Intake of less water and more salts
Lack of water ( this will stop urine production and more salts builds up in blood until it become
poisonous and deadly)
SYMPTOMS OF SALT POISONING
Excessive saliva excretion
Dehydration
Diarrhoea
Increased thirst
Increased urination and defecation
Vomiting

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 83 Learning Material

TREATMENT OF SALT POISONING

Provide clean water in small amount at short interval
Give young animals saline solution / hypertonic dextrose
Remove source of poisoning

(ii) UREA POISONING

Urea is protein source for ruminants
Urea poisoning occur when it is not properly mixed with feed
It is possible for hungry or thirsty animal to consume too much urea in poorly mixed feed
Nitrogen from urea is converted to AMMONIA and when this ammonia is excess it become
poisonous
SYMPTOMS OF UREA POISONING
Bloating
Rapid death
Nervous excitement
Incoordination
TREATMENT OF UREA POISONING
Administer vinegar
PREVENTION OF UREA POISONING
Limit access to licks containing urea
Gradual increase in urea supplement to animals

ROLE OF STATE IN ANIMAL HEALTH AND PROTECTION

The government play an important role in regulating farming practices

They generate and implement legislation to address priorities in livestock industry.
The following are some of the practices that the government implement;
 QUARANTINE SERVICE
To isolate animals and prevent the spread of disease in the country
 CONTROL MEASURES
 IMPORT BANS
 MOVEMENT PERMITS
 VETERINARY SERVICE
Developing vaccines

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 84 Learning Material

Improving vaccines
Surveillance
 AWARENESS CAMPAIGN
 VACCINATION PROGRAMME
Notes

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 85 Learning Material

QUESTION 4
PAPER 2

5.BASIC GENETICS
Father of genetics “Gregor Mendel”
Genetics is the study of how characteristics are transferred from parents to offspring
1. GENETIC TERMINOLOGY
GENETICS- study of heredity
HEREDITY – passing of characteristics from parents to offspring
CHROMOSOME – structure that holds genes
GENE- small portion of DNA that code for characteristics
QUANTITATIVE CHARACTERISTICS - characteristics that give rise to whole range of
phenotypes. It is influenced by many genes (polygenic inheritance)
Environment has an influence in determining this characteristics
They determine continuous variation
 e.g. PRODUCTION (of eggs or milk) Colour coat
QUALITATIVE CHARACTERISTICS- characteristics that have fixed form of phenotypes.
It is influenced by one pair of genes.
Environment has no influence in determining the characteristics.
They determine discontinuous variation
 e.g. Gender, Horns shape and chicken head comb
ALLELE- different forms of genes (expressed using alphabet)
 e.g T= Tall and t=Short
DOMINANT- allele that mask characteristics of recessive allele
 e.g TT= Tall and Tt= Tall
RECESSIVE- allele that is masked by the presence of a dominant allele.
It only appear in phenotype if the organism is homozygous
 e.g tt= short
HOMOZYGOUS / PURE BRED- combination of similar allele
 e.g tt and TT

HETEROZYGOUS / HYBRID- combination of different allele

 e.g Tt
GENOTYPE- genetic make-up of an organism
PHENOTYPE- physical appearance of an organism

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 86 Learning Material

MENDEL’S LAWS
Genetics laws can be summarised as follows:
(i) LAW OF DOMINANCE
On the set of characteristic one gene is dominant and the other is recessive. The phenotype of the
organism will display the characteristics of the dominant gene
(ii) LAW OF SEGREGATION
When gametes are formed during meiosis allele separates so that offspring can get one gamete from each
parent
(iii) LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT
In a DIHYBRID crosses, during gamete formation allele segregate independently of each other.
GENETIC CROSSES
Mendel’s genetic crosses are divided into:
(i) MONOHYBRID CROSSING “mono” means one
Is a genetic cross that involve one contrasting characteristic

Example of monohybrid crossing

A homozygous (purebred) Black bull (F) is crossed with a homozygous (purebred) white cow (f) in a
genetic experiment. Determine the genotype and the phenotype of the offspring in the F1

Phenotype: black bull x white cow

Genotype:

Meiosis:

fertlisation:

Genotype:
Phenotype: all black / 100% black

Note: Only one characteristic (colour coat) was crossed

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 87 Learning Material

TO DETERMINE THE F2 GENERATION, THE F1 GENERATION SHOULD BE ALLOWED

TO MATE. FOR AN EXAMPLE FROM THE ABOVE CROSING WE CAN CROSS; (Ff with Ff
to get our F2 generation)
Dihybid crossing “di” means two
Is a crossing that involve two contrasting characteristic

Example of dihybrid crossing

In pea plant a purple flower (A) is dominant over a white flower (a) and tall plant size (B ) is Dominant
over a short plant size (b). determine the genotype and phenotype of the F1 generation if two
heterozygous pea plant is crossed

Phenotype: purple and tall plant x white and short plant

Genotype: AaBb X AaBb

Meiosis: A, a, B, b X A, a, B, b

Gametes
Fertilization:

Phenotype: 9 purple & tall : 3 purple and short: 3 white and tall: 1 white and short
Note: Two characteristics (colour and height) was crossed

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 88 Learning Material

PATTERN OF INHERITANCE
COMPLETE DOMINANCE
It apply mainly on a heterozygous combination where only the effect of dominant allele is shown in the
phenotype of offspring

EXAMPLE OF COMPLETE DOMINANCE

A homozygous red flower (F) is crossed with a homozygous white flower (f) determine the phenotype
and genotype of the F1 generation
P1
Phenotye: red flower white flower
Genotype:
Meiosis:
Gamates
fertilisation
f1
Genotype
Phenotype: all 100% red
CO-DOMINANCE
Both alleles in a gene pair are equally dominant
Both allele are equally shown in phenotype of offspring
Offspring become roan

Example of co-dominance

A homozygous white cow (W) is crossed with a homozygous red bull (R) to produce red and white
calves

WW RR

RW
evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168
Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 89 Learning Material

INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE
Alleles are not always dominant or recessive as in a complete dominance
It results in the formation of offspring with a phenotype that is in between that of the parents.
Offspring are different from parents.

Example of incomplete dominance

A homozygous red flower (R) is crossed with a homozygous white flower (W) and produced an
offspring with a phenotype that is in between that of parents
Phenotype: red flower x white flower
Genotype: RR X WW

MEIOSIS (R) (F) X (W) (W)

Fertilization
F1
Genotype: RW RW RW RW
Phenotype: all pink
ATAVISM
Is the reappearance of ancestral characteristics after it has been absent for many generation (Teeth in
chicken or extra toes in horse). It is also known as “throwback”
PREPOTENCY
Is the ability of one parent to pass a complete set of gene to its offspring?
Dominant genes from the male are passed to offspring
EPISTASIS
Action of one gene is controlled or modified by another gene
POLYGENIC INHERITANCE
Mechanism of inheritance in which genetic characteristics is controlled by many genes.
Each gene add to value of a certain phenotype
Each gene may have an additive allele or non-additive allele
An additive allele adds a set of amount to the phenotype while a non-additive allele does not add
anything to the phenotype

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 90 Learning Material

Example of polygenic inheritance

The milk production in dairy cow is controlled by two pairs of genes. The genotype aabbcc gives a milk
yield of 200 litres. Each additive dominant gene adds 20 litres. Calculate milk yield of a dairy cow
with AAbbcc
bbcc = 200 litres
AA = 20+20= 40
∴ 200+40 = 240 litre
VARIATION
Is the difference amongst organism of same species
 All individual of same species differ slightly from each other with characteristics such
as; HEIGHT , WEIGHT and COAT COLOUR

IMPORTANCE OF VARIATION

It is a foundation of selection
Improve breeding cultivars (crop varieties)
Improve breeding of breeds (livestock)

TYPES OF VARIATION

(i) Continuous variation

Is a variation in which there is a complete range of form
It is determined by quantitative characteristics (determined by many genes)
e.g. Height, Milk production, weight gain, yield of field crops
(ii) Discontinuous variation
Is a variation in which characteristics has fixed form with no intermediate form in between
It is determined by qualitative characteristic
e.g. There are four types of chicken head comb (there are no other type comb and chicken cannot have a
mixed comb-type) and Gender

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 91 Learning Material

CAUSES OF VARIATION

Variation is caused by two factors “ internal factors and external factors”

(i) INTERNAL FACTOR (genetic factors)
Meiosis
Fertilisation
Mutation
(ii) EXTERNAL FACTOR ( environmental factor)
Climate
 Animals kept in colder region have thicker hair than those in warmer region
Topography
 Goats kept on steeper slope have longer and strong legs than goats kept on flat slope
Nutrition
 Animals are shorter than other animals with same gene for tallness due to nutrient
deficiency
Disease
 Animals that are constantly exposed to disease develop immunity from the disease while
some does not develop immunity
Light intensity
 Animals on higher altitude have darker pigment than those on lower altitude
MUTATION
Is the sudden change in the structure of gene
 Mutation can be harmful or beneficial
 An organism affected by mutation is a MUTANT

TYPES OF MUTATION

(i) GENE MUTATION – sudden change in nucleotide sequence of the DNA

TYPES OF GENE MUTATION:
 Deletion- one or more nitrogen bases are removed from the gene sequence
 Insertion – one or more nitrogen base is added into the gene sequence
 Substitution – one nitrogen base is replaced with another nitrogen base
 Inversion- the order of one or more nitrogen bases is reversed

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 92 Learning Material

AGENTS OF MUTATION (mutagens)

Physical mutagens
e.g. X-rays , gamma rays , ultra violet radiation
Chemical mutagens
e.g. nitrous acid , hydrogen peroxide, alkaloids
Biological mutagens
e.g. Bacteria , virus

IMPORTANCE OF MUTATION
Increase variation
Give individual improved characteristics

CAUSES OF MUTATION
Climate
Deletion
Substitution
Inversion
Insertion

SELECTION
Is the process of choosing individuals with desired characteristics for breeding purpose

IMPORTANCE OF SELECTION
It help to improve the characteristics livestock and crops over few generation
FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN SELECTING BREEDING LIVESTOCK
Health
Adaptability
Productivity
Level of performance
Behaviour

PRINCIPLES OF SELECTION

HERITABILITY
 Is the degree in which a characteristic is determined by genetic factor than environmental factors.

INTERPRETING HERITABILITY
Characteristic with heritability above 50% (0.5) i.e. 𝟓𝟎/𝟏𝟎𝟎=𝟎.𝟓
 IT IS DETERMINED BY GENETIC FACTORS
 THERE IS HIGH CHANCES THAT CHARACTERISTICS WILL BE PASSED ON
TO OFFSPRING DURING BREEDING

Characteristic with heritability less than 50% (0.5) i.e 60/100= 0.6
 IS DETERMINED BY ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168
Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 93 Learning Material

 THERE IS LESS CHANCE THAT CHARACTERISTICS ARE PASSED ON TO OFFSPRING

DURING BREEDING
BIOMETRIC
 Is the use of statistics to analyze biological data
 Measure unique characteristics using a computer technology

IMPORTANCE OF BIOMETRIC

It improve accuracy of selecting individual for breeding programme

METHOD OF SELECTION

Mass selection
Selection from group of animal according to individuals performance
It is quick and simple but not very accurate ( because it is based on phenotype not genotype)
Pedigree selection
Selection based on the quality of ancestor
Family selection
Selection based on the quality of relatives such as FULL-SIBLINGS or HALF-SIBLINGS
Progeny selection
Animal are selected based on the quality of their offspring

EBV (ESTIMATED BREEDING VALUE)

Is the estimate on how much better or less than average the offspring of an individual will be for a
characteristic
 It can either be positive or negative
Positive value
Indicate that offspring will be better than average
Negative value
Indicate that offspring less than average
Calculating estimated breeding value (EBV)

Example: a horse farmer wants to calculate EBV for weight of a breed she bought at an
agricultural show. The farmer’s farm records gave the following information:
Weaning weight of horse = 350 kg
Average weaning weight of all the horse in the farm = 310 kg
Heritability %: 60
evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168
Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 94 Learning Material

Formula:
EBV= (WEANING WEIGHT – AVERAGE WEANING WEIGHT) X HERITABILITY %
Calculation:
EBV= (WW - AWW) X 60/100
= (350 - 310) X 60/100
= 40 X 0.6
= +24
∴310 + 24 = 334 KG
Note: EBV is positive, meaning offspring will be better than average

IMPORTANCE OF EBV

 It indicates the heritability of a particular characteristic to estimate the success of a breeding

programme
 Can be used to monitor progress of breeding programme

BREEDING
Is the production of offspring by sexual reproduction

ANIMAL BREEDING SYSTEMS

Breeding systems are categorized into:

RELATED BREEDING and NON RELATED BREEDING SYSTEM
(i) RELATED BREEEDING SYSTEM
Breeding of individuals that are related
Breeding results in the formation of HOMOZYGOUS offspring
 Related breeding is divided into:
1. Inbreeding
Breeding of two individuals that are closely related to each other

Example of inbreeding
 Mating of parents with their offspring (backcrossing)
 Mating of siblings with each other (brother and sister)
2. Line breeding
Breeding of two individuals that are less closely-related to each other

Example of line breeding

 Mating of grandparents with offspring

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 95 Learning Material

 Mating of half sibling with another half sibling

ADVANTAGE OF INBREEDING AND LINE BREEDING

Offspring are genetically uniform

There is greater prepotency
Harmful recessive gene is eliminated
Stimulates homozygocity of offspring

DISDVANTAGES OF INBREEDING AND LINE BREEDING

Loss of variation
Offspring may be deformed
Lead to inbreeding depression
Inbreeding depression
Gradual decrease in performance from generation to generation
Poorly adapted to the environment

Diagram showing inbreeding

(ii) NON RELATED BREEDING SYSTEM

Breeding of individual that are not related to each other
Breeding results in HETEROZYGOUS offspring
Non related breeding system is divided into:
1. CROSS BREEDING
Mating of two animals that are not related closely related to each other
i.e. Mating of two different breeds of same species

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 96 Learning Material

ADVANTAGES OF CROSS BREEDING

Better adaptation
Increased variation
Improved vigour or heterosis
Hybrid vigour or heterosis- increased performance of offspring generation after generation
Development of new breeds
Faster growth
DISADVANTAGES OF CROSS BREEDING
It is labour intensive
Offspring are not uniform
Introduction of harmful recessive gene

2. SPECIES CROSSING
Mating of two animals of different species results in the offspring being sterile

ADVANTAGES OF SPECIES CROSSING (MULE)

Endurance
They don’t get tired easily
They don’t have digestive programme
Mules are hardworking
DISADVANTAGES OF SPECIES CROSSING (MULE)
They cannot reproduce ( they are sterile)

3. UPGRADING
Is the repeated mating of inferior cow with a superior male animal generation after generation
e.g. Crossing a COMMERCIAL MIXED-BREED COW with a HOSLTEN STUD BULL
generation after generation

DISADVANTAGES OF UPGRADING
It is time consuming
Offspring cannot be 100% pure-bred
It is expensive / pure-breed bulls should be bought outside
Commercial value of first few generation is low

4. OUT CROSSING
Is the mating of two breeds that are not related

ADVANTAGES OF OUTCROSSING
Increase genetic diversity
evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168
Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 97 Learning Material

Animals are more adapted

Improved growth and fertility

GENETIC ENGENEERING/ MODIFICATION

Is the technique of changing the characteristic of an organism by inserting gene from another organism
into its DNA
Genetic modification process:

AIMS OF GENETIC MODIFICATION

Improve crop yield / production in animals

Increase resistance to pest and disease
Improve food quality
Production of medicine

CHARACTERISTICS OF GENETIC MODIFIED ORGANISM (GMO)

Crops that are resistant to insect

Crops that are resistant to herbicide
Animals and crops that are tolerant to harsh condition e.g. drought and cold
Animals with improved growth and productivity

COMPARISON BETWEEN GENETIC MODIFICATION AND TRADITIONAL

METHOD

TRADITIONAL METHOD
It is slow
It is not very precise
It is limited to breeds of same species
It is less convenient
Less productivity
evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168
Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 98 Learning Material

GENETIC MODIFICATION
It is fast
It is very precise
It is not limited to breeds of same species
It is more convenient
High productivity

GENETIC MODIFICATION TECHNIQUES

AGROBACTERIUM TUMEFECIENS

A bacterium called tumefeciens transfer a piece of its DNA into the plant cell
This bacterium is used as a vector to transfer desired genes into the plant cell
4 3 2 1 Desired gene

Plasmid of the bacterium

1. Desired gene inserted to the plasmid
2. Plasmid inserted into plant cell
3. Plasmid insert its gene into the DNA of plant cell
4. Tissue culture
5. Genetic modified plant is produced
GENE GUN ( BIOLISTIC)
Is a tool used to fire tiny particles of plant tissue into a cell
MICRO-INJECTION
Is the injection of desired genes directly into the nucleus of cell of a plant
It is mainly used in the modification of animals, but more difficult in plants because plants has cell walls

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 99 Learning Material

ELECTROPORATION
Cells are placed in a solution containing desired gene. An electric current is passed through the solution
and opens the pores in the cell membrane allowing desired genes to enter the cell.
LIPFECTION
It involves using fats as carriers of desired genes through the cell membrane into the nucleus
GENE SILENCING
Making a gene to be inactive or non-functional

POTENTIAL BENEFIT OF GENETIC MODIFICATION

Economic benefit
GM crops may be more productive (produce higher yield) and growing world population will be fed at
low cost
Reduce effect of food insecurity
Improve shelf life
Health benefit
GM allow the production of medicine and vaccines
Environmental benefit
Farmer use less pesticides
Production of animals that are more resistant to harsh environmental condition

POTENTIAL RISK OF GENETIC MODIFICATION

Economic risk
Seeds from GM crops cannot be replanted , which means farmers have to buy seeds every year
High seed cost
Health risk

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 100 Learning Material

It can cause allergies

Can cause cancer
It can lower immune system
Can cause unknown disease
Environmental risk
Reduce biodiversity
Insect resistant plant can kill beneficial insects
Production of super weed
Excess use of herbicides may damage the soil
Social risk
Developing countries will depend on developed countries for seeds
Some people think it is unethical using GMO

Notes

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 101 Learning Material

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 102 Learning Material

PAPER 2

QUESTION 3

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION FACTORS

There are four production factors in agriculture. Namely LAND, LABOUR, CAPITAL and
MANAGEMENT
1. LAND/SOIL
This production factor is involved in the production of goods and services
It includes all the natural resources available to the farmer

ECONOMIC FUNCTIONS OF LAND/SOIL

It supply raw materials

It supply food (grass for livestock and vegetables for humans)
It provide space (for building farm shed, planting crops or area for grazing)
It supply minerals (minerals that can be used to make fertilizers such as potash that is used in
manufacturing of potassium)

ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF LAND/SOIL

It’s value appreciate over time (it gains value)

Availability of land for agriculture is limited (arable land previously used for agriculture can be used
for urban development)
It varies in production potential (sound investment)
It can mot produce on its own
It is immovable (it has fixed location or found in a specific environment)
It is indestructible (even though the structure can degrade if misused)
It can be sold or bought
It can be used as a collateral (form of security required by the bank before granting a loan
It is subjected to the law of diminishing return
It is durable

WAYS TO INCREASE PRODUCTIVITY OF LAND/ SOIL

Add fertilizers
Improve water management ( irrigation system must be installed in areas where water is available)
Practice good farming methods (such as crop rotation, double cropping and intercropping)
evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168
Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 103 Learning Material

Consolidation of uneconomic farming units (combining small farms to make one big farm)

THE LAW OF DIMINISHING RETURN

Graph illustrating the law of diminishing return

This law states that;

Increased amount of input does not give proportional increase to output this will to a point where the total
yield decline
2. LABOUR
Is the combination physical and mental endeavor (skill) performed in expectation of remuneration (salary)

 It is one of the major cost items in agricultural industry and has a significant impact in the success
of a farming operation.

WAYS TO REDUCE LABOUR COST

Introduce mechanisation
Increasing production
Reducing labour force (retrenchment)
Sending workers to training

TYPES OF LABOUR

PERMANENT LABOUR
They work ordinary hours (48 hours a week)
They live permanently with their families on the farm
They have job security
They have signed a contract with the employer
They have benefits
They are usually skilled
e.g. foreman, tractor driver and mechanic

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 104 Learning Material

CASUAL LABOUR
They are employed for non-repetitive duties such as building or erecting a
fence
They work less than 24 hours a month
They do not have contacts with the employer
SEASONAL LABOUR
They are employed during peak period often for specific duties such as
harvesting , lambing and wool shearing

RANKING OF SKILLS IN A WORK FORCE

SKILLED LABOUR
Type of labour who is formally trained and qualified to the job
e.g. Engineer, veterinarian and manager
SEMI-SKILLED
Type of labour with level of training (experience) but lack formal training
e.g. driver
UNSKILLED LABOUR
Type of labour who does not have any formal skill or level of training
e.g General workers

PROBLEMS RELATED TO LABOOUR

LACK OF SKILLS
 It is caused by: Lack of training
 Effects of lack of skill: Low production
: Limit use of technology
SHORTAGE OF LABOUR
 It is caused by: Less attractive working conditions
: Low wages
: Industrial competition
 Effects of labour shortage: Low production
: Production delays

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 105 Learning Material

EXPLOITATION OF FARM WORKERS

 It includes: Farmer owners having racist attitudes to farm workers
: Violation of farm worker’s rights
HIV and AIDS
 Effects of HIV and AIDS: Regular absenteeism make planning difficult
: Decline in production
: Loss of skills and experience
: Production delays due to labour shortage

ILLEGAL PRACTICES ENCOUNTERED ON FARMS

FARM EVICTION
People are illegally and forcibly removed from farms where they have living
CHILD LABOUR
It is illegal to employ a child under 15 years of age, and child must be given task that are suited for a
person of that age
FAILURE OF EMPLOYER TO ADHERE TO LEGISLATION
It is considered illegal for an employer not to adhere to legislation such as the Basic Conditions Of
Employment Act

INCREASING LABOUR PRODUCTIVITY

LABOUR PRODUCTIVITY
Is the measure of out-put per input of labour force

WAYS TO INCREASE LABOUR PRODUCTIVITY

IMPROVING ECONOMIC CONDITION

 It can be improved by:
Provide incentives for workers
Increase wages
Pay bonus
Provide medical insurance
Supply farm products on reduced priced
Enter into partnership deals with workers (selling shares to workers)

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 106 Learning Material

IMPROVING EDUCATIONAL CONDITIONS

 It can be improved by:
Send workers to training
Provide free schooling and bursaries to children of farm worker
IMPROVING WORKING CONDITION
 It can be improved by:
Provide protective clothing to farm workers
Provide transport between home and work
Adequate leave
IMPROVING LIVING CONDITION
 It can be improved by:
Adequate shelter safe and secure
Adequate water and food
Provide recreational facilities
ADDRESSING HIV and AIDS
 It can be limited by:
Education (awareness campaign)
Provide access to condoms
Provide access to treatment
Encourage good values such as not having multiple sexual partners

LABOUR LEGISLATION

It is placed to protect employees and employers as both parties will know what their rights and
responsibilities are. It prevents unfair labour practices on farms.
Basic Condition Of Employment Act of 1997
It ensures that fair labour practice exist
It regulates the following:
Working hours
Overtime (working on Sunday and public holidays)
Minimum wage

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 107 Learning Material

Method of payment
Condition for termination of employment (a 30-day notice should be placed prior to the
termination)
Leave (including sick leave , maternity leave and annual leave)
Meal interval
Labour relation act of 1995
It regulate relationship between the employer and employee
It address the following:
Labour dispute
It ensure social justice
Gives workers a right to strike
Provide procedure to resolution of labour dispute
Right to join trade union
Involvement of workers in decision making process
Occupational Health and Safety Act of 1993
It deals with health safety in a workplace
It ensures the following:
Workers are trained to operate machinery and handling dangerous chemicals
Supply protective clothing
Working environment is safe
Compensation of Occupational Injuries and Disease Act 1993
It applies to employers and employees who are injured, disable or contract a disease due to
workplace accident
It ensures that:
Compensation due to injuries, disease and disability is granted
Skill Development Act of 1998
It enforces enrichment of farm workers with skills
All employers are entitled to pay skill development levy (1% of worker’s pay)
It ensure the following:
Provision of training to workers
evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168
Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 108 Learning Material

Developed workforce skill

Labour Equity Act of 1995
It ensure that there is no work place discrimination based on:
Gender
Age
Race
Religion
Sexuality
Disability
LABOUR CONTRACT
Is the legal written agreement between the employer and the employee.
Employer and employee details
Employment details
Payment details
Hours of work
Leave details (indicate annual leave, maternity leave and family responsibility leave
Conditions for termination (valid and fair reason for termination)
Wages (agreed amount to be paid per hour or per day)
Other benefits (if workers will receive uniform or accommodation
Signatures of both parties
3. CAPITAL
This money or equipment that are used in production process
It includes all the goods and assets such as building, equipment and vehicles that are used in
production process.
Asset – item of economic value that you own

TYPES OF CAPITAL

Fixed capital
 Capital invested on fixed assets
e.g. building, land borehole and dam

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 109 Learning Material

movable capital
 Capital invested on medium-term assets
e.g. livestock , vehicle ,machinery , and equipment
working /floating capital
 Capital invested on short-term assets and used to pay short term operational expenses
e.g. feed, fertilizers, chemicals, seeds ,fuel, wages & telephone bill

TYPES OF ASSETS

Fixed assets
Assets that are purchased and used for long term
Its value appreciate overtime
e.g. land , building dam and borehole
Movable assets
Assets that are purchased and used for medium term
Its value appreciate overtime
e.g. machinery , equipment and livestock
Current assets
Assets that are used for short-term
e.g. money in the bank , seeds and wages etc

GENERATION/CREATION OF CAPITAL

Production
Savings (inheritance)
Credit, loans and grants
Credit – All loans and advances given to borrowers that need to be repaid back with interest
Grant- Some of money provided by a government that does not need to be repaid back
Interest- amount of money that a financial institution charge for lending money

SOURCE OF FINANCE

Commercial bank
Land bank
Agricultural cooperatives

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 110 Learning Material

When applying for a loan you need:

Prepare a business plan
Financial record
Collateral
CREDIT

TYPES OF CREDITS

Long-term credit
Credit given and repaid over long period
 Used to expand fixed assets (such as building, land and dam and borehole)
Repayment period: over 10 years
Medium-term credit
Credit given and repaid over medium term period
 Used to improve movable assets (such as machine and equipment)
Repayment period:1-5 years
Short-term credit
Credit given and repaid over short period of time
 Used to cover operational expenses (current assets) e.g. wages, seeds, fuel and fertilisers
Repayment period: less than 1 year

PROBLEM ASSOCIATED WITH CAPITAL

Scarcity of capital – some capital items cannot be produced in a country and must be imported
Cost – capital gods are expensive and cost to borrow money to buy them
Depreciation- most capital item have limited lifespan and can lose value overtime (subjected to wear
and tear)
High interest rate
Undercapitalisation- having less capital than required
Overcapitalisation- having too much capital than required
Subject to risk
Subject to law of diminishing

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 111 Learning Material

FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Is the process of keeping records of all business transaction (accounting)

Reason for keeping financial record

To plan for the future of business

For loan application
To draw up a budget
To analyse previous and current performance of the business
To provide information for tax purpose
Financial management system allow the farmer to do the following:
Keep inventory of assets
Inventory – record of all assets
Cash analysis book – used to record receipts and payments
BALANCE SHEET- summary of all assets and liabilities
 It projects net worth of the business
Net worth- assets minus liability
Liability- money that you owe(financial debt)
Asset – item of economic value that you owns
Example of balance sheet

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 112 Learning Material

INCOME STATEMENT- summary of income and expenditure

 It projects net profit
Net profit – income minus expenses
Example of income statement of period

The above business cannot be recommended since the expenditure exceeds income hence it lead to
business loss
CASH FLOW STATEMENT- is the movement of cash in a business
- It includes receipts and payments

COMPONENTS OF CASH FLOW STATEMENT

Opening balance
Income
Expenditure
Profit /loss
Closing balance
Cash items

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 113 Learning Material

Example of a cash flow budget statement

BUDGET- is the written document that shows the estimation how much you think you will spend and
earn over a period of time

TYPES OF BUDGETS

Whole farm budget

 Budget that combines all the enterprises within the farm
Enterprise budget
 Budget for one single enterprise within the farm
Partial budget
 Budget used to test the effect on profit
Example of enterprise budget showing estimate for 2020/21 financial year

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 114 Learning Material

MANAGEMENT
Is the combination and co-ordination of human, physical and financial resources to achieve a certain
goal

PRINCIPLES/ COMPONENTS OF MANAGEMENT

PLANNING
It involve developing long-term and short-term plan
It involves what to do, when to it, how to do it and who is going to do it
 Documents linked to planning are;
Business plan & Budget
IMPLEMENTATION
It involve setting the plan in motion
CONTROL
It involves measuring and verifying the results

STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT COMPONENTS

It allow the business to anticipate and adapt to changes and future challenges
Main components of strategic management
Develop a vision
This is what you hope the business would be in future
Develop a mission
It outline the purpose of the business ( what you do, for who and the purpose of the business)
Set a goal
It gives overall direction

MANAGEMENT SKILLS NEEDED TO MANAGE FARMING BUSINESS

NB: THE OWNER OF THE FARM CAN BE THE MANAGER OR MIGHT HIRE A PERSON
ANDTHE PERSON MUST SHOW WIDE RANGE OF SKILLS.
GENERAL MANAGEMENT SKILLS
Analytical skill
Able to analyse information (market information)
Conceptual skill

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 115 Learning Material

Allow manager to reflect to changes in the industry and develop strategies (like change in market
price and completion)
Planning skill
Important for day-to-day planning and long term planning.
Problem-solving skill
Able to deal with problems rather than avoiding them.
Ability to adapt
Able to adapt to changed(know when to adapt to new technologies)
FINANCIAL MANAGMENT SKILL
The manager must be well vested on financial matters regarding borrowing, investing and full
understanding regarding taxation so as to regard against financial losses.
He/she must able to negotiate prices
Able to keep financial records
COMMUNICATION AND INTERPERSONAL SKILL
Able to interact effectively with different people (negotiate deals and contracts)
Able to make other people understand you and be able to understand what others are trying to say to
you
PRODUCTION AND OPARATIONAL SKILL
Manager must have a thorough knowledge of the farm operation. They should know the requirements of
the enterprise.
For an example: In beef enterprise;
The manager must have adequate knowledge of veld management to know how many animals should
graze in a certain camp, and when to move them to a new camp
RISK MANAGEMENT SKILL
Manager must identify potential risk and come up with a strategy to reduce, control and eliminate the risk.

SOURCE OF RISK IN FARMING BUSINESS

TECHNICAL RISK (PRODUCTION RISK)

Unpredictable weather conditions
Drought and flooding
Disease outbreaks
Pest
evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168
Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 116 Learning Material

Machine breakdown or outdated

Labour-related(strike)
MARKETING RISK
Change in customers’ needs and wants result in;
Reduced demand
Reduced price
When other producers enter the market results in;
More competition
FINANCIAL RISK
Inability to pay debts on time
Unpredictable interest rates
Production fails
LEGAL RISK
When the manger is taken to court for having ignored some regulatory standard that lead to an injury or
death.
HUMAN or PEOPLES RISK
It takes place when the skill is lost due to death, disability, divorce, illness etc.

RISK MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES

It involves managing the spread of risk in a farming business

It includes;
INSURANCE
It is good to insure the property, machinery against things like storms, hail damage, injury of the visitor
etc.
RISK SHARING
Allow farmer to share risk with other parties
DIVERSIFICATION
Having number of different enterprise on the farm
Example of diversification;
Planting of different crops (i.e. mixed farming)

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 117 Learning Material

A farmer can spread his/her investment over several enterprises (pig farming, poultry farming cattle
farming etc.)
Geographical diversification (have different land types wherein there are different soil types and different
climatic conditions)
PROCESSING or VALUE ADDING
Changing raw form of gods into a form that can easily be used by customers
Example of processing;
Processing milk into cheese, yogurt and chocolate
SPECIALISATION
Specialising with one enterprise that is product suited
HEDGING
Entering in future contract with supermarkets

FACTORS AFFECTING FARMING BUSINESS

INTERNAL FORCES
These are forces that originate on the farm itself
The employer can have control over such forces
For an example;
Skill of worker
Available resource
Demand of wages by workers
EXTERNAL FORCES
These are forces that the employer cannot have control over
For an example;
New laws (legislation)
Change in taxation
Wars
Natural disasters

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 118 Learning Material

Notes

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 119 Learning Material

AGRICULTURAL MARKETING

PAPER 2

QUESTION 2
MARKETING
Is the process involving the movement of a product from the farm to the consumer
It can also be a place whew buyers and sellers meet

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MARKETING AND SELLING

Marketing Selling
It is Profit- oriented It is Product oriented
Focuses on long-term plans Short-term objective is selling of product
Focus on satisfying the wants of customers Customer’s needs and satisfaction are neglected
Focus mainly on the product Focus on sales volume

MARKETING FUNCTIONS

FOUR MAIN FUCNTIONS OF AGRICULTURAL MARKETING

1. TRANSPORT FUNCTION
It involves moving products from the farm to processing facilities, and then to the consumer using
different mode of transport
ADVANTAGES OF TRANSPORT FUNCTION
Bridges the gap between producer and consumer.
Cost effective
Fast delivery
Quick movement of perishables to the market
Creates job opportunity
Bulky goods can be moved
Example: Transporting fruits from farm to processing plant

2. STORAGE
It includes holding raw products until they needed.
Food is kept for later use to guarantee food security
ADVANTAGES OF STORAGE
Ensure fresh products
Maintain products’ quality
Ensure continuous supply of agricultural product
Prevent spoilage of products
Prevent over supply

3. PACKAGING
The science of enclosing products for distribution and distribution
evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168
Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 120 Learning Material

ADVANTAGES OF PACKAGING

Make product handling easier

It protect the product
Packaging should protect the product against:
(i) Mechanical damage
(ii) Poor environmental conditions during handling
For identification of product
Packaging must: provide useful information about the product such as:
(i) Name of product
(ii) Size of product
(iii) Grade of product
(iv) Net weight
(v) Country of origin

4. PROCESSING/ VALUE ADDING

Involves changing a raw form of a product into a form that can easily be used by consumers
ADVANTAGES OF PROCESSING/VALUE ADDING
Minimise oversupply
Prolong shelf life
Add value of product
Create job opportunity
Allow easier handling of product
Example: Drying up meat
: Blending
: Canning
: Fermenting

FACILITATING FUNCTION
It does not involve direct handling of the product

It includes:
(i) Standardization
It is about setting standards or specification for a product
(ii) Grading
Is the process of sorting agricultural products according to set standards
MARKETING POLICY INSTRUMENT (4ps)
1. PRODUCT DESIGN
Producer needs to be aware of what the consumer wants
2. PRICE
evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168
Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 121 Learning Material

Producer determines how much the consumer will pay for the product
3. PLACEMENT
Producer should know where the consumer wants to buy product
4. PROMOTION
Producer needs to communicate information about the produce
Ways to implement promotion;
- IN-STOREPROMOTION
- EXHIBITIONS
- DIRECT MAILING
PRICE DETERMINATION

FACTORS CONSIDERED WHEN DERTEMONING A PRICE OF A PRODUCT

Cost
Demand
Competition
Supply
DEMAND AND SUPPLY

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DEMAND AND SUPPLY

Demand
Amount of goods that the consumer are willing to buy at a given price
Supply
Amount of goods that the producer is willing to sell at given price
1. DEMAND

LAW OF DEMAND

Shows a negative relationship between price and quantity demanded:

The HIGHER the price the LOWER the demand
Meaning: If the price of a product increases less customers will buy the product
: If the product is cheap customers will buy more of the product

DEMAND SCHEDULE

Is the table that shows relationship between price of goods and quantity demanded
evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168
Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 122 Learning Material

Price (R/Box) Quantity

(Box/week)
2800 10
2100 15
1600 30
800 35
600 40

DEMAND CURVE

Is the graph showing the relationship between price of goods and quantity demanded

FACTORS DETERMINING DEMAND

Price of the product

Quality of the product
Consumer taste and preferences
Fashion
Festive season
Number of consumers
Culture and religion
2. SUPPLY
LAW OF SUPPLY

Shows a positive relationship between price and quantity supplied

The higher the price the higher the supply
Meaning: If the price of a product increases the producer will supply more products (taking advantage
of the price to affect profit)

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 123 Learning Material

When the price of a product increases the producer supply more products to gain more money from the
products

SUPPLY SCHEDULE

is a table sowing the relationship between price and quantity supply of product

Price Quantity
(R/box) (box/week)
200 10
400 15
800 20
1000 25
1400 30

SUPPLY CURVE

Is the graph showing the relationship between price and quantity supplied

FACTORS DETERMINING SUPPLY

Price of the product

Production costs
Change in technology
Environmental conditions / Nature
Government subsidy and taxation
Demand for the product
Political instability
Seasonality fluctuation
Competitive products

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 124 Learning Material

PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH SUPPLY

Oversupply
Supplying more than required
Shortage
Supplying less than required

WAYS TO AVOID OVERSUPPLY

1. Reduce production
2. Product dumping
3. Processing
4. Diverfication
5. Hedging
6. Improve promotion and advertising
PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND AND SUPPLY
PRICE ELASTICITY
Is the relationship between the change in price and demand and supply

PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND

Is the relationship between the change in price and a change in demand of a product
Example of elasticity of demand
If a price of chocolate bar increase by 12%, many people will stop buying it and go for other
cheaper chocolate and hence demand changes in response to change in price

Graph illustrating price elasticity of demand

INTERPRETING THE GRAPH:

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 125 Learning Material

A slight change in price results in a substantial change in quantity demanded

It is a common knowledge that when price increases less of that product will be bought

FACTORS DETERMINING ELASTICITY OF DEMAND

Nature of the product

Luxury items show more elasticity than basic items
Availability of substitute products
The more substitute goods for the product the more elastic the demand
Time/period
The more time passes, the more elastic is the demand

PRICE INLASTICITYOF DEMAND

Example of inelasticity of demand

If the price of petrol increase by 20%, most people will have no choice but to buy the petrol

Graph illustrating inelasticity of demand

INTERPRETING THE GRAPH

An increased change in price results only a slight change in quantity demanded. Increase in price
has less effect on the demand of the product
PRICE ELASTICITY OF SUPPLY
Is the relationship between the change in price and the change in supply.

Example of elasticity of supply

If the price of certain products increases this will cause the quantity supplied to increase. The
producer always take advantage of increased price when supplying his products
evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168
Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 126 Learning Material

GRAPH ILLUSTRATING ELASTICITY OF SUPPLY

INTERPRETING THE GRAPH

An increase change in price results in increased change in quantity supplied

It is common knowledge that if price increases the producer will take advantage of the price and
supply more to affect his profit

FACTORS DETERMINING ELASTICITY OF SUPPLY

Price of product
Season
Nature of product
Marketing cost
PRICE INELASTICITY OF SUPPLY

Example of inelasticity of supply

If Products can be stored and be marketed all year round, quantity supplied will not change

Graph illustrating inelasticity of supply

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 127 Learning Material

INTERPRETING THE GRAPH

An increased change in price result in small change in quantity supplied. Change in price has less
effect on supply
MARKET EQUILIBRIUM
Is the point where demand and supply is equal

Example of market equilibrium

As the price of the product increases, demand for the product decreases. But the producer is
willing to supply more .Where supply and demand is equal is called the market equilibrium

DEMAND AND SUPPLY SCHEDULE

Price (R/box) Quantity demanded Quantity supplied(box/week)
(box/week)
5 2000 12000
4 4000 1000
3 7000 7000
2 11000 4000
1 16000 1000

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 128 Learning Material

Graph illustrating market equilibrium

FLOOR PRICE
Is a situation where price charged for a product is higher than equilibrium price.
It is imposed by the government to prevent prices from falling below certain levels
CEILING PRICE
Is a situation where price charged is below the equilibrium price.
It is imposed by the government to prevent prices from rising above certain levels and this lead to
shortage of

OVERSUPPLY AND SHORTAGE IN THE MARKET EQUILIBRIUM

Over supply (surplus)

When price of a product is above the equilibrium price the following occur;
1. Demand of the product decrease
2. Supply of the product increase
 Supply exceeds the demand this result in more product supplied than required
Shortage (deficit)
When price of a product is below the equilibrium price the following occur;
1. Demand of the product increase
2. Supply of the product decrease
 Demand exceeds the supply this results in more product demanded and less is supplied
SHIFT DEMAND AND SUPPLY
SHIFT DEMAND
Is the factor that influence changes of demand (other than price)
evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168
Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 129 Learning Material

The equilibrium price changes if the demand for a product changes.

Example of shift
During Christmas there is an increase in demand of CHOICE ASSORTED BUISCUTS. As the
demand increases the biscuits become scarce(less supply). The market will then sets a new price that
is above the equilibrium price, meaning the producer will charge more for the CHOICE
ASSORTED BUISCUTS.
Shift demand graph

Increased in demand tend to increase equilibrium price while decrease in demand tend to
decrease equilibrium price

FACTORS CAUSING SHIFT DEMAND

Consumers income
Consumers preference
Change in price
Population size
SHIFT SUPPLY
Is one factor that influence changes of supply (other than price). The equilibrium price change if the
supply for a product change
Example of shift supply
As summer arrives the fruits such as mangoes come to season (increased supply). The market will set a
new equilibrium price that is lower than the old equilibrium price. Meaning the sellers will shift their
prices down.

SHIFT SUPPLY GRAPH

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 130 Learning Material

Increase in supply tends to decrease equilibrium price. While decrease in supply tend to increase
equilibrium price

FACTORS CAUSING SHIFT SUPPLY

Changes in production
Improved technology
Industry growth
MARKET DEVELOPMENT
Is a strategic step taken by producer to develop existing market rather than looking for new market
DEVELOPING A MARKET YOU MUST;
1. Conduct market research
 Study the market you would like to sell your product to
Market research includes:
Collecting information about customers
Collecting information competition
2. Developing marketing strategy
It includes conducting the 4ps:
(i) PRODUCT (what product to make and sell)

Factors to consider when designing the product

Packaging
Size
Quality
Design
Brand name
(ii) PRICE(how much your product is going to cost)

Factors to consider when determining price

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168
Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 131 Learning Material

Production cost
Demand
Competition
(iii) Placement(where to sell the product)

Factors to consider when determining placement of product

Location
Logistics
(iv) Promotion(how are you going to convince people to buy your product)

Ways to implement promotion

In-store sales
Exhibition
Direct mail
MARKETING APPROACH
NICHE MARKETING
Focuses on selling to a small segment of a market
Focuses on a specific group of consumers in a market place.
It is not served by mainstream suppliers
MASS MARKETING
Take in as large market as possible
Promotes same product in different ways to different group of people
Attempts to reach every consumer rather than targeting a particular market segment.
It targets the whole market with a single offer.
Traditionally, Mass marketing is done through radio. Television and newspaper
MULTIPLE SEGMENT
It allows you to select few segments and develop a marketing strategy that fit well.
This is typically done by offering different levels of quality to different levels of income.
Example multi-segment
Offering Class 1 fruits to consumers with high income and Class 3 fruit to consumers with low
income.

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 132 Learning Material

SUSTAINABLE MARKETING
Involves the application of an environmental friendly marketing approach

WAYS OF MARKETING PRODUCTS IN A SUSTAINABLE WAY

 Developing a product that is naturally healthy (organic product), instead of genetically modified
crops
 Eco-labelling
The practice of putting labels on products to promote them as environmental friendly
 Biodegrading/ recyclability
MARKETING SYSTEM
Is the mechanism through which goods reach different places
Marketing systems are divided into: Free marketing, co-oparative marketing & controlled markrting

TYPES OF MARKETING SYSTEM

1. FREE-MARKETING
System where goods and services are exchanged freely without restriction and control

Advantages of free marketing system

Farmers do not transport their products

Payment is usually cash
Cash is received on spot
Middleman are eliminated
Produce goods of high quality (they create good reputation)
Producers show initiative and drive (they work very hard to earn profit)

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 133 Learning Material

Disadvantages of free marketing system

Producers are exposed to competition

There is fluctuation of prices
They lack marketing skills
Less bargain power
High marketing cost (since products are sold at small-scale)
High risk of perishability

FREE MARKETING CHANNEL

FARM-GATE MARKETING
Selling directly from the farm
Price notice is placed on the farm gate

Advantages of farm-gate marketing

Farmer do not have to transport their product

Cost of marketing is reduced
Products are sold at a low price

Disadvantages of farm-gate marketing

Buyers have to come to the farm which require good accessibility

Farmers have to accept local prices

FRESH PRODUCE MARKET

Goods are delivered to agents at municipal market.
evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168
Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 134 Learning Material

Goods delivered, graded and sold at set purchased

Advantages of fresh produce market

Large volume can be sold

Agents market products on behalf of the producer
Agents market products on behalf of the producer
Farmers can take advantages of higher price
STOCK AUCTION
Livestock are sold on auction to the highest bidder

Advantages of stock auction

The auctioneer advertise the event

Payment is guaranteed
The market is larger than local market

Disadvantages of stock auction

Seller may not be offered the price expected.

Prices may be lower than market price

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 135 Learning Material

CONTRACT MARKETING
Producer sell directly to retailer(it is done under contract arrangement)
Advantages contract market

Volume and price is guaranteed

Middleman is eliminated

Disadvantage of contract market

Producer must always have sufficient products available to meet the needs of customers
Quality and quantity of product must be consistent (If the farmer cannot meet the needs of the retailer,
he will have to buy in products to make up quantities required by the retailer)
INTERNET MARKETING
Products are advertised and sold online via a computer

Advantage of internet marketing

Large market can be reached cheaply

Money can be transferred before goods are delivered.
It reach global audience

Disadvantages of internet marketing

It is relevant to customers with internet access

Online marketing is not free.
The possibility of fraud is a risk.
Many visitors will not want to use their credit card
2. AGRICULTURAL COOPARATIVES
Is the marketing system where two or more independent farms or group of people work together to meet
their common needs

PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURAL COOPRATIVES

Democratic member control

Voluntary and open membership
Concern about community
Members contribute equally

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 136 Learning Material

ADVANTAGES OF COOPARATIVES

There is consistent supply (work together to supply large volumes)

Middleman is eliminated
Better infrastructure (get facilities that and individual farmer cannot afford)
Bargain power (greater chance of negotiating good price their product)
Bulk purchasing (able to negotiate good price for their inputs)
Access to funding (government make funding available for cooperative)
Branding (can develop a brand for their product)

TYPES OF COOPARATIVES

PRODUCTION COOPARATIVE-produce collectively

SERVICE COOPARATIVE-provide service to members
MARKETING COOPERATIVE-negotiate with markets on behalf of members
PURCHASING COOPERATIVE-purchase inputs on behalf of members
CONSUMER COOPRATIVE-buy products in bulk and sell to their members at a discount
3. CONTROLLED MARKETING
Is the marketing system in which buying and selling is manipulated or controlled by the government
(government may decide on the price of a product)

ADVANTAGES OF CONTROLLED MARKETING

Orderly marketing
Producer focus on their farming activities rather than spending time on marketing the products
Stable prices
Secure market outlets

DISADVANTAGES OF CONTROLLED MARKETING

It does not encourage entrepreneurship

Producers cannot negotiate prices with potential buyers
The establishment of centralized facilities such as abattoirs or grain storage facilities can be
inefficient and increase transport costs.

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 137 Learning Material

MARKETING CHAIN / SUPPLY CHAIN / AGRIBUSINESS CHAIN

Steps or path involved in the movement of product from farm to the consumer.
Each activity in the chain involves a cost

COST INVOLVED IN MARKETING CHAIN

1. PRODUCTION COST
2 .PACKAGING COST
3. PRODUCT PREPARATION
4. TRANSPORT COST
5. STORAGE COST
6. PROCESSING COST
7. TAX
8. PRODUCT LOSS COST

FACTORS HAMPERING MARKETING OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS

1. POOR INFRUSTRUCTURE
Include poor roads and lack of storage facilities
2. PERISHABILITY OF PRODUCT
Many products deteriorate when not stored, handled and transported properly
3. LOW VALUE IN RELATION TO VOLUME
Some product have low value to their size this increase transport cost

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 138 Learning Material

4. SEASONAL FLUCTUATION
Many products are produced during one season and yet there’s year-round demand which means proper
storage is needed
5. ACCIDENT AND THEFT
It increase marketing cost

WAYS TO STREAMLINE AND IMPROVE MARKETING CHAIN

IMPROVING INFRUSTRUCTURE (build adequate roads)

IMPROVE ACCESS TO MARKET INFORMATION (provide cell phones and internet as a
marketing strategy)
PROVIDE STORAGE (to prevent product spoilage)
PROCESS PRODUCTS CLOSE TO WHERE THEY ARE PRODUCED (reduce less value to
value)

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 139 Learning Material

Notes

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 140 Learning Material

Topic 8
Question 2

Paper 2
AGRICULTURAL ENTREPRENEUSHIP AND BUSINESS PLANNING

Difference between entrepreneurship and entrepreneur

ENTREPRENEUR IMPORTANT FACTORS ANDSUCCESS FACTORS

PHASES OF ENTREPRENURSHIP

1. Identify an opportunity
2. Evaluate opportunity
3. Determine resources required
4. Develop a business plan
5. Start and manage the business

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 141 Learning Material

BUSINESS PLAN
Is a document that describes how a business will operate. It also states the business goals, the reasons they
can be achieved and the plan for how to achieve them

REASON FOR DRAWING UP A BUSINESS PLAN

To secure funding
To test feasibility of business idea
To effectively manage business
To foresee problems and minimise risk
To determine your financial needs
to state vision and mission of the business

TESTING FEASIBILITY OF BUSINESS IDEA

There are 3 questions you got to ask yourself to decide if your business idea will succeed:
Is there a market for my product or service i want to offer?
Do i have skills to start and run the business?
Do i have resources to start the business or can i acquire them?

PROBLEMS WHEN DRWING UP A BUSINESS PLAN

Insufficient research
Leaving gaps or providing too much information
Hiding weakness and risks
Using incorrect format
Not highlighting your competition

SOLUTION WHEN DRAWING UP A BUSINESS PLAN

Using electronic resources as a tool for drawing up a business plan

SWOT ANALYSIS
Is a strategic planning tool that helps you to evaluate your business
It is an acronym for: S- STRENGTH W- WEAKNESS O- OPPORTUNITY T- THREATS

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 142 Learning Material

1. STRENGTH
Factors contributing to the business success
It gives the business an advantage
It is an internal factor that the business can control
For an example:
Good reputation
Skills and labour experience
Latest equipment or latest technology (out-dated machinery)
Good infrastructure
Good management skill
2. WEAKNESS
Factors within the business preventing your success
It is an internal factor which can be improved to strength for the benefit of the business
For an example:
Lack of latest equipment or latest technology (out-dated machinery)
poor location of the business
lack of skills
undercapitalisation
bad reputation
having large debts
poor management skill
3. OPPORTUNITY
External motivating factors that are needed for a farming business to be successful
It help to improve performance of business
For an example:
Changes in tax laws
Market growth
New trends
Lifestyle changes

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-
Agricultural sciences 143 Learning Material

A competitor went bankrupt

4. THREATS
The external factors that can put your farming business at risk.
For an example:
Increased interest rates
Products become unfashionable
Increased competition
Notes

evansneomshengu@gmail.com By E.C Mabuza 0768538168

Mpumalanga province -The Oasis College- Ehlanzeni district
-Insikazi Circuit-