Chapter Five
Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis
Sinusoids and Phasors
A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the sine or cosine function. A sinusoidal current is usually
referred to as alternating current (ac). Circuits driven by sinusoidal current or voltage sources are called
ac circuits. A sinusoidal forcing function produces both a natural (or transient) response and a forced (or
steady-state) response. When the natural response has become negligibly small compared with the
steady-state response, we say that the circuit is operating at sinusoidal steady state.
Revision: SINUSOIDS
Consider the sinusoidal voltage v(t) = Vm sin ωt
where
Vm = the amplitude of the sinusoid
ω = the angular frequency in radians/s
ωt = the argument of the sinusoid
The sinusoid repeats itself every T seconds; thus, T is called the period of the sinusoid.
T = 2π/ω and v(t + T ) = v(t)
A periodic function is one that satisfies f (t) = f (t + nT), for all t and for all integers n.
The reciprocal of period is known as the cyclic frequency f of the sinusoid. f is in hertz (Hz).
f = 1/T so ω = 2πf
More general expression for the sinusoid is v(t) = Vm sin(ωt + φ) where φ is the phase
For v1(t) = Vm sin ωt and v2(t) = Vm sin(ωt + φ)
- v2 leads v1 by φ or that v1 lags v2 by φ, if φ ≠ 0.
- v1 and v2 are out of phase, if φ ≠ 0.
- If φ = 0, then v1 and v2 are said to be in phase
v1 and v2 are compared in this manner because
- they operate at the same frequency;
- they do not need to have the same amplitude.
When comparing two sinusoids, it is expedient to express both as either sine or cosine with positive
amplitudes
sin(A ± B) = sinAcosB ± cosAsinB
cos(A ± B) = cosAcosB ∓ sinAsinB
so,
sin(ωt ± 180◦) = −sin ωt
cos(ωt ± 180◦) = −cos ωt
sin(ωt ± 90◦) = ±cos ωt
cos(ωt ± 90◦) = ∓sin ωt
To add Acos ωt and Bsin ωt,
Acos ωt + B sin ωt = C cos(ωt − θ) Where, C =√(𝐴2 + 𝐵2) , θ= tan−1 B/A
Revision: PHASORS
A phasor is a complex number that represents the amplitude and phase of a sinusoid.
A complex number z can be written in rectangular form as z = x + jy. where j =√−1; x is the real part of z; y
is the imaginary part of z
The complex number z can also be written in polar or exponential form as z = r/φ = rejφ
So,
Given a sinusoid v(t) = Vm cos(ωt + φ),
v(t) = Vm cos(ωt + φ) = Re(Vmej(ωt+φ))
Thus,
v(t) = Re(Vejωt ) where V = Vmejφ = Vm/φ
V is thus the phasor representation of the sinusoid v(t)
So,
The phasor domain is also known as the frequency domain
Derivative of v(t) = Re(Vejωt ) = Vm cos (ωt+φ)
Similarly, the integral of v(t) is transformed to the phasor domain as
The differences between v(t) and V:
1. v(t) is the instantaneous or time-domain representation, while V is the frequency or phasor-domain
representation.
2. v(t) is time dependent, while V is not.
3. v(t) is always real with no complex term, while V is generally complex.
** Phasor analysis applies only when frequency is constant.
PHASOR RELATIONSHIPS FOR CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
If the current through a resistor R is i=Im cos(ωt + φ), the voltage across it is given by Ohm’s law as
v = iR = RIm cos(ωt + φ)
The phasor form of this voltage is V = RIm/φ
But the phasor representation of the curren t is I = Im/φ. Hence, V = RI
For the inductor L, assume the current through it is i = Im cos(ωt + φ). The voltage across the inductor is
v = Ldi/dt = −ωLIm sin(ωt + φ)
Since −sinA = cos(A + 90◦) => v = ωLIm cos(ωt + φ + 90◦)
So, V = ωLImej(φ+90◦) = ωLImejφej90◦ = ωLIm/φej90◦
But Im/φ = I, and ej90◦ = j . Thus, V = jωLI
The Inductor current lags the voltage by 90◦.
For the capacitor C, assume the voltage across it is v =Vm cos(ωt + φ).
The current through the capacitor is i = Cdv/dt
I = jωCV ⇒ V = I / jωC
The capacitor current leads the voltage by 90◦.
Example:
Exercise: If voltage v = 6 cos(100t−30◦) is applied to a 50 μF capacitor, calculate the current
through the capacitor.
IMPEDANCE AND ADMITTANCE
The impedance Z of a circuit is the ratio of the phasor voltage V to the phasor current I, measured in
ohms (Ω).
Z = V / I or V = ZI
The admittance Y is the reciprocal of impedance, measured in siemens (S).
Y = 1/Z = I / V
The impedance expressed in rectangular form is Z = R + jX, where R = Re Z is the resistance and X = Im Z is
the reactance.
Z = R + jX is said to be inductive or lagging since current lags voltage, while impedance Z = R − jX is
capacitive or leading because current leads voltage.
The Admittance expressed in rectangular form is Y = G + jB, where G =ReY is the conductance and B =ImY
is the susceptance.
Example: Find v(t) and i(t) in the circuit
KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS IN THE FREQUENCY DOMAIN
IMPEDANCE COMBINATIONS
Consider the N series-connected impedances. The same current I flows through the impedances. Applying
KVL around the loop gives
V = V1 + V2 +· · ·+VN = I(Z1 + Z2 +· · ·+ZN)
The equivalent impedance at the input terminals is
Zeq = V/I= Z1 + Z2 +· · ·+ZN
Voltage-division relationship holds for impedance.
Consider the equivalent impedance or admittance of the N parallel-connected impedances.
The voltage across each impedance is the same. Applying KCL at the top node,
I = I1 + I2 +· · ·+IN = V/(1/Z1 + 1/Z2 +· · ·+ 1/ZN)
The equivalent impedance is
1/Zeq= I/V= 1/Z1 + 1/Z2 +· · ·+ 1/ZN
and the equivalent admittance is
Yeq = Y1 + Y2 +· · ·+YN
Current-division principle holds for parallel Impedance
The delta-to-wye and wye-to-delta transformations are also valid for impedances.
A delta or wye circuit is said to be balanced if it has equal impedances in all three branches.
Zꕔ = 3ZY or ZY = 1/3Zꕔ
where ZY = Z1 = Z2 = Z3 and Zꕔ = Za = Zb = Zc.
Example: Find the input impedance of the circuit. Assume that the circuit operates at ω = 50 rad/s.
Exercise: Determine vo(t) in the circuit
Solution: vo(t) = 17.15 cos(4t + 15.96◦)V
Exercise: Find current I in the circuit
Solution: I = 3.666 /− 4.204◦ A
