Main topics:

 Newton’s universal law of gravitation

 gravitational acceleration (gravitational field strength)
 Gravitational potential energy
 gravitational potential
 Kepler’s laws of planetary motion
 Applications of gravitational and Kepler’s laws on motion of satellites.

A. NEWTON’S UNIVERSAL LAW OF GRAVITATION.

A story is told that one day Isaac Newton was sitting under an apple tree, and an apple
fell on his head. This led him to think hard and conclude that there must be a force of
attraction that pulled the apple to the earth. He called this force gravity.
Newton discovered that, the gravitational force of attraction was not limited to objects
falling to the earth but it exists between any two objects in the universe and depends on
the mass of the two objects and the separation distance between them. He summarized
his observation in a law that is now referred to as Newton's Universal Law of Gravitation.

The law states that: any two bodies in the universe attract each other
with a Force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

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 Consider two bodies of masses m1 and m2 separated by a distance r as shown in Fig 3.1

m1 m2
F F

R
The separation
fig. 3.1: Two bodies at a distance R distance r is from the
centres of masses of
the two objects

According to Newton’s universal law of gravitation, the force (F) of attraction between
the two objects is mathematically represented as:

F
Hence, 𝑮𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
F= 𝑹𝟐

Where:
- G = universal gravitational constant ( G =6.67 10-11Nm2/kg2)
- m1 and m2 are masses of the bodies one and two respectively.
- R = distance between the centers of the two bodies.
This law applies to small objects and planets, and between planets.
Note that the constant G is the same everywhere in the universe.

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 Example 3.1
Determine the force of gravitational attraction between a student of mass 60 kg
and the earth if the student is standing on the earth surface at a distance of
6.4 × 106 m from the centre of the earth.(mass of the earth me = 5.98 × 1024kg,
G = 6.67 × 10-11 Nm2/kg2 ).

Solution.
given; me=5.98× 1024 kg , ms =60kg and R =6.4× 106 m

𝑮𝒎𝒆 𝒎𝒔 (𝟔.𝟔𝟕×𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 )(𝟓.𝟗𝟖×𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒 )(𝟔𝟎) 𝟔𝟎×𝟔.𝟔𝟕×𝟓.𝟗𝟖×𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒−𝟏𝟏

F= = =
𝑹𝟐 (𝟔.𝟒×𝟏𝟎𝟔 )𝟐 𝟒𝟎.𝟗𝟔×𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟐

F = 584.28 N

Example 3.2

Kampire is 28 kg and is standing 1.2 metres away from Mugisha. What is the
mass of Mugisha if a gravitational force of attraction of 3.2 × 10-8 N is acting on
each of them?
(Assume G = 6.67 × 10-11 Nm2 /kg2 ).

solution.
given; m1=28kg, R =1.2m, F =3.2× 10−8 N and G= 6.67 × 10-11 Nm2 /kg2

𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2 𝐹×𝑅 2 (3.2×10−8 )×(1.2)2

F= m2 = =
𝑅2 𝐺𝑚1 (6.67 × 10−11)(28)

1.44×3.2×10−8
m2 = = 24.67kg
6.67 × 10−11 ×28

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 Example 3.3

What is the separation distance between a stone block of mass 20 kg and another one
of mass 35 kg if a gravitational force of attraction of 3.6 × 10-9 N acts between them.
Solution.
Given: m1 =20kg, m2=35kg and F = 3.6× 10−9 N
𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2 𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
F= 2
R2 =
𝑅 𝐹

𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2 (6.67×10−11 )(20×35)

R= =
𝐹 3.6×10−9

R = 1296.94 × 10−11+9 = 1296.94 × 10−2

∴ R = 3.6 m

Gravitational acceleration (free fall acceleration)

 Acceleration due to gravity is defined as the acceleration by which an object falls

freely under the action of gravity.
 It is denoted by g.
 It is measured in meters per square second (m/s2 or ms-2).
 Near or on the earth surface g =9.81m-2
 Gravitational acceleration is numerically equal to gravitational field strength.
 Gravitational field strength is defined as gravitational force per unit mass.

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 Objects at or near the surface of the earth, experience a force due to gravity acting on
them towards the earth. This force acts downward because every particle in the earth is a
attracting the object.

The force of attraction between an object of mass m on or near earth surface and the
earth (me =5.98×1024kg , R=6.4×106m) is given by;

F= 2
………………………. (i)

On earth surface gravitational force on an object of mass m is equal to the weight

( W = mg) of the object.

F = Weight = mg ………………... (ii)

Equating equations (i) and (ii)

mg = 2
Object on earth surface
𝑮𝒎𝒆
g=
𝑹𝟐

R
R
𝑮𝒎𝒆
g= ……………… (iii)
𝑹𝟐 centre

Where;
Fig.3.2: gravitational acceleration on earth
me = mass of the earth in kg surface
m = mass of the object in kg
R = radius of the earth in meters.
g = acceleration due to gravity on earth surface.
From the equation (iii) we can infer that Gravitational acceleration depends on:
- Mass of the planet
- Distance from center of the planet.
- It does not depend on mass of the object.

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 How does the gravitational field strength (gravitational acceleration) vary with distance
from earth surface?

1. When the body is at height h above the earth surface, the acceleration due to gravity
at that point is denoted by g and given by;

g=( ………………………………………. (iv

+ )

Dividing equation (iii) by equation (iv)

1
= =
( + )2 ( + )2

1 ( + )2
= 2 × 1

𝑹 𝟐
g = g × (𝑹+𝒉 ) ………………….. (v)

Where:
R+h= total distance from the center of the earth.
h = distance or height of the object above the earth surface.
R = radius of the earth (distance from center to surface).
g = gravitational field strength (gravitational acceleration) on earth surface.
g = gravitational field strength (gravitational acceleration) at height h above the earth
surface.
This formula is accurate for all heights. It is the general formula.

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 When h is much less than R (h<<<R).

𝟐𝒉 Object
∴ g = g (1- ) ……….. (vi)
𝑹
h

R
This formula valid only for h
10

center
or when 0.1
or when h 640km
the formula assumes linear decrease of g
above the earth surface.
Fig.3.3: gravitational acceleration at height h above earth surface

We can conclude that gravitational field strength decreases with height h above the earth
surface.

2. Gravitational acceleration at depth d from the earth surface.

When a body is at a point d inside the earth below the surface, the gravitational force is
only due to the inner solid sphere of radius (R-d)
surface

d
R object
𝒅
g = g (1- 𝑹) ……….. (vii) R-d

center

Where:
g = gravitational field strength at depth d below surface. Fig.3.2: gravitational acceleration inside earth
g = gravitational field strength on the surface.
R =radius of the earth
d = depth or distance of the object from the surface.
Equation (vii) shows that the value of acceleration due to gravity decreases with the
increase of depth.

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 The following is a graph of acceleration due to gravity against the distance to the center
of the earth and distance above the earth’s surface.

At the surface

o The gravitational acceleration is zero at the center of the earth because all the
gravitational forces from all the surrounding mass cancel each other out. Therefore
the net gravitational force is zero.

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 Example 3.4
A body of mass m is 500 km above the surface of the earth. If the gravitational field
Strength on the earth surface is 10 m/s2, and the radius of the earth is 6.4 × 106m.
Determine the acceleration due to gravity at this point.
Solution.

Given: h = 500km = 5× 105 m, g =10m/s2 , R = 6.4× 106 m

2 2×105
g = g (1- ) = 10(1- ) = 10(1- 0.031)
𝑅 6.4×106

g = 10 × 0.844 = 8.44m/s2

Example3-5

At what height above the earth surface would the gravitational acceleration be 8m/s2
Solution.

g = 8ms-2 , g =9.81ms-2
since g is significantly small compared to g. we must use the general formula
for better estimation of the height h.
𝑅
g = g ( )2
𝑅+
Making h the subject.
𝑔 𝑅 𝑅2
=( )2 =
𝑔 𝑅+ (𝑅+ )2

𝑔 𝑅2
= g (R+h)2 = gR2
𝑔 (𝑅+ )2

𝑔𝑅 2 𝑔𝑅 2
( R+h)2 = R+h =
𝑔 𝑔

𝑔𝑅 2 9.81(6.4×106 )2
h= –R= - 6.4106 = 6.87×105m
𝑔 8

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 VARIATION OF WEIGHT WITH HEIGHT OR DEPTH FROM EARTH SURFACE.
Weight = mass ×gravitational acceleration.

1. Weight of an object on earth surface.

W = mg = m ( 2
) ………………………. (i)
W = weight (in Newton) at surface of the earth
m = mass of the object in kg.
me = mass of the earth.

2. Weight of an object at height h above surface of the earth ( < 0.5)

W = mg ………………………. (ii)

2
W = W(1- ) …………………. (iii)

W=W× ………………… (iv)

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 Example3-6

If an object weighs 100N on the surface of the earth what would it weigh at a
height of 10km from the surface of the earth?

Solution.
W = 100N , h = 10000m and R = 6.4× 106 m
2 2×10000
W = W(1- ) = 100(1- ) = 100(0.9969)
𝑅 6.4×106

W = 99.69N

Example3-7

An Astronaut of mass 50kg weighs 186.5N on Mars, determine:

i) The Mars` gravitational acceleration.

Solution.

M = 50kg, Wm = 186.5N

Wm =m×gm
𝑊𝑚 186.5
gm = = = 3.73m/s2
𝑚 50

ii) The Astronaut’s weight on earth.

Solution.
m = 50kg , g = 9.81ms-2
We = m×g =50(9.81) = 490.5N

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 Exercise

In this exercise use: Mass of the earth me = 5.98 × 1024kg, Radius of the earth
R=6.4×106m, Mass of the sun ms =1.989×1030kg, Radius of the sun
S=6.9858×108m, Distance from the sun to the earth d= 1.496 ×1010 m,

Mass of the moon mm=7.348×1022kg, Radius of the moon r=1.7374×106m,

G=6.67×10–11Nm2/kg2

1. Calculate the gravitational field strength at the surface of the earth.

2. How does gravitational acceleration change as you go deeper into the earth?

Answer: it decreases linearly with depth.

3. What would be the gravitational acceleration at depth of 80000m below earth

surface?

4. If the mass of the earth increases while its radius remains constant, how would
gravitational acceleration change?

5. How can you calculate the gravitational acceleration on Jupiter?

6. At what depth would earth’s gravitational acceleration be zero?

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 GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY.

Gravitational potential energy is defined as the energy stored in an object due

to its position in gravitational field.

It represents the work done against the gravity to move an object from a
reference point to that point.

IN GENERAL:

𝑮𝒎𝒆 𝒎 ……………………………….. (i)

PE = - 𝑹

 PE = Gravitational potential energy in Joules

 R = distance from the object to center of the massive body (planet or star).
 The negative sign means the force is attractive. Therefore, work must be done to move
the object away from gravitational source.
 This formula can be applied anywhere in gravitational field.
 The formula accounts for variation of gravitational acceleration.
 The formula is used when distances are larger in gravitational field.
 The more negative the gravitational potential energy is the stronger the gravity.
 The gravitational potential energy becomes zero at infinity, this indicates zero
gravitational attraction.

Factors affecting gravitational potential energy:

1. Mass of the object- more mass, more gravitational potential energy.
2. Mass of the attracting body (planet or star)- more massive body, more
gravitational potential energy.
3. Distance from the centers of mass – smaller distance, more gravitational potential
energy.

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 NEAR EARTH SURFACE:

For an object of mass m raised to a height h above a reference point (usually ground
level), the gravitational potential energy is given by:
Object
PE = weight × height.
h
Surface

PE = mgh ………………. (i)

o m = mass of the object

o h= height above earth surface.
o This formula valid only for objects near earth surface.
o The formula assumes constant gravitational acceleration (g=9.81ms-2)
o The formula indicates that gravitational potential energy increases linearly with both
mass of the object and height above the reference point.

GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL

 This is a potential energy per unit mass of an object in gravitational field.

 This represents the potential energy per
 It is denoted by V
 It is measured in Joules per kilogram (J/kg)

𝑷𝑬
V= ………………………. (i)
𝒎

V= -

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 𝑮𝒎𝒆
V=- …………………….. (ii)
𝑹

The gravitational potential depends only on mass of the planet and the distance of the
point from the planet Centre but does not depend on mass of the object.

Example 3-8

A body of mass 1ton is at height of 1000km from the surface of the earth.

(take: mass of the earth=6× 1024 kg, G =6.67× 10−11 Nm2/kg2 and Radius of the
earth=6.4× 106 m). Calculate:

1. Gravitational energy at that point.

m = 1ton = 1000kg, me =6× 1024 kg , h = 1000km = 106m

𝑮𝒎𝒆 𝒎 (6.67×10−11 )(6×1024 )(1000)

PE = - =− = -5.41× 1010 Joule.
𝑹 (6.4×106 +106 )

2. The gravitational potential at that point.

𝑃𝐸 −5.41×1010
V= = = -5.41× 107 J/kg
𝑚 1000

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 Kepler’s laws of planetary motion.
1. Law of orbit – Kepler’s first law
2. Law of area - Kepler’s second law
3. Law of Period - Kepler’s third law

KEPLER’S 1ST LAW OF PLANETARY MOTION - LAW OF ORBIT

: “all planets move in an elliptical orbit/path with the sun at

one of its foci”.

Elliptical orbit Planet

Sun

focus focus

Fig.3.4: planet taking an elliptical path

The sun is not at the center of the ellipse, but is at one focus (generally there is nothing at
the other focus of the ellipse). Thus, a planet follows the elliptical path (orbit), meaning
that the planet – sun distance is changing as the planet goes around its orbit. The point of
nearest approach of the planet to the sun is called perihelion, while that of greatest
separation is called aphelion.

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 KEPLER’S 2ND LAW (LAW OF AREA)
: “the imaginary line joining the center of the sun to the center
of the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal time interval as the planet travels around
the ellipse”.
Planet
C
B D
Q

PP
PP Sun

Fig.3.5: equal areas at equal time interval

All the sections have same area and are swept out in equal time by the line joining the
centers of the planet and sun. The law means that in any given time interval e.g.30 days,
the line joining the Centre of the planet and center of the sun sweeps sections of equal
area regardless of which 30-day period you consider. Hence, a planet executes elliptical
motion with constantly changing angular speed as it moves about its orbit. The planet
moves fastest when it is at perihelion and slowest when it is at aphelion.

KEPLER’S 3RD LAW - LAW OF PERIODS

“the square of the orbital period of any planet is proportional

to the cube of the average distance from the planet to the sun”.

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 Mathematically:
T2 R3 this means: = constant

Thus = or ( ) =( )

This law implies that the period for a planet to orbit the Sun increases rapidly with
the radius of its orbit. As such, Mercury, the innermost planet, takes only 88 days to
orbit the Sun but the outermost planet (Pluto) takes 248 years to do the same.

PROOF OF KEPLER’S 3RD LAW

The centripetal force acts on the planet towards the sun as the center.
This is equal to the gravitational force between the sun and planet.

Fc = and Fg =

mp = mass of planet
ms = mass of the sun
Fc = centripetal force
Fg = gravitational force
v = tangential speed of the planet orbiting the sun.
R = distance between centers of the sun and planet.

𝑮𝒎𝒔
= Vp = …………………… (i)
𝑹

2
But v =
2
2
= (2 )2 =

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 4 2 2 4 2
2 = 2 =

= ……………………… ( ii) ( 4 2
is constant)

2 = constant for all the planets.

R = Average distance between the centers of the sun and the planet.
T = period of planet around the sun.

APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON’S LAW OF GRAVITATION AND KEPLER’S LAWS TO MOTION

OF SATELLITES.

A satellite is an artificial object that has been internationally placed in an orbit to move
around (orbit) a planet. There are artificial satellites that are launched into the space and
orbits around the sun, earth or other bodies in the space. Figure 3.8 below shows a
launched satellite around the earth.

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 Fig.3.6: communication satellite

APPLICATION OF KEPLER’S THIRD LAW IN CALCULATION OF ORBITAL PERIOD AND

AVERAGE DISTANCE OF THE SATELLITES.

Kepler’s third law can be used for estimation of:

1. Orbital period of the satellites

From this equation: = we make both T the subject to obtain the

following equations:

𝑹𝟑 ……………….. (ii)
T = 𝟐𝝅
𝑮𝒎𝒆

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 Where:
T = orbital period of the satellite
R = orbital radius of the satellite
me = mass of the central body (earth in this case)

2. orbital radius of satellites

𝟑 𝑮𝒎𝒑 ×𝑻𝟐
𝑹= ……………………… (iii)
𝟒𝝅𝟐

FIRST ASTRONOMICAL VELOCITY (ORBITAL VELOCITY)

this is the minimum velocity that is required to maintain a satellite in a circular orbit.
Orbital velocity depends on the mass of central body and the radius of the orbit.

At the orbit the gravitational pull of the earth on the satellite provides the necessary
centripetal force required to keep the satellite in circular orbit.

The gravitational force between the earth and satellite is given by:

Fg = ………………… (iii)

The centripetal force FC acts on the satellites towards the planet and is given by:

Fc = ………………………………… (iv)

Equating equations (iii) and (iv) we get:

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 v2 = V1 =
𝑮𝒎𝒑
………………………….. (v)
𝑹

Fg = gravitational force between planet and satellite

mp = mass of the planet
m = mass of the satellite
R = distance the satellite needs to be from the center of the planet to avoid falling back to
the earth. (orbital radius).
V1= orbital velocity (first astronomical velocity)
Fc = centripetal force necessary to keep the satellite on orbit.

Sometimes, a satellite appears stationary (not moving) when observed from the earth.
This can only happen if the period of the satellite is equal to the earth’s period(T=24hrs).
At this point the orbit is known as geostationary orbit.

GEOSTATIONARY ORBIT

This is a circular orbit positioned approximately above earth’s equator and have same
period and direction as the rotation of the earth. An object in this orbit appears
stationary relative to the rotating earth.

Geostationary orbit is used to launch satellites. The greater the altitude, the less velocity
needed to maintain the satellite in the orbit and vice versa.

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 h=35× 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒎

earth

Fig.3.7: satellite at geostationary orbit

GEOSTATIONARY VELOCITY

This is a specific orbital velocity required for satellite to remain in a circular orbit
positioned approximately above earth’s equator and have same period and direction as
the rotation of the earth.
Geostationary velocity can be calculated by using orbital velocity formula.

SECOND ASTRONOMICAL VELOCITY (ESCAPE VELOCITY)

For an object to leave a planet, it must overcome the pull of gravity by moving at a speed
above the orbital velocity. This velocity of an object is called escape velocity.
It is the velocity of an object for it to just escape from the earth's gravitational pull
influence.
It is defined as the minimum velocity an object needs to escape the gravitational pull of a
celestial body without any further propulsion. This means the object’s kinetic energy must
be equal or greater than its gravitational potential energy.

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 KE = 12mv2 …………………………………………………. (vi)
PE = - ……………………………………………….. (vii) (negative sign means the work is
done against gravity of the planet).

From law of conservation of energy, this is equal to the kinetic energy of the object as it
escapes the earth’s surface.

1
2
mv2 =
2
v2 = …………………………………………………….…… (viii)

𝟐𝑮𝒎𝒑
V1 =
𝑹

OR

V2 = 𝟐 V1 ……………………………… (ix)

Where:
V2 = escape velocity of an object at the point of launch.
R = distance from the center of the planet to the escaping object.
(for an object escaping from earth, R = radius of the earth).
mp = mass of the planet

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 the equation V2 = can be modified to give aus a simpler equation.

×
V2 = = × = =√ ( )
g

V2 = √𝟐𝒈𝑹

Where:

V2 = escape velocity

R = distance from the center of the planet to the escaping object.

V1 = orbital velocity

This is the minimum velocity required by an object to leave the earth.

Notes:
1. orbital velocity maintains orbit
2. escape velocity breaks free from orbit
3. Geostationary appears motionless to observers on earth.
4. Geostationary velocity is a special case of orbital velocity.

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 Example 3.6
A satellite was launched into the orbit in space. If the period of the satellite is
8.64×104s, and the mass of the earth is 5.98×1024kg,
Determine the distance of the satellite from the ground.
(G=6.67×10–11Nm2/Kg2).

solution
given: T =8.64×10 s, me = 5.98×1024kg and G=6.67×10–11Nm2/Kg2
4

𝐺𝑚𝑒 𝑇 2 (6.67×10−11 )(5.98×1024 )(8.64×104 )2

R= =
4𝜋2 4𝜋2

R = 4.22504× 107 m (this is the orbital radius / from center of the earth to satellite)
h = R- Re = (4.22504× 107 m ) – (6.4× 106 𝑚) =3.585× 107 𝑚

there, the satellites height from the ground (earth surface) =3.585× 107 𝑚

Example 3.7
A rocket has to leave the earth for the moon. Calculate its escape velocity if the
radius of the earth is 6.38×106m and mass of earth is 5.98×1024kg.

Solution
Given: R=6.38×10 m, me = 5.98×1024kg
6

𝟐𝑮𝒎𝒑 𝟐(𝟔.𝟔𝟕×𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 )(𝟓.𝟗𝟖×𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒 )

V2 = = = 1.2504× 𝟏𝟎𝟖 m/s
𝑹 𝟔.𝟑𝟒×𝟏𝟎𝟔

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 APPLICATIONS OF SATELLITES.
1. Communication.
 Enable global telecommunication, internet connectivity and broadcasting.
2. Earth observation.
 Monitor weather, climate change, and natural disasters, aiding in environmental
protection and management.
3. Scientific research.
 Facilitates space exploration and astronomical observations, expanding our
knowledge of the universe.
4. Military and defense.
 Supports surveillance and reconnaissance for national security purposes.

Exercise
Use mass of the earth = 5.08 x1024kg, Radius of the earth =6.4× 106m, mass of
the sun =1.989×1038kg, Radius of the sun = 6.9858×108m, Distance from
the sun to the earth =1.496×1010m, Mass of the moon =7.348×1022kg,
g=6.6×1011Nm2/kg2.
1. Define the term escape velocity.
2. State Kepler’s third law of motion.
3. A body of mass m1 is 2500km into the surface of the earth. If the
gravitational field strength on the earth surface is 9.8m/s2 and the
radius of the earth is 6400km. Determine the acceleration due gravity
at this point.
4. A satellite is a 2.46×1010m from the earth. Determine its orbital speed.
5. Give two uses of satellites inmodern world.

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