ECEG-2121: Fundamentals of Circuits Chapter 4: First and Second Order Circuits

4. First and Second Order Circuits

4.1. Capacitors and Inductors
So far we have limited our study to resistive circuits. In this section, we shall introduce two new and
important passive linear circuit elements: the capacitor and the inductor. Unlike resistors, which dissipate
energy, capacitors and inductors do not dissipate but store energy, which can be retrieved at a later time.
For this reason, capacitors and inductors are called storage elements.

4.1.1. Capacitors
A capacitor consists of two conductors (electrodes) separated by an
insulator. The most basic form of a capacitor is the parallel plate
capacitor where two parallel metal plates are separated by an
insulator known as a dielectric. When a parallel plate capacitor is
connected to a source of electromotive force, charges begin
accumulating on the plates. Later, when the source is removed,
these charges remain there and thus we say a capacitor can store
charge.

The amount of charge stored in a capacitor is directly proportional to the voltage across it. This can easily
be defined as:

Q  CV
Figure 4.1-1 Symbol of Capacitor

where C is the proportionality constant defined as the capacitance of the capacitor. So, rearranging terms,
we can state capacitance as:

Q
C [Farads, F]
V

Capacitance (specifically for parallel plate capacitors) is affected by factors such as the area of the plates,
the distance between them and the type of dielectric material used. These factors can be summarized
mathematically as:

A
C 
d

where A: is the area in square meters

d: is the spacing between the plates, in meters
ε: is the absolute dielectric permittivity of the insulating material

For air or vacuum, ε has a value of εo = 8.85x10-12 F/m. For other materials, ε is expressed as the product
of the relative dielectric permittivity, εr times εo. That is,
ε = εr εo
ECEG-2121: Fundamentals of Circuits Chapter 4: First and Second Order Circuits

From the relation Q  CV , one can easily derive,

dv
i=C
dt

This is the current-voltage relationship for a capacitor, assuming the positive sign convention. The
voltage-current relation of the capacitor can be obtained by integrating both sides as:
𝑡
1
𝑣= 𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝐶 −∞

𝑡
1
𝑣= 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑣(𝑡0 )
𝐶 𝑡0

where 𝑣 𝑡0 = 𝑞 𝑡0 /C is the voltage across the capacitor at time 𝑡0 .

Energy stored in a capacitor: Assuming it was initially fully discharged.

𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 𝑉
𝑑𝑣 1
𝐸 = 𝑝 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑡 𝑖(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑡 𝐶 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑡 𝑑𝑣 = 𝐶𝑉 2
0 0 0 𝑑𝑡 0 2

Exercise:
1. Compute the capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor with plates 10 cm by 20 cm, separation of 5
mm, and (a) with air dielectric, (b) with ceramic dielectric with permittivity of 7500.

2. A parallel-plate capacitor with air dielectric has a value of C = 12 pF. What is the capacitance of a
capacitor that has the following:

a) The same separation and dielectric but five times the plate area?
b) The same dielectric but four times the area and one-fifth the plate spacing?
c) A dry paper dielectric, six times the plate area, and twice the plate spacing?
(εr = 2.2 for dry paper)

3. If a 10-µF capacitor is connected to a voltage source with v(t) = 50 sin 2000t V determine the
current through the capacitor.
4. What is the voltage across a 3-µF capacitor if the charge on one plate is 0.12 mC? How much
energy is stored?

5. An initially uncharged 1-mF capacitor has the current shown in the figure below. Calculate the
voltage across it at t = 2ms and t = 5 ms
 ECEG-2121: Fundamentals of Circuits Chapter 4: First and Second Order Circuits

Note:

 No electron crosses the dielectric material.

 When the voltage across a capacitor is not changing with time (i.e., dc voltage), the current
through the capacitor is zero. Thus, Capacitor functions as a filter, passing alternating current
and blocking direct current.
 The voltage on the capacitor must be continuous, it cannot change abruptly.
 The capacitance of a capacitor is generally very small, so the most common units are microfarad,
nanofarad and picofarad.

4.1.2. Series and Parallel Capacitors

Equivalent Capacitance of capacitors connected in series:
Consider the following circuit,

(a) (b)
Figure 4.1-2 (a) N-Capacitors connected in series (b) equivalent circuit

Applying KVL to the above loop,

𝑣 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣3 + … … … + 𝑣𝑁
1 𝑡
But 𝑣𝑘 = 𝐶𝑘 −∞
𝑖 𝜏 𝑑𝜏. Therefore,
𝑡 𝑡
1 1 1 1
𝑣= + + ………+ 𝑖 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑖 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶𝑁 −∞ 𝐶𝑒𝑞 −∞
where
1 1 1 1
= + + ………+
𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶𝑁
Thus, the equivalent capacitance of series connected capacitors is the reciprocal of the sum of the
reciprocals of the individual capacitances.

Equivalent Capacitance of capacitors connected in Parallel:

Consider N capacitors connected in parallel as shown below,

(a) (b)
Figure 4.1-3 (a) N-Capacitors connected in parallel (b) equivalent circuit
 ECEG-2121: Fundamentals of Circuits Chapter 4: First and Second Order Circuits

Applying KCL we get,

𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + 𝑖3 + … … … + 𝑖𝑁
dv dv dv
 c1  c2    CN
dt dt dt
dv dv
 (c1  c2    C N )  Ceq.
dt dt
From the above equation we conclude that the equivalent capacitance of N capacitors connected in
parallel is equal to the algebraic sum of capacitance of the N capacitors. That is,
N
C eq   Ci
i 1

Exercise: Find the voltage across each of the capacitors in the following figure.

4.1.3. Inductors
Before we start with inductors, let us first see some laws

Faraday’s Law
Michael Faraday stated that voltage is induced in a circuit whenever the magnetic flux linking (i.e., passing
through) the circuit is changing and that the magnitude of the voltage is proportional to the rate of change
of the flux linkages. Mathematically:
d
emf  
dt

where emf: the emf induced in the circuit

 : the total linking flux

For a coil with N number of turns each with identical linking flux of  , the induced emf will be:
d
emf   N
dt

Lenz’s Law

Heinrich Lenz determined a companion result. He showed that the polarity of

the induced voltage is such as to oppose the cause producing it.

Let us turn our attention back to inductors. An inductor can be defined as a

passive circuit element that stores energy in a magnetic field created by the
electric current flowing through it. An inductor’s ability to store energy is
 ECEG-2121: Fundamentals of Circuits Chapter 4: First and Second Order Circuits

measured by it inductance. A typical inductor is a conducting wire shaped as a coil, the loop helps create
strong magnetic field from Faraday’s Law of induction.

Inductance (the property of inductors) is entirely due to the magnetic field produced by current carrying
conductors. Current through a coil creates a magnetic field that in turn, according to Faraday’s Law,
creates a voltage across the terminals of the coil. This induced emf is directly proportional to the rate of
change of current through the coil. Mathematically:

di
eL
dt Symbol of an Inductor

where L is called the self-inductance (usually simply referred to as ‘inductance’) of the coil and its SI unit
is Henry (H).

Inductance for some simple shapes can be determined using electromagnetic principles. The relation is
given as:

N 2 A
L [Henry, H]
l

where µ: is the permeability of the core

l: is the length
A: is the cross-sectional area in meters squared
N: is the number of turns in the coil

Mutual inductance is observed when the magnetic flux produced by a current flowing in one coil induces a
voltage in a nearby coil.

Energy stored in an inductor:

𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 𝐼
𝑑𝑖 1
𝐸= 𝑝 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑡 𝑖(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 𝑖 𝑡 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐿𝑖 𝑡 𝑑𝑖 = 𝐿𝐼 2
0 0 0 𝑑𝑡 0 2

Exercise:
1. If the current through a 1-mH inductor is i(t) = 20 cos 100t mA, find the terminal voltage and the energy
stored.
2. The terminal voltage of a 2-H inductor is v = 10(1− t) V. Find the current flowing through it at t = 4 s and
the energy stored in it within 0 <t<4 s. Assume i(0) = 2A.
3. Determine vC, iL, and the energy stored in the capacitor and inductor in the circuit below under dc
conditions.
 ECEG-2121: Fundamentals of Circuits Chapter 4: First and Second Order Circuits

Note:

 When the current through an inductor is not changing with time (i.e., dc current), the voltage
across the inductor is zero. Thus, an inductor acts like a short circuit to dc.
 The current through the inductor must be continuous, it cannot change instantaneously.

4.1.4. Series and Parallel Inductors

Equivalent Inductance of Inductors connected in Series:

Consider the following circuit

(a) (b)
Figure 4.1-4 (a) N-Inductors connected in series (b) equivalent circuit

Applying KVL around the loop, we have

𝑣 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣3 + … … … + 𝑣𝑁
di di
v  ( L1  L2    LN )  Leq
dt dt
Therefore, the equivalent inductance of N number of inductors connected in series is the sum of the
individual inductances.
N
Leq   Li
i 1

Equivalent Inductance of Inductors connected in parallel:

Consider the circuit shown below:

(a) (b)
Figure 4.1-5 (a) N-Inductors connected in parallel (b) equivalent circuit

Applying KCL we obtain,

𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + 𝑖3 + … … … + 𝑖𝑁

1 1 1 t 1 t
i( 
L1 L2
 ......  )  V ( )d =
L N  L eq . 
V ( )d
ECEG-2121: Fundamentals of Circuits Chapter 4: First and Second Order Circuits

Therefore, the equivalent inductance of N inductors connected in parallel is given by:

N
1 1
=
1 1 1
=   ...... 
L eq . L1 L2 L N i 1 L i

The following table summarizes the most important characteristics of the three basic circuit elements we
have studied.

Exercise:

In the circuit below, i1(t) = 0.6e− 2t A. If i(0) = 1.4A, find:

(a) i2(0) (b) i2(t) and i(t) (c) v(t), v1(t), and v2(t).