ME−411

REFRIGERATION & AIR-

CONDITIONING
Teacher In-charge
PROF. DR. ASAD NAEEM SHAH
anaeems@uet.edu.pk

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY,
LAHORE
 HEATING-AND COOLING-
LOAD CALCULATIONS
“To examine procedures for evaluating the effect of
thermal characteristics of the building envelope on
the design of HVAC systems.”

Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

 INTRODUCTION
o Air conditioning is the process of treating air in internal
environment to establish and maintain required standers
of temperature, humidity, cleanliness, and motion.
o Buildings are built to provide a safe and comfortable
internal environment despite variations in external
conditions. The extent to which the desired interior
conditions can be economically maintained is an
important measure of the success of a building design.
o Although control of inside conditions is usually attributed
to the active heating and cooling system, the design of
heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) must
start with an examination of the thermal characteristics of
the building envelope. These thermal characteristics
influence both the equipment capacity and the energy
requirement of its operation.
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 HEALTH AND COMFORT CRITERIA
o Human body continuously generates heats at the rate
varying 100W − 500W depending upon the health and the
activity of the individuals, and is considered as an
amazingly adaptable organism. With long-term conditioning,
the body can function under quite extreme thermal
conditions. Variations in outdoor temperature and humidity,
however, often go beyond the normal limits of adaptability
of a human body.
o Moreover, heat is neither generated uniformly throughout
the body, nor is dissipated evenly. Comfort conditions are
different for different people, depending upon various
conditions. Consequently, it is imperative to study thermal
comfort and its associated factors to provide modified
indoor-conditions for healthy and comfortable environment.
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 THERMAL COMFORT
o Factors that influence thermal comfort are illustrated in
Fig. 1, and include the following:
1. Physiological or metabolism
factors
2. Human heat loss
3. Insulating factor
4. Thermal-comfort factors or
environmental factors

Fig. 1: Factors influencing thermal comfort.

 THERMAL COMFORT Cont.
o Body heat is generated by metabolic processes to
maintain body temperature. These processes are
influenced by factors such as age, health and level of
activity (Fig. 1). The body generated heat must be lost or
dissipated to maintain a constant temperature. The
various mechanisms by which this temperature control is
accomplished are convection (30%), radiation (30%), &
evaporation (40%).
o Evaporation plays an important role in the body cooling.
Water on the skin (perspiration), which has absorbed
heat from the body, evaporates into the surrounding air,
taking the heat with it. Moreover, four thermal-comfort/
environmental factors, shown in Fig. 1, also influence the
body’s ability to dissipate heat.
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 THERMAL COMFORT Cont.
o The amount and type of insulating or clothing and the
activity levels of the occupants interact with these
thermal-comfort factors.
o Therefore, in designing an air-conditioning system,
efforts should be made to control above four thermal-
comfort factors. If a person is wearing appropriate
clothing, the following ranges should usually be
acceptable:
a) Operative temperature: 20 𝑡𝑜 26℃
b) Relative Humidity: 25−30% (in winter) & 50−60% (in
summer)
c) Dew-point temperature: A dew-point temperature of
2 𝑡𝑜 17℃
d) Average air velocity: 𝑈𝑝 𝑡𝑜 0.25 𝑚/𝑠
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 THERMAL COMFORT Cont.
o The operative temperature is approximately the average
of the air-dry bulb temperature and the mean radiant
temperature (as long as the mean radiant temperature is
less than 50℃ and the average air velocity is less than
0.4 𝑚/𝑠).
o However, the mean radiant temperature (MRT) is the
average temperature of all the surfaces surrounding a
person, including walls, floors, and objects, which is
crucial because it influences the radiant heat exchange
between the human body and its environment.
o As per ASHRAE, the MRT is defined as the uniform
surface temperature of an imaginary black enclosure with
which an occupant would have the same radiant energy
exchange as in the actual non-uniform space.
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 AIR QUALITY
o Air quality (AQ) refers to the degree of purity of the air,
and must be maintained to provide a healthy and
comfortable indoor environment.
o But sources of pollution/contaminants such as tobacco
smoke and dust particles, biological micro organisms,
and toxic gases exist in both the internal and external
environment, and are responsible to worsen the AQ.
o Cleaning devices such as filters may be used to remove
the particles. Also, adsorbent chemicals may be used to
remove unwanted gases.
o Indoor air quality (IAQ) is controlled by removal of the
indoor air contaminants or by dilution. Ventilation, defined
as supplying air by natural or mechanical means to a
space, plays an important role in both the processes.
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 AIR QUALITY Cont.
o Normally, ventilation is made by introducing substantial
quantities of outdoor air along with re-circulated air into the
building. The purpose of outdoor air is to provide the
dilution.
o Mostly, odor and irritation of the upper respiratory tract or
eyes are the reason for ventilation rather than
contaminants. The role of contaminants, however, cannot
be overlooked.
o Therefore, the subject of IAQ has become of major concern
in recent years. Researchers have revealed that there are
certain indoor air-contaminants which can cause serious
health effects on occupants. The phrases sick building
syndrome and building-related illness have been coined to
refer to these effects.
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 AIR QUALITY Cont.
o Also, if the level of contaminants in outdoor air exceeds
that for minimum air-quality standards, extraordinary
measures should be used. However, it is presumed here
that outdoor-air quality (OAQ) is satisfactory for dilution
purposes.
o Table 1 presents outdoor-air requirements of ventilation
for three occupancy types listed in the standard.

Table 1: Outdoor-air requirement for ventilation.

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 AIR QUALITY Cont.
o It is obvious that much larger air quantities are required
for dilution in areas where smoking is permitted.
o Ventilation imposes a significant load on heating and
cooling equipment leading to a major contribution to
energy use.
o Space occupancies and the choice of ventilation rates
should be considered carefully. For example, if smoking
is permitted in part of a building but restricted in other
part of the building, ventilation rates for smoking zone
should not be assumed uniformly.
o Also, the prospect of filtering and cleaning air for
recirculation must be examined carefully. The use of re-
circulated air will conserve energy whenever the
outdoor-air temperature is extremely high or low.
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 AIR QUALITY Cont.
o The ASHRAE Standard provides the following procedure
for determining the allowable rate for recirculation:
𝑉ሶ = 𝑉𝑟ሶ + 𝑉𝑚
ሶ
where
𝑉ሶ = rate of supply air for ventilation purposes, L/s
𝑉𝑟ሶ = recirculation air rate, L/s
𝑉𝑚 ሶ = minimum outdoor-air rate for specified occupancy
o Moreover,
𝑉ሶ0 − 𝑉𝑚
ሶ
𝑉𝑟ሶ =
𝐸
where
𝑉ሶ0 = outdoor-air rate from Table 1 for specified occupancy
(smoking or non-smoking), 𝐿Τ𝑠, and
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 AIR QUALITY Cont.
𝐸 = efficiency of contaminant removal by air-
cleaning device.
o The efficiency must be determined relative to the
contaminant to be removed. Table 2 provides the values
for 1 𝜇𝑚 particles.

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 EXAMPLE
Determine the ventilation rate, outdoor-air rate, and
recirculated-air rate for an office-building meeting room if
smoking is permitted. An air-cleaning device with E = 60
percent for removal of tobacco smoke is available.
SOLUTION
As 𝑉ሶ0 = 17.5 & 𝑉𝑚 ሶ = 3.5 𝐿/𝑠 (From Table 1 it is clear that
17.5 L/s of outdoor air per person would be required to
ventilate the space without any recirculation and air
cleaning. Also, 3.5 L/s per person is the required outdoor-air
rate for non-smoking spaces).
𝑉0ሶ − 𝑉𝑚ሶ 17.5 − 3.5
𝑉𝑟ሶ = = = 23.3 𝐿/𝑠
𝐸 60/100
∵ 𝑉ሶ = 𝑉𝑟ሶ + 𝑉𝑚
ሶ = 23.3 + 3.5 = 𝟐𝟔. 𝟖 𝐿/𝑠 per person.
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HEAT LOSS AND HEAT GAIN ESTIMATION
o The primary function of heat-loss and heat-gain, and thus
load (heating and cooling) calculations is to estimate the
required capacity of various heating and air-conditioning
components to maintain comfort within a space.
o Heat transfer through a building envelope is influenced
by the following factors:
1. The materials used
2. The geometric factors such as size, shape, and
orientation
3. The existence of internal heat sources, and
4. The climatic factors.
o Load calculations are therefore based on peak-load
conditions and correspond to extreme environmental
conditions.
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HEAT LOSS AND HEAT GAIN ESTIMATION Cont.
o The load-calculation (for heating or cooling) procedure
developed by the 𝐴𝑆𝐻𝑅𝐴𝐸 will be discussed here.
o Loads are generally divided into four categories (Fig. 1):
1. Transmission: Heat loss or heat gain due to a
temperature difference across a building element.

Fig. 1: Categories of heating & cooling loads.

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HEAT LOSS AND HEAT GAIN ESTIMATION Cont.
2. Infiltration: Heat loss or heat gain due to the infiltration
of outside air into a conditioned space.
3. Solar: Heat gain due to transmission of solar energy
through a transparent building component or absorption
by an opaque building component.
4. Internal: Heat gain due to the release of energy within a
space (people, lights, equipment, etc.). Internal heat
comprises sensible and latent heat gains (loads).
o In response to above discussed loads, the temperature in
the space will change, and thus the heating or cooling
equipment will operate to maintain a desired
temperature.
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 CALCULATION OR
ESTIMATION OF THE
HEATING/COOLING
LOADS
A general procedure for evaluating the heating
(in winter) and/or cooling load (in summer) is
based on the following components:

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 𝟏 −DESIGN CONDITIONS
o The design conditions usually specified for estimating
heating loads are the inside and outside dry-bulb
temperatures.
o For heating operation, an indoor temperature of
20 𝑡𝑜 22℃ , while for cooling operation a temperature of
24 𝑡𝑜 26℃ is generally assumed.
o A minimum relative humidity of 30% in the winter and a
maximum of 60% in the summer is assumed.
o For heating operation (in winter), the 97.5 percent value
of the outside temperature is usually chosen, and at this
value of temperature the air is assumed to be saturated.
The set of conditions specified for cooling-load
estimates, however, is more complex and involves the
solar intensity as well.
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 DESIGN CONDITIONS Cont.
o Peak-load conditions during the cooling season (in
summer) usually correspond to the maximum solar
conditions rather than to the peak outdoor-air
temperature. Thus, it is necessary to make several
calculations at different times of the day or times of the
year to fix the maximum cooling capacity requirements.
o Moreover, the cooling-load calculation depends on the
geographic location and on the orientation of the space
being considered. For example, peak solar loading on an
east-facing room may occur at 8 A.M., while for a west
room the maximum load may occur at 4 P.M. However,
peak solar loads for south-facing rooms will occur during
the winter rather than the summer.
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 DESIGN CONDITIONS Cont.
o Table 3 provides outdoor design temperature data for a
number of locations. It provides the 97.5 % dry-bulb
temperature for winter and the 2.5% dry-bulb and
coincident wet-bulb temperature for summer.
o The 2.5 percent dry-bulb temperature is the temperature
exceeded by 2.5 percent of the hours during June to
September.
o The mean coincident wet-bulb temperature is the mean
wet-bulb temperature occurring at that 2.5 percent dry-
bulb temperature.

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Table 3: Design temperature data.

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 𝟐 −THERMAL TRANSMISSION
o The heat loss or heat gain by thermal transmission is
calculated as:

∆𝑡 𝐴 ∆𝑡
𝑞= ∗ = = 𝑈𝐴 𝑡0 − 𝑡𝑖 → (1)
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡
where
∗
𝑈𝐴 = 1/(𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 ), 𝑊/𝐾
∗
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐾/𝑊
𝑈 = 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑊/𝑚2 . 𝐾
𝐴 = 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝑚2
𝑡0 − 𝑡𝑖 = 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 − 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐾
o Table 4 provides values for thermal resistance applicable
to unit area of surface at 24℃ mean temperature.
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 THERMAL TRANSMISSION Cont.
o For heating-load estimates (in winter), the temperature
difference is simply the 97.5 percent outside value minus
the inside deign value.
o For a slab-on-grade construction, the heat loss is more
nearly proportional to the length of the perimeter of the
slab (in meters) than its area. Thus,
𝒒𝒔𝒍𝒂𝒃 = 𝑭 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝟎 − 𝒕𝒊 → (𝟐)
where 𝐹 is a constant.
o The constant 𝐹 = 1.4 for an uninsulated edge and 𝐹 =
0.9 𝑊/𝑚. 𝐾 for a slab with 2.5 cm of insulation at the
edge.
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 EXAMPLE
Determine the total thermal resistance of a unit area of the
wall section shown in figure below.

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 𝟑 − VENTILATION AND INFILTRATION
LOADS
o Air exchange of outdoor-air with the air already in the
building can be divided into two broad classifications:
1) Ventilation, and
2) Infiltration
o The process of supplying fresh air to occupied spaces to
offset the heat and contaminants produced by people is
known as ventilation. Ventilation air provides oxygen,
removes respired CO2 , dilutes the body odors.
o The magnitude of air that is the outdoor airflow into the
building, as discussed earlier, must be known for the
proper design of sizing of the air-conditioning equipment
and evaluation of energy consumption.
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VENTILATION AND INFILTRATION LOADS Cont.
o Ventilation may further be divided into two categories i.e.,
natural ventilation and forced ventilation. Natural
ventilation is the deliberately induced outdoor airflow into
premises through openings, e.g., windows, grilles, doors,
louvers by naturally produced pressure differentials.
Forced ventilation is the intentional movement of air into
a building by mechanical means i.e., by using fans.
o In commercial and institutional buildings, it is advisable to
control the entry of outside air to assure proper
ventilation and minimize energy use.
o The volumetric flow rate of outside air for ventilation,
however, is computed from Table 1 and the method is
given in section ‘Air Quality’, already discussed.
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VENTILATION AND INFILTRATION LOADS Cont.
o Infiltration, defined as the uncontrolled entry of
unconditioned outside air directly into the building,
results from natural forces, e.g., wind and buoyancy due
to the temperature difference between inside and
outside.
o Infiltration is, actually, the random flow of air through
unintentional openings driven by wind and difference in
pressures. It is balanced by an equal amount of
exfiltration since, except for transient conditions, there is
no net storage of air in a building.
o Air leakage is the sum of all parallel air flows through
cracks and other openings into or out of a building
without regard to flow direction.
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VENTILATION AND INFILTRATION LOADS Cont.
o As infiltration is uncontrolled, the buildings are designed
and constructed to limit infiltration as much as possible.
This is done by sealing the building envelope where
possible, using vestibules or revolving doors, or
maintaining a pressure within the building slightly in
excess of that outside.
o However, if a building does not have mechanical
ventilation, or if the fans in the system are not operating,
infiltration will occur. But the accurate volumetric flow rate
of infiltration air is rather difficult to determine as it varies
with the quality of construction, wind speed and direction,
indoor-outdoor temperature difference, and internal
pressure in the building.
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VENTILATION AND INFILTRATION LOADS Cont.
o However, infiltration can be estimated by using (a) the air
change method (i.e., the number of air changes per hour)
or (b) the crack method.
o One air change per hour is a volumetric flow rate
numerically equal to the internal volume of the space.
o The number of air changes per hour for a smaller building
with no internal pressurization can be estimated as a
function of wind velocity and temperature difference as:
Number of air changes = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑉 + 𝑐 𝑡0 − 𝑡𝑖 → (1)
where
𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 = experimentally determined contants, and
𝑉 = wind velocity, m/s
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VENTILATION AND INFILTRATION LOADS Cont.
o Typical values of 𝑎, 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 are presented in Table 5
below.
Table 5: Infiltration constants for infiltration in Eqn. (1)

o For non-residential buildings it is customary to use

estimates of infiltration for load calculations only when the
fans in the ventilation system are not operating.
➢ HEAT LOSS OR HEAT GAIN CALCULATION: The entry
of outside air into the space influences both the air
temperature and the humidity level in the space.
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VENTILATION AND INFILTRATION LOADS Cont.
o The distinction between the two effects is made through
sensible load (i.e., temperature effect) and the latent load
(i.e., humidity effect). The same terminology applies to the
other load components as well e.g., transmission and
solar loads are sensible, while internal loads arising from
occupancy have both sensible and latent components.
o Thus heat loss or heat gain due to entry of outside air is:
𝑞𝑖𝑠 = 1.23 𝑄ሶ 𝑡0 − 𝑡𝑖 & 𝑞𝑖𝑙 = 3000 𝑄ሶ 𝑊0 − 𝑊𝑖
where, 𝑄ሶ = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟, 𝐿Τ𝑠 &
𝑊 = ℎ𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑖𝑟, 𝑘𝑔/𝑘𝑔
∵ 𝑞𝑖𝑠 = 𝜌𝑎 𝑐𝑝𝑚 𝑄ሶ 𝑡0 − 𝑡𝑖 ; 𝑞𝑖𝑙 = 𝜌𝑎 ℎ𝑔 @ 0℃ 𝑄ሶ 𝑊0 − 𝑊𝑖 ; 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
ℎ𝑔 @ 0℃ = 2500 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔 ; 𝜌𝑎 = 1.2 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑚3 ; 𝑐𝑝𝑚 = 1.02𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝐾

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 PROBLEM 4.3
An office in Houston, Texas, is maintained at 25℃ and 55
percent relative humidity. The average occupancy is five
people, and there will be some smoking. Calculate the
cooling load imposed by ventilation requirements at summer
design conditions with supply air conditions set at 15℃ and
95 percent relative humidity if (a) the recommended rate of
outside ventilation air is used and (b) if a filtration device of
𝐸 = 70 percent is used.
SOLUTION
➢ Out-side conditions:
𝑡𝑑𝑏 = 34℃ & 𝑡𝑤𝑏 = 25℃;
(corresponding to Houston, Tex & summer design
conditions; From Table 3).
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 ∴ ℎ𝑜 = 76 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔 & 𝑊𝑜 = 0.0163 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑘𝑔
(From Psychrometric chart)
➢ Supply air conditions:
∵ 𝑡𝑑𝑏 = 15℃ & 𝜙 = 95%
⇒ ℎ𝑠 = 40.5 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔 & 𝑊𝑠 = 0.010 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑘𝑔
➢ Inside conditions:
∵ 𝑡𝑑𝑏 = 25℃ & 𝜙 = 55%
⇒ ℎ𝑖 = 53.2 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔 & 𝑊𝑖 = 0.011 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑘𝑔
(a)
𝑉ሶ = 𝑉𝑜ሶ = 10 𝐿Τ𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛;
(For offices corresponding to smoking column; from Table 1)
⇒ 𝑉ሶ = 𝑄ሶ = 10 × 5 = 50 𝐿Τ𝑠
∵ 𝑞𝑠 = 1.23 𝑄ሶ 𝑡0 − 𝑡𝑖 = 1.23 × 50 × 34 − 15 = 1168.5 𝑊
∵ 𝑞𝑙 = 3000 𝑄ሶ 𝑊0 − 𝑊𝑖 = 3000 × 50 × 0.0163 − 0.011 = 945 𝑊
⇒ 𝑞𝑡 = 𝑞𝑠 + 𝑞𝑙 = 𝟐. 𝟏 𝒌𝑾
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(b): if a filtration device of 𝐸 = 70% is used.
𝑉ሶ0 − 𝑉𝑚
ሶ
∵ 𝑉𝑟ሶ = → 1
𝐸
(where 𝑉ሶ0 = outdoor−air rat𝑒 = 10 𝐿Τ𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛), but
ሶ = 2.5 𝐿Τ𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛
∵ 𝑉𝑚
(𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑑𝑜𝑜𝑟−𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 1)
⇒ 𝑉1ሶ = 𝑉𝑚
ሶ × 5 = 2.5 × 5 = 12.5 𝐿Τ𝑠 (𝐹𝑜𝑟 5 𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒)
o Thus Eqn. (1) leads to:
50 − 12.5
⇒ 𝑉ሶ2 = = 53.571 𝐿/𝑠
0.7
∵ 𝑞𝑠 = 1.23 𝑉1ሶ 𝑡0 − 𝑡𝑠 + 1.23𝑉ሶ2 𝑡𝑖 − 𝑡𝑠
⇒ 𝑞𝑠 = 1.23 × 12.5 × 34 − 15 + 1.23 × 53.571 × 25 − 15
⇒ 𝑞𝑠 = 951𝑊
Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
o Now latent heat calculation:
∵ 𝑞𝑙 = 3000 𝑉1ሶ 𝑊0 − 𝑊𝑠 + 3000 𝑉ሶ2 𝑊𝑖 − 𝑊𝑠
⇒ 𝑞𝑙 = 3000 × 12.5 × 0.0163 − 0.01 + 3000 × 53.571 × 0.011 − 0.010

⇒ 𝑞𝑙 = 397 𝑊

o Finally,
⇒ 𝑞𝑡 = 𝑞𝑠 + 𝑞𝑙 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟓 𝒌𝑾

Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

 SUMMARY OF PROCEDURE
o Summary of procedure for estimating heating loads (i.e.,
heat lost) is as follows:
1. Select design values for outdoor winter design (97.5 % value)
from Table 3.
2. Select an indoor design temperature and a minimum
acceptable relative humidity.
3. Determine whether any special conditions will exist, such as
adjacent unconditioned spaces. Estimate temperatures in the
unconditioned spaces.
4. Calculate heat transfer coefficients and areas for the building
components on the basis of building plans and specifications.
5. Estimate the rate of infiltration and/or ventilation outside air on
the basis of building components, system design and
operation, wind velocity, and indoor-outdoor temperature
difference.
Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
 SUMMARY OF PROCEDURE Cont.
6. Compute transmission heat losses for each surface of the
building envelope and the heat loss from infiltration and/or
ventilation, and thus determine the total estimated heat loss.
7. Consider any special circumstances that might influence
equipment sizing. For example:
a) If a building and its heating system are designed to take
advantage of passive solar gain and thermal storage.
b) In a building that has the steady internal load (heat release),
e.g., a hospital or industrial building which operates on a 24-h
basis.
c) A randomly or occasionally used building in which indoor
temperatures are allowed to drop over a lengthy unoccupied
period.
Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah