Chapter 14: Hydraulic Turbines

Hydraulic machines are defined as the machines which converts either hydraulic energy into
mechanical energy or mechanical energy into hydraulic energy. The hydraulic machine which
converts the mechanical energy into hydraulic machine is called as pump. The hydraulic
machine which converts the hydraulic energy into mechanical energy is called as turbine. The
hydraulic turbine is a power producing turbomachine which produces mechanical power from
hydraulic energy of water which is used to run an electric generator to produce electric power.

Classification of turbines

The important classifications of hydraulic turbines are given below.

i. According to action of water on moving blades:

a. Impulse turbine (e.g.) Pelton turbine
b. Reaction turbine (e.g.) Francis turbine
ii. According to the head of water available:
a. High head turbine (above 250 m) (e.g.) Pelton turbine
b. Medium head turbine ( 60 m to 250 m (e.g.) Francis turbine
c. Low head turbine (below 60 m) (e.g.) Kaplan turbine
iii. According to the flow direction of water:
a. Tangential flow turbine: Flow direction is tangent to the path of rotation of the
runner. (e.g.) Pelton turbine
b. Radian flow turbine: Flow direction is in radial direction and perpendicular to the axis
of the turbine. This may be either inward radial flow turbine or outward radial flow
turbine. In an inward radial flow turbine, the water flows radially inward towards the
axis of the turbine (e.g.) Francis turbine, Thomson turbine and Girard radial flow
turbine. In an outward radial flow turbine water enters at the centre and flows
radially outwards towards the outer periphery of the runner. (e.g.) Fourneyron
turbine.
c. Axial Flow turbine: In axial flow turbine the water flows parallel to the axis of
runner. (e.g.) Propeller turbine, Kaplan turbine
d. Mixed flow turbine: In mixed flow turbine water enters the runner at the outer
periphery in the radial direction and leaves it at the centre in the direction parallel to
axis of rotation of runner. (e.g.) Modern Francis turbine
iv. According to the specific speed of turbine:
a. Low specific speed ranging from 8.5 to 30 (e.g.) Pelton turbine
b. Medium specific speed varying from 50 to 340 (e.g.) Francis turbine
c. High specific speed varying from 255 to 860 (e.g.) Kaplan turbine
v. According to disposition of shaft:
a. Vertical shaft turbine
b. Horizontal shaft turbine

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Head of Hydraulic Turbines

The head acting on the turbine may be defined in two ways as follows:

a. Gross Head (H1): Gross head is defined as the difference between the head race level
and the tail race level when no water is flowing. This is also known as static head or
total head.
b. Net or effective head (H): Effective head is the head available at the entrance of the
turbine. It is obtained by subtracting all losses of head from the total head.

H = H1 – hf

 P1 V12 
For impulse turbine: H     Z1   Z 2 
 w 2g 

1 – Inlet of turbine, 2 – outlet of turbine

 P1 V12   V22 
For reaction turbine: H     Z1    Z 2  
 w 2g   2 g 

1 – Inlet of turbine, 2 – outlet of draft tube

Efficiencies of turbine

The various losses occurring in the turbine are as follows:

i. Impulse turbine:
a. Head loss in penstock
b. Head loss in the nozzle
c. Hydraulic losses: Blade friction, eddy formation, energy contained by water
leaving the draft tube, and leakage loss
d. Mechanical losses – bearing friction
ii. Reaction turbine:
a. Head loss in penstock
b. Hydraulic losses: blade friction, eddy formation, friction in draft tube, energy
contained by water leaving draft tube, disc friction and leakage loss
c. Mechanical losses – bearing friction

The efficiencies of the turbines are the indicating parameters of the performance of the turbine.
The various efficiencies of hydraulic turbines are as follows:

a. Hydraulic efficiency: The hydraulic efficiency is defined as the ratio of the power
developed by the runner to the net power supplied by the water at the entrance to the
turbine.

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 Power developed by therunner
h 
Net power supplied at the turbine entrance
Power developed by therunner

w Q  Q H
Where Q = quantity of water striking the runner, ∆Q = quantity of water that is
discharged directly to the tail rave without striking the runner, H = net head available at
the entrance of turbine, w = specific weight of water
b. Volumetric efficiency: The volumetric efficiency is defined as the ratio of the quantity
of water actually striking the runner and the quantity of water supplied to the turbine.
Q
v 
Q  Q
c. Mechanical efficiency: The mechanical efficiency is ratio of the power available at the
turbine shaft to the power developed by the runner.
Power available at the turbine shaft
m 
Power produced by therunner
d. Overall efficiency: The overall efficiency of the turbine is the ratio of the power
available at the turbine shaft to the power supplied by the water at the entrance to the
turbine.
Power available at the turbine shaft
o    h  m
Net power supplied at the turbine entrance

Pelton Turbine

The Pelton turbine is named after its inventor L.A. Pelton, the American Engineer. The Pelton
turbine is a tangential flow impulse turbine. The Pelton turbine is a high head turbine. The
layout of the hydroelectric power plant with Pelton turbine is shown in figure. The water from
the reservoir flows through the penstock to the turbine wheel. At the end of the penstock, a
nozzle is fitted which increases the kinetic energy of water. The water jet coming out the nozzle

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 impinges the buckets of the turbine wheel and it runs to produce the mechanical energy. The
main parts of the Pelton turbine are nozzle with the spear, runner and buckets, casing and
breaking jet.

i. Nozzle and the spear: The main function of nozzle is to generate water jet by increasing the
kinetic energy of water. The amount of water striking the bucket is regulated by the spear.
The spear is a conical needle which is operated either by hand or automatically in axial
direction. When the spear is pushed forward into the nozzle the amount of water striking the
bucket is reduced and when the spear is pushed back, the amount of water striking the bucket
is increased.
ii. Runner and buckets: The runner consists of a circular disc connected with the shaft.
Numbers of buckets are fixed on the circular disc of the runner evenly. The shape of bucket
is of a double hemispherical cup or bowl. Each bucket is divided into two symmetrical parts
by the splitter. The jet of water strikes on the splitter. The splitter divides the jet into two
equal parts and the jet comes out at the outer edge of the bucket. The outlet angle of the
bucket is kept between 10o to 20o, so that the water is deflected through 160o to 170o. For
low head the buckets are made of cast iron and for high head the buckets are made of cast
steel, bronze or stainless steel.

iii. Casing: The function of casing to prevent splashing of the water and to lead water to the tail
race and also to act as safeguard against accidents. The casing does not perform any
hydraulic function. It is made of cast iron or fabricated steel plates.

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iv. Breaking jet: When the turbine is shut down by closing the spear. The turbine wheel to run
due to inertia. To stop the runner a breaking jet is provided which directs the jet of water on
the back of the buckets.

Work done in Pelton turbine: The inlet and outlet velocity triangles of Pelton turbine is shown
in figure.

From inlet velocity triangle:

Velocity of jet at inlet V1  2 gH ;

Peripheral velocity of runner u1 = u = πDN/60

V1 = Vw1; Vr1 = V1 – u;

From outlet velocity triangle: u2 = u; Vw2 = Vr2 cos ϕ – u

Force exerted in the direction of motion of runner

Fx  Mass Change in velocit y  aV1 Vw1   Vw2 

Fx  aV1 Vw1  Vw2 

Net work done by the jet on the runner per second or power produced by the runner

 Fx  u  aV1 Vw1  Vw2   u W

The hydraulic efficiency of the turbine

work done per second aV1 Vw1  Vw2   u

h  
Kinetic energy of jet per second 1
aV1  V12
2
2Vw1  Vw 2   u

V12

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Now, V1 = Vw1; Vr1 = V1 – u;

For frictionless flow in bucket, Vr1 = Vr2

Vr2 = V1 – u

Vw2 = Vr2 cos ϕ – u = (V1 – u) cos ϕ – u

Then,

2V1  V1  u  cos   u  u

h 
V12
2u V1  u 1  cos  

V12

The efficiency will be maximum for the given value of V1, when

d
 h   0
du
d  2u V1  u 1  cos   21  cos   d
  u V1  u   0
du  V12  V 1
2
du
 21  cos   
d
u V1  u   0  
du  V12 
V1  2u  0
V1
u
2

The hydraulic efficiency of Pelton turbine will be maximum when the peripheral speed is half of
the velocity of jet at inlet. The maximum efficiency is

V1  V 
2V1  1 1  cos  
2 2
 h,max 
V12


1  cos  
2

Working Proportions of Pelton turbine

The following points are to be considered in the design of Pelton turbine

i. The velocity of jet at the inlet is given by V1  Cv 2 gH , where Cv = coefficient of

velocity = 0.98 or 0.99, H = net head on the turbine

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 ii. Velocity of wheel is given by u   2 gH , where ϕ = speed ratio. The value of speed
ratio varies from 0.43 to 0.48
iii. The angle of deflection of the jet through bucket is taken as 165o if the value is not given.
iv. The mean diameter or pitch diameter of the runner is given by D = 60u/πN
v. Jet ratio: The jet ratio is defined as the ratio of the pitch diameter to the diameter of the
jet. m = D/d
vi. Width of the bucket = 5 d
vii. Depth of the bucket = 1.2 d
D
viii. Number of buckets on the runner is given by Z  15   15  0.5m
2d
ix. Number of jet is obtained by dividing the total rate of flow through the turbine by the rate
of flow of water through a single jet.

Francis Turbine

The Francis turbine was developed by James B. Francis in the year 1849. Initially it was an
inward flow radial reaction turbine. Later on it was modified and the modern Francis turbine is a
mixed flow turbine, in which the water enters the runner radially at the outer periphery of the
runner and leaves axially at its center. The main parts of Francis turbine are (i) Scroll casing,
(ii) Stay vanes (iii) Guide vanes (iv) Runner and (v) Draft tube.

i. Scroll casing: Water from the penstock enters the scroll casing which surrounds the runner.
The main purpose of scroll casing is to distribute the water around the circumference of the
runner at constant velocity. The cross sectional area of the scroll casing is constantly
decreases in the flow path in order to maintain the velocity of water as constant. The scroll
casings are made of cast steel, plate steel or concrete depending on the head of the turbine.
ii. Stay vanes: The stay vanes are fixed in stay rings. The number of stay vanes is usually half
of the guide vanes. The functions of stay vanes are (i) to direct the water from the casing to
the guide vanes and (ii) it resist the load imposed on it due to the internal pressure of water
and weight of turbine and transmit the same to the foundation. The stay vanes are made
either of cast iron, cast steel or fabricated steel.
iii. Guide vanes: The function of guide vanes is to regulate the quantity of water supplied to the
runner and to direct the water to the runner at correct inlet angle of the runner blade. The
position of guide vanes may be adjusted by the governing mechanism to regulate the quantity
of water supplied to the runner. The guide vanes are made of cast steel, stainless steel, or
plate steel.
iv. Runner: The runner of Francis turbine consists of number of curved vanes evenly spaced.
The shape of vanes allows the water to enter radially and leaves axially. The change in
direction of flow, from radial to axial, produces a circumferential force which makes the
runner to rotate and to produce power. The runner is made of cast iron, cast steel, mild steel
or stainless steel.

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v. Draft tube: A draft tube is a passage of gradually increasing cross sectional area which
connects the outlet of runner and the tail race. The purposes of draft tuber are (i) to permit a
negative head or suction head to be established as the runner exit, thus making it possible to
install the turbine above the tail race level without loss of head (ii) to convert the velocity
energy of water leaving the runner into pressure energy. The draft tube are made of cast steel
or concrete.

Work done and efficiency of Francis turbine

The inlet and outlet velocity triangles of Francis turbine runner blade are shown in figure.

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Torque exerted by the water on the wheel

T  Rate of change of angular momentum

 aVf1  Vw1 R1   aVf2  Vw 2 R2 
 aVf1  Vw1 R1  aVf2  Vw 2 R2
 aVf1  Vw1 R1  Vw 2 R2 

Work done per second on the wheel

W  Torque  Anglular v elocity

 aVf1  Vw1 R1  Vw 2 R2   
 Q  Vw1u1  Vw 2 u 2   u 1  R1 and u 2  R2 , aV f 1Q 
In general the expression for work done per second is

W  Q  Vw1u1  Vw2 u 2 

In the above equation +ve sign is taken if angle β is an acute angle and –ve sign is taken if β is an
obtuse angle.

If the β=90o for radial discharge at outlet, then Vw2 = 0, the work done per second becomes as

W  Q  Vw1u1

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The hydraulic efficiency of Francis turbine is given by

Runner power Q  Vw1u1  Vw2 u 2  Vw1u1  Vw2 u 2 

h   
Water power QgH gH

Vw1u1
For radial discharge at outlet β=90o, then h 
gH

Degree of reaction is defined as the ratio of pressure drop in the runner to the hydraulic work
done on the runner.

P1 P2

R w w
Vw1u1  Vw 2 u 2
g

P1 P2

For radial discharge Vw2 = 0, then R w w
Vw1u1
g

1 1 cot  
The degree of reaction is also given by R   
2 2  cot   cot  

Working Proportions of Francis Turbine

i. Flow ratio (ψ) is defined as the ratio of flow velocity at inlet to the spouting velocity
Vf1
  and this value ranges from 0.15 to 0.3
2 gH
u1
ii. Speed ratio (Ku) is defined as K u  , the value of Ku ranges from 0.60 to 0.90
2 gH
iii. The discharge of reaction turbine is given by Q  D1 B1V f 1  D2 B2V f 2 where D is the
diameter of runner, B is width of the runner and 1 and 2 are inlet and outlet of runner
respectively. If the thickness of runner vanes are taken into account, then the discharge
becomes Q  D1  n  t B1V f 1  D2  n  t B2V f 2 where n is the number of vanes and t
is the thickness of vanes.
P1 V12
iv. The head on the turbine is given by H  
g 2 g

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 Kaplan Turbine

Kaplan turbine is an axial flow reaction turbine. The Kaplan turbine will be installed when
large quantity of water is available at low head. For an axial flow turbine, the shaft is held
vertical. There are two types of axial flow turbines (i) Propeller turbine and (ii) Kaplan
turbine. In Propeller turbine the runner blades are fixed where as in Kaplan turbine the
runner blades are adjustable. The Kaplan turbine is named after V Kaplan an Australian
engineer.
The main parts of Kaplan turbine are (i) Scroll casing (ii) Guide vanes (iii) Runner and
(iv) Draft tube as shown in figure.

i. Scroll casing: Water from the penstock enters the scroll casing which surrounds the runner.
The main purpose of scroll casing is to distribute the water around the circumference of the
runner at constant velocity. The cross sectional area of the scroll casing is constantly

11
 decreases in the flow path in order to maintain the velocity of water as constant. The scroll
casings are made of cast steel, plate steel or concrete depending on the head of the turbine.
ii. Guide vanes: The guide vanes in the Kaplan turbine turns the water from radial to axial
direction and admit the water to the runner. The position of guide vanes may be adjusted by
the governing mechanism to regulate the quantity of water supplied to the runner.
iii. Runner: The runner consists of number of vanes fixed on the hub of the runner. The runner
vanes are adjustable by the servomotor mechanism while the turbine is running. The runner
vanes are adjusted for correct angle of water entry for higher efficiency.
iv. Draft tube: A draft tube is a passage of gradually increasing cross sectional area which
connects the outlet of runner and the tail race. The purposes of draft tuber are (i) to permit a
negative head or suction head to be established as the runner exit, thus making it possible to
install the turbine above the tail race level without loss of head (ii) to convert the velocity
energy of water leaving the runner into pressure energy.

The work done by the Kaplan turbine is given by

W  Q  Vw1u1

The hydraulic efficiency of Kaplan turbine is given by

Runner power Q  Vw1u1 Vw1u1

h   
Water power QgH gH

Working Proportions of Kaplan turbine

The following are the important points for Propeller or Kaplan turbine

DN
i. The peripheral velocity at inlet and outlet are equal u1  u 2 
60
where D = outer diameter of runner and N = speed of runner in rpm.
ii. Velocity of flow at inlet and outlet are equal. Vf1 = Vf2

iii. The discharge through the runner is obtained by Q  D 2  d 2  V f 1
4
where d = diameter of the hub.

Draft Tube theory

A draft tube is a passage of gradually increasing cross sectional area which connects the outlet of
runner and the tail race. By using the draft tube, the net head on the turbine increases. The
turbine develops more power and the efficiency is also high. The purposes of draft tuber are as
follows:

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 i. to permit a negative head or suction head to be established as the runner exit, thus making
it possible to install the turbine above the tail race level without loss of head
ii. to convert the velocity energy of water leaving the runner into pressure energy

The various type of draft tube are (i) conical draft tube (ii) Moody spreading tube (iii) simple
elbow type and (iv) Elbow draft tube with circular inlet and rectangular outlet as shown in figure.

Consider a draft tube as shown in figure. Applying Bernoulli’s equation between 1-1 and 2-2 of
the draft tube and taking 2-2 as datum, we get

P1 V12 P2 V22
  Hs  y    hf
g 2 g g 2 g

Where P1 = Pressure at section 1-1, V1 = velocity at section 1-1, P2 = Pressure at section 2-2,
V2 = velocity at section 2-2, Hs = vertical height of above the tail race, y = distance of bottom of
draft tube from tail race, and hf = head loss due to friction between 1-1 and 2-2.

P2 P
But  a  y substituting this value in the above equation
g g

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 P1 V12 P V2
  Hs  y  a  y  2  hf
g 2 g g 2g
P1 P V2 V2
 a  Hs  2  1  hf
g g 2g 2g
P1 P V 2 V 2 
 a  H s   1  2  h f 
g g  2g 2g 

From the equation, it is clear that the pressure head at the inlet of draft tube is less than the
atmospheric pressure head.

The efficiency of draft tube is defined as the ratio of the actual conversion of kinetic head into
pressure head in the draft tube to the kinetic head at the inlet of the draft tube.

 V12 V22 
    hf
 2 g 2 g 
d 
V12
2g

Specific speed of turbine

The specific speed of any turbine is the speed in rpm of a turbine geometrically similar to the
actual turbine but of such a size that under corresponding conditions it will develop 1 kilowatt
power when working under unit head.

N P
Ns  5
4
H

Unit quantities

The performance analysis of turbine is carried out using unit quantities. The important unit
quantities are given below.

i. Unit power: The unit power is defined as the power developed by a given turbine when
working under a head is 1 m.
P
Pu  3
H 2
ii. Unit speed: The unit speed is defined as the speed of the given turbine when working
under a head of 1 m.

N
Nu 
H

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 iii. Unit discharge: The unit discharge is defined as the discharge of the given turbine when
working under a head of 1 m.
Q
Qu 
H

When power developed, discharge and speed of a turbine under a head is known, then the power
developed, discharge and speed of the same turbine under a different head can be obtained using
unit quantities.

Performance of hydraulic turbines

To study the behavior of the given turbine under varying working conditions test are conducted
and based on the test data, the characteristic curves are drawn. The characteristic curves of
hydraulic turbine are three types.

i. Constant head or main characteristic curves

ii. Constant speed or operating characteristic curves
iii. Constant efficiency curves

Governing of hydraulic turbines

Hydraulic turbines are directly coupled with electrical alternators to generate electric power. The
frequency of the electric current should be constant and it is achieved by running the turbine at
constant speed irrespective of change in load. The process of controlling the speed at constant
value irrespective of the load variation is governing of turbine. The arrangement by which the
speed is kept constant, under varying load conditions is called governing system. The governing
of Pelton, Francis, and Kaplan turbines is given below.

i. Governing of Pelton turbine: The governing system of Pelton turbine is shown in figure.
The main parts of the governing system are: (i) oil sump, (ii) oil pump (iii) centrifugal
governor, (iv) Relay or control valve (v) Relay cylinder or servomotor and (vi) spear. In
Pelton turbine, the quantity of water supplied by the nozzle and striking on the buckets is
regulated by adjusting the position of spear. When the load on the turbine decreases, the
governor rotates at higher speed and the fly balls move upward. Using the lever and fulcrum
mechanism, the piston rod of control valve move downwards to open the valve V2. When the
valve V2 is opened, the oil from the pump flow on the side A to push the spear forward to
reduce the supply of water to the bucket according the load. So the speed reduced to the rated
speed gradually. On the other hand, when the load increases, the speed of the centrifugal
governor decreases and the fly balls moving downward. Now, using the lever and fulcrum,
the valve V1 is opened to admit the oil on the side B to push the spear backward. The
backward movement of spear will allow more quantity of water to strike on the runner and
the speed is increased gradually to the rated speed. The approximate time taken for the entire
process is 60 to 70 seconds.

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ii. Governing of Francis turbine: The governing system of Francis turbine is shown in figure.
The guide vanes of the turbine are pivoted to the regulating ring and the regulating ring is
actuated by the servomotor through regulating lever and regulating rod. When the load
decreases, the regulating lever rotates in clockwise direction. The clockwise rotation of the
regulating lever reduces the area for the flow of water by changing the position of guide
vanes provided around the runner. Thus the speed is gradually decreased for the decrease in
load. The process is reversed when the load increases.

iii. Governing of Kaplan turbine: In Kaplan turbine the governing is done by two methods
a. Regulating the guide vanes as in the Francis turbine
b. Regulating the position of the runner blade about its own axis using servomotor
mechanism.

Both the methods will be simultaneously used according to the change in load.

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