Data Communication and Networks
Assignment
Course: Data Communication and Networks
Institution: Hawassa University, Institute of
Technology Faculty: Faculty of Informatics
Submission Date: 07-09-2017 E.C
Name: Arsema Wendewessen
ID: 1329/16
Section: 3
1. Multiple Access Techniques
Multiple access techniques allow multiple users to share a common communication channel
efficiently. The main techniques include:
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA): This technique divides the available bandwidth
into separate frequency bands. Each user is allocated a unique frequency band for
communication. FDMA is commonly used in analog systems like traditional radio
broadcasting.
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA): TDMA divides the channel into time slots, with each
user assigned specific time intervals for transmission. This method is widely used in GSM
cellular networks where multiple users share the same frequency channel by taking turns.
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA): CDMA allows multiple users to transmit
simultaneously over the same frequency by assigning unique codes to each user. The
receiver uses these codes to separate the signals. CDMA provides better security and
capacity, making it suitable for 3G networks.
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA): OFDMA combines frequency and
time division techniques, dividing the channel into multiple orthogonal subcarriers. This
method is efficient for high-speed data transmission and is used in 4G LTE and 5G
networks.
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA): In CSMA, devices listen to the channel before
transmitting to avoid collisions. If the channel is busy, the device waits for a random time
before retrying. This technique is fundamental to Ethernet networks.
2. Layered Network Architectures (Other than OSI & TCP/IP)
2.1 X.25 Protocol Stack
The X.25 protocol stack is an older but historically significant layered architecture used in
packet- switched networks. It consists of three layers:
Physical Layer: This layer defines the electrical and mechanical interfaces for
communication, such as the RS-232 standard. It handles the physical connection between
devices.
Data Link Layer: The data link layer ensures error-free transmission between nodes using the Link
Access Procedure, Balanced (LAPB) protocol. It manages framing, error detection, and flow control.
Network Layer: The network layer, also known as the Packet Layer Protocol (PLP),
establishes virtual circuits and manages packet routing. X.25 was widely used in early
WANs for reliable data transmission.
2.2 ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) Model
ATM is a high-speed networking standard designed for broadband communication. Its
layered architecture includes:
Physical Layer: This layer handles the transmission of raw bits over physical media, such as
optical fiber (SONET) or copper cables. It ensures synchronization and bit-level integrity.
ATM Layer: The ATM layer is responsible for cell routing and multiplexing. ATM uses fixed-
size 53-byte cells (5-byte header + 48-byte payload) for efficient switching and low latency.
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL): The AAL adapts higher-layer protocols to the ATM layer. It
supports various traffic types, such as voice (AAL1), data (AAL5), and video, by segmenting
and reassembling data into cells.
ATM was widely deployed in backbone networks and for integrated services like voice, video, and
data.
3. Transmission Media & Impairments
3.1 Reliable Transmission Media
Guided Media: These include physical pathways that direct signals from sender to receiver.
Examples are:
Twisted Pair: Consists of two insulated copper wires twisted together to reduce interference.
Commonly used in Ethernet networks (e.g., Cat 5/6 cables).
Fiber Optic: Uses glass or plastic fibers to transmit light signals. Offers high bandwidth,
immunity to electromagnetic interference, and long-distance capabilities.
Unguided Media (Wireless): These transmit signals without physical connections. Examples are:
Radio Waves: Used in Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and cellular networks. Suitable for short to medium-
range communication.
Microwaves: Employed in satellite and terrestrial point-to-point communication. Requires
line-of-sight for transmission.
3.2 Transmission Impairments
Attenuation: The gradual loss of signal strength as it travels through a medium. Repeaters
or amplifiers are used to counteract attenuation.
Distortion: Occurs when different frequency components of a signal arrive at the receiver at
different times, causing deformation. Common in long-distance communication.
Noise: Unwanted signals that interfere with the original signal. Types include thermal noise
(random electron movement), crosstalk (interference between adjacent wires), and impulse
noise (sudden disturbances like lightning).
3.3 Types of Guided Media
Twisted Pair: Unshielded (UTP) and shielded (STP) variants. UTP is cost-effective for LANs,
while STP reduces interference.
Coaxial Cable: Consists of a central conductor surrounded by insulation and a shield. Used in cable
TV
and broadband internet.
Fiber Optic: Single-mode (long-distance) and multi-mode (short-distance) fibers. Offers high
bandwidth and low latency.
3.4 Wireless Transmission Terms
Wavelength: The distance between consecutive peaks of a wave, measured in meters. It is
inversely proportional to frequency (λ = c/f, where c is the speed of light).
Frequency: The number of wave cycles per second, measured in Hertz (Hz). Higher
frequencies provide more bandwidth but have shorter ranges.
Amplitude: The height of the wave, representing signal strength. Higher amplitudes mean
stronger signals but can lead to distortion.
4. LAN & WAN Devices
4.1 Functions of Devices
Network Interface Card (NIC): A hardware component that connects a computer to a network.
It has a unique MAC address for identification and handles data transmission and reception.
Switch: A networking device that connects multiple devices in a LAN. It operates at the data
link layer (Layer 2) and uses MAC addresses to forward data to the correct destination.
Router: A device that routes data between different networks. It operates at the network
layer (Layer 3) and uses IP addresses to determine the best path for data packets.
Access Point: A device that allows wireless devices to connect to a wired network using Wi-
Fi. It bridges wireless and wired networks.
4.2 Ethernet Technology
Ethernet is a widely used LAN technology that employs CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple
Access with Collision Detection) for wired communication. It defines standards like 10BASE-
T (10 Mbps), Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps), and Gigabit Ethernet (1 Gbps). Ethernet frames
include source and destination MAC addresses, data, and error-checking fields.
4.3 Packet Switching Network
In a packet-switching network, data is divided into small packets before transmission. Each
packet is routed independently through the network and reassembled at the destination.
This method is efficient for handling variable traffic and is the foundation of the Internet.
5. Network Commands
Ping: A utility used to test connectivity between two devices. It sends ICMP echo request
packets to a target host and waits for echo replies. Example: `ping 192.168.1.1`.
Netstat: Displays active network connections, listening ports, and routing tables. Useful for
troubleshooting network issues. Example: `netstat -a`.
Traceroute: Shows the path packets take to reach a destination, including all intermediate
hops. Helps identify network bottlenecks. Example: `traceroute google.com`.
Hostname: Displays the name of the current host (computer) on the network. Example:
`hostname`.
Ipconfig: A Windows command that shows the IP configuration of the device, including IP
address, subnet mask, and default gateway. Example: `ipconfig /all`. On Linux/macOS, use
`ifconfig`.
