True Stress-True Strain Values

• For practical calculations Engineering stress and strain values are used
in order to have stress – strain curve taking the cross section area
constant.
• In real life during the tensile test the cross section of the materials are
reduced consistently. (Volume Constant). Test datas obtained by this
way are the TRUE values
• TRUE Stress – TRUE strain values are calculated using these true
datas.
• TRUE values are used especially in metal forming applications. (Flow
Curves)
1
True Stress and True Strain
 True stress The load divided by the actual cross-sectional
area of the specimen at that load.
 True strain The strain calculated using actual and not
original dimensions

•The relation between the true stress-true

strain diagram and engineering stress-
engineering strain diagram.

•The curves are identical to the yield point.

Equilibrium between Engineering Stress – True
Stress and Engineering Strain – True Strain

True Strain
Engineering Strain
dl
d g 
l l  lo l l
These equations can be used    1 l
lo lo lo
up to necking  dl
 g    ln
l
l l lo
  1 lo
lo
 g  ln(  1)

True stress can be related to Volume Constant A  l  A  l  A  A  lo

o o o
the engineering stress if we l
assume that there is no
True Stress
volume change in the
specimen.
Engineering Stress
F F F l
  g      (1   )
Ao A Ao  lo
Difference between Eng.Stress-
Strain and True Stress-Strain Curves

4’
x
3’ x x x 4
2’ x x 3
1’ x 2
1
• No difference in Elastic Region.
• Diffenrece occurs after yielding point.

4
Strain Hardening Exponent (n)

• Hollomon Equation…

𝜎𝑡 = 𝐾𝜀𝑡𝑛

l n( 𝜎𝑡 ) = 𝑙𝑛𝐾 + 𝑛𝑙𝑛𝜀𝑡
n=0 n=0.15 n=0.4
t t t
*malleable means ductilce
material.

t t r

• Higher n values, necking hardly occurs, deformation capability increases…

• In general 0.15 < n < 0.25 for almost all engineering materials. 5
Finding Strain hardening exponent (n) and strength
coefficient (K)
• Hollomon Equation…

𝜎𝑡 = 𝐾𝜀𝑡𝑛

l n( 𝜎𝑡 ) = 𝑙𝑛𝐾 + 𝑛𝑙𝑛𝜀𝑡

• Draw logσt – logεt

• Slope is equal to «n» exponent
• K is equal to the value of strenght to have εt = 1
Strain Hardening (n, K or C values)

7
Problem.

Stress – strain curve is given below for a brass

specimen. Find;

• Young’s modulus
• 0.2% yielding strength
• Max. Load (force) for the cylindirical
specimen with the initial diameter 12.8 mm.
• Elongation under the stress of 345 Mpa.
Solution.
Young’s Modulus can be determined
a) approximately from the slope of detailed
curve if you do NOT have any value.

b) Yield strength is 250 Mpa.

c)

d) For the stress of 345 Mpa from the curve

the strain value is approximately equal to 0.06.
the displacement can be calculated by the
equation.
Homework : Tensile Testing of Aluminum Alloy

Using the data below draw the engineering stress

and strain curve and find;

• Young’s modulus
• Yield Strength
• Tensile strength
• Fracture strength
• Maximum elongation
• Show the necking point
• Convert the change in length data in the table
to engineering stress and strain and plot a
stress-strain curve.
Compression Testing-Testing Machine and Materials
Selection
•Basicly, compression testing is the opposite of tensile testing.

•A compressive load tends to squeeze or compact the specimen. The choice

of a compression test over other types of testing largely depends on the
type of loading the material will see during application or service.

•Metals and many plastics, for example, are more efficient at resisting
tensile loads. Therefore, they are more commonly tested using tensile Specimen
loading, depending on the application, of course.

• Materials, such as concrete, brick, and some ceramic products, are more
often used in applications for their compressive loading properties and are,
therefore, tested in compression. Again, it is important to choose the test
that best reflects the loads and conditions the material will be subjected to
in application or service.
Compression Testing – Procedure

• During a typical compression test, data are collected

regarding the applied load, resultant deformation or
deflection, and condition of the specimen.

• For brittle materials, the compressive strength is relatively

easy to obtain, showing marked failure.

• However, for ductile materials, the compressive strength is

generally based on an arbitrary deformation value.
Figure. Typical stress – strain curve for
• Ductile materials do not exhibit the sudden fractures that compression testing.
brittle materials present. They tend to buckle and "barrel
out".

12
Compression Test-Test sample and test Pay Attention!!!

Test Sample
• Same testing device compared with tensile
testing.

• A cylindrical or rectangular test sample used

for compression testing.
• Length / diameter ratio is important
parameter for samples.
• In general L/d ratio is 2 for metals.

• Reversely applied test load compared to

tensile testing.

• Similar stress – compression (or strain)

curve

Attention!!! For higher L/d ratios, buckling migth be occured…

Test Procedure

•Prior to compression test, the dimensions of the specimen should be measured with adequate precision using
proper instruments.

•Once these measurements have been taken and recorded, the specimen should be loaded into the testing
machine.

•In compression testing, and testing in general, care should be taken to insure that the axis of the specimen is
centered and aligned with the axis of loading.

•Loading rates should be steady and continuous. Rates vary, but a general figure is 0.005 inches per minute strain
rate. Loading rates typically range from 500-1000 lb/min.

14
 Compression Testing
• Principles
• Compression results from forces that push toward each
other.
• Specimens are short and large diameter.
• Circular cross section is recommended.
• Length to diameter ratio is important consideration
• Universal test machine (UTM)
• Size and load of compression machine are specially built.
F
• Load and compression amount are measured.

• Stress A
• Force per unit area. Applied force divided by the cross
sectional area of the specimen.

• Strain calculated by the ratio of the change in length and lF l0

the original length. (Deformation)
Stress-strain curve after comrpression Engineering Stress - Strain
testing

Where;
Stress

σ : Compression strength (MPa)
Pi : Compression load (N)
A0 : Initial cross section area of the sample (mm2)
% e: compression strain (%)
h0 : Initial length of the sample (mm)
hi : Length under Pi load (mm)
Strain

Δh : shortening in length (mm)

True Stress – Strain

Attention!!! Negative values of compression strain should be taken into account
σt = σe (1-e) in calculations.
Difference with tensile testing results

Tensile Strength (Mpa)

Pay attention!!!

• True tensile and compression diagrams are the same for metals.

• On the other hand, engineering tensile and compression test curve are
different in plastic deformation region. In the plastic region higher stress
values are obtained in compression test compared to tensile testing due to
increment in cross section area of the compression test sample during the
test.
• For compression test true stress is lower than the en. Stress due to the fact
that negative strain values are calculated.
Test results – Compression testing

1. Yielding Strength: Calculated using the value 0.2% strain. For metals yielding strength is the same for both compression and
tensile testing.

𝑃𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
𝜎𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 =
𝐴0

2. Elasticity modulus: The slope of the elastic deformation region and is equal to the Young’s Modulus in tensile test curve.

3. Strain % (Buckling %) : In compression testing strain values are negative.

Note that in compression testing, fracture of test sample does NOT occurs in general. In the case there is no sample fracture,
compression test should be stopped at the strain of 50%.
Compression testing - Barreling or Bulging
• In compression test, loading is applied by parallel or conical compression plates.
• During the compression test, buckling is occured in the test sample as a result of the
friction force between sample and the compression plates.
• There is a limited deformation occured in the perpendicular direction to the applied force.
• Uniaxial load transforms into the multiaxial loads.

In order to avoid the buckling.

• Low friction forces,
• Smooth surfaces for compression plates and sample surfaces,
• Some lubricants are required.
 limited  due to friction forces

Tensile Stress
Typical Deformation
Regions in Compression

Maximum 
Sample
I: low , II: medium and
III: high deformation
region
Deformation of compression test sample

• Higher deformations occurs in the unhatched regions.

Because of the friction forces between the plates and
sample surface.
• As the conical regions approach to each other, applied
forces increase suddenly and deformation decreases
gradually.

Compression
Sample
 Low Deformation

High
Deformation

Non-homogenous deformatio in compression test sample during test

 1. Gray Cast Iron
2. St37
3. Cu
4. Brass Note that for ductile metals the
compression strength is generally
Compression Stress (Mpa)

assumed to be equal to the

tension strength.

A high strength concrete has a

compressive strength of 40 Mpa,
the compressive strength of
polystyrene is 90 Mpa while
granite has compressive strength
about 240 Mpa.

Strain (%)

Different compression stress – strain curves due to material types

Fracture types after compression test

a) A ductile material (i.e low carbon

steel)
b) A brittle material (i.e gray cast iron
or concrete)
c) A semi brittle material (i.e brass)

A ductile material shows no fracture but deformation, a brittle material shows a fracture and a semi brittle material such as
brass shows a conical deformation as seen in figure above
Fracture in an Al alloy with 72% total deformation
 Loading Pin

(Such as ceramics or concretes)

Support Pins (Span)

Sample
3-point bending test
Mechanical Behavior – Bending or Flexural
testing
• The stress-strain behavior of brittle ceramics is not usually obtained by a
tensile test.
• Because…
1. It is difficult to prepare and test specimens with specific geometry. (Preparing
specimens from brittle materials, such as ceramics and carbides, is difficult because
of problems in shaping and machining them to certain dimensions.)
2. It is difficult to grip brittle materials without fracturing them.
3. Ceramics fail after roughly 0.1% strain; specimen have to be perfectly aligned.

28
3-Point vs 4-point Flexure test
Two type of flexure tests are applied to the materials with respect to load position.

Differences between 3-point and 4-point bending test;

• The highest or maximum bend stress occurs under the

loading pin in three-point flexural bend tests. In four
point bend tests, the maximum flexural stress is spread
over the section of the beam between loading points.

• 3-point test best applies where the material is

homogeneous, such as plastic materials. A four point
test tends to be the best choice if the material is not
homogeneous, such as composites or wood.

• The stress concentration of a three-point test is small

and concentrated under the center of the loading point,
whereas the stress concentration of a four point test is
over a larger region, avoiding premature failure.
Bend of Flexure Testing
• Principles
• Bending forces occur when load is applied to a beam or rod that involves
compression forces on one side of a beam and tensile forces on the other side.
• Deflection of a beam is the displacement of a point on a neutral surface of a
beam from its original position under action of applied loads.
• Flexure is the bending of a material specimen under load.
• Properties are the same as in tensile testing.
• Strength, deflection, modulus, ultimate strength, etc.
• Specimen is loaded in a 3-point bending test
• bottom goes in tension and the top goes in compression.
• Failure analysis can provide information as the type of failure,
• either tension or compression failure,
• buckle prior to failure,
• condition of fracture, e.e., rough, jagged, or smooth.
Equipment and test specimen
• Universal test machine (UTM)
• Special fixtures are needed to hold the specimen.
• Precautions
• Specimen length should be 6 to 12 times the width to avoid shear failure or buckling. AT LEAST 10% of
the support span as over hang on each side.If the test specimens are shorter than this length, then the
failure is not purely due to bending moment and it could be due to shear force in the specimen.

• Areas of contact with the material under test should be such that unnecessary high stress
concentrations are avoided.

• Longitudinal adjustments are necessary for the supports.

• Lateral rotational adjustments should be provided to prevent torsional stresses.

• The parts should be arranged to be stable under load.

(a) The bend test often used for measuring the strength of brittle materials, and (b) the
deflection δ obtained by bending

(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning ™ is a trademark used herein under license.

During the bending testing Force and deflection values are recorded in the middle of the test specimen which is the point
involves the maximum moment and deflection.

After the bending test stress and strain curve is plotted.

(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning ™ is a trademark used herein under license.

a bend test
Figure 6.20 Stress-

Mg0 obtained from

deflection curve for
Flexural Strength (Modulus of Rupture)
• Schematic for a 3-point
bending test.
• Able to measure the
stress-strain behavior
and flexural strength of
brittle ceramics.
• Flexural strength
(modulus of rupture or
bend strength) is the
stress at fracture.

See Table 7.2 for more values.

34
MEASURING ELASTIC MODULUS
• Room T behavior is usually elastic, with brittle failure.
• 3-Point Bend Testing often used.
--tensile tests are difficult for brittle materials.

• Determine elastic modulus according to:

F L3 F L3
E 
 4bd3  12R4
rect. circ.
cross cross
section section
23
Maximum Strain
Maximum strain is calculated with respect to the middle point of the specimen by the formula
below
Where;

ε: strain in the outer surface (mm/mm)

D: maximum deflection (mm)
d: height of cross section (mm)
L: distance between the support span (mm)
 Example 6.6 Flexural Strength of
Composite Materials
The flexural strength of a composite material reinforced with glass fibers is 45,000
psi and the flexural modulus is 18  106 psi. A sample, which is 0.5 in. wide, 0.375
in. high, and 8 in. long, is supported between two rods 5 in. apart. Determine the
force required to fracture the material and the deflection of the sample at
fracture, assuming that no plastic deformation occurs.
Example 6.6 SOLUTION

38
Example 6.6 SOLUTION (Continued)

39
Problem. A 3-point bending test is performed on Al2O3 with a circular cross-section of radius 3.5 mm. The
specimen fractures at a load of 950 N when the support points are 50 mm apart. Consider a square sample
of the same material with a square cross-section of 12mm on each edge. If the support points are 40 mm
apart, at what load will the sample fracture?

Solution…