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SMALL
ENGINE
MECHANICS
Second Edition

William H. Crouse
Donald L. Anglin

Gregg Division
McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
WILLIAM H. CROUSE DONALD L. ANGLIN
Behind William H. Crouse’s clear technical writing is Trained in the automotive and diesel service field,
a background of sound mechanical engineering Donald L. Anglin has worked both as a mechanic and
training as well as a variety of practical industrial as a service manager. He has taught automotive
experience. He has worked in General Motors plants courses in high school, trade schools, community
and as Director of Field Education in the Delco-Remy colleges, and universities. He has also worked as
Division of General Motors Corporation, preparing curriculum supervisor and school administrator for
service bulletins and educational literature. an automotive trade school. Interested in all types of
Mr. Crouse has contributed numerous articles to vehicle performance, he has served as a racing-car
automotive and engineering magazines and has mechanic and as a consultant to truck fleets on main-
written many books about science and technology. tenance problems.
William H. Crouse’s outstanding work in the auto- Mr. Anglin's work in the automotive service field
motive field has earned for him membership in the has earned for him membership in the American So-
Society of Automotive Engineers and the American ciety of Mechanical Engineers and the Society of Au-
Society of Engineering Education. tomotive Engineers.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Crouse, William Harry, (date)
Small engine mechanics.

First ed. published in 1974 under title: Small

engines: Operation and maintenance
1. Internal combustion engines, spark ignition.
I. Anglin, Donald L., joint author. II. Title.
TJ790.C76 1980 621.43'4 79-4658
ISBN 0-07-014795-7

Small Engine Mechanics, Second Edition

Copyright © 1980 by McGraw-Hill, Inc. All rights reserved. First edition published as Small
Engines: Operation and Maintenance. Copyright © 1974 by McGraw-Hill, Inc. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photo-
copying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

1234567890 WCWC 7865432109

Sponsoring Editor: D. Eugene Gilmore

Editing Supervisor: Peggy Middendorf
Design Supervisor: Nancy Axelrod
Art Supervisor: George T. Resch
Production Supervisor: Frank Bellantoni
Technical Studio: Vantage Art Inc.
 Contents
Preface
‘
To the Student vi
PART 1 SHOPWORK AND SHOP TOOLS l
1 Opportunities for the Small-Engine Technician 2
2 Shopwork and Shop Manuals 5
3 Safety in the Shop 10
4 Fasteners 13
5 Hand Tools 20
6 Cutting Tools 27
7 Measuring Tools 34

PART 2 SMALL ENGINES ; 45

8 Engine Principles 46
9 Two-Cycle-Engine Operation 53
10 Small-Two-Cycle-Engine Construction 65
11 Four-Cycle-Engine Operation 71
12 Small-Four-Cycle-Engine Construction 81
13. Wankel Engines 91
14 Engine Measurements 99

PART 3 ENGINE SYSTEMS 109

15 Engine Lubrication 110
16 Gasoline 120
17 Fuel Systems for Small Engines 127
18 Fuel-System Service 14]
19 Engine Cooling Systems 152

PART 4 ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS 161

20 Basic Electricity 162
21 Batteries 171
22 Battery Service 178
23 Starting Systems for Small Engines 188
24 Servicing Small-Engine Starters 203
25 Ignition Systems 220
26 Ignition-System Service 239
27 Charging Systems 258
28 Servicing Small-Engine Charging Systems 271

PART 5 ENGINE SERVICE 289

29 Troubleshooting Small Engines 290
30 Operating and Maintaining Small Engines 300
31 Servicing Two-Cycle Engines 310
32 Servicing Four-Cycle Engines 328

Glossary 347

Index 358
 Acknowledgments

While preparing this book the authors were given Incorporated; Homelite Division of Textron, Incorpo-
invaluable aid and inspiration by many people in the rated; Honda Motor Company, Limited; Husqvarna;
small-engine field and in education. The authors Imperial Brass Manufacturing Company; Interna-
gratefully acknowledge their indebtedness and offer tional Harvester Company; Jacobsen Manufacturing
their sincere thanks. All cooperated with the aim of Company; The J. I. Case Company; Johnson Motors
providing accurate and complete information on how Division of Outboard Marine Corporation; Kohler
small engines are constructed, how they operate, and Company; Lawn Boy Division of Outboard Marine
how to maintain and service them. Corporation; The L. S. Starrett Company; Mercury
Special thanks are due to the following organiza- Marine Division of Brunswick Corporation; Onan
tions for information and illustrations they supplied: Corporation; Outboard Marine Corporation; Petersen
AC Spark Plug Division of General Motors Corpora- Manufacturing Company, Incorporated; Selastomer
tion; Ariens Company; Black and Decker Manufactur- Division of Microdot, Incorporated; Service Parts Di-
ing Company; Briggs & Stratton Corporation; Buick vision of Dana Corporation; Snap-on Tools Corpora-
Motor Division of General Motors Corporation; tion; Suzuki Motor Company, Limited; Tecumseh
Champion Spark Plug Company; Chevrolet Motor Products Company; Teledyne Wisconsin Motor; 3M
Division of General Motors Corporation; Clinton Company; Toyo Kogyo Company, Limited; TRW, In-
Engines Corporation; Cushman Motors Division of corporated; Union Carbide Corporation; United Delco
Outboard Marine Corporation; Dana Corporation; Division of General Motors Corporation; Volkswagen
Delco-Remy Division of General Motors Corpora- of America, Incorporated; Waldes Kohinoor, Incorpo-
tion; Evinrude Motors Division of Outboard Marine rated; Yamaha Motor Company, Limited; and Yanmar
Corporation; Federal-Mogul Corporation; Ford Mo- Diesel Engine Company, Limited.
tor Company; General Motors Corporation; Gould, To all these organizations and the people who rep-
Incorporated; Harley-Davidson Motor Company, resent them, sincere thanks.

William H. Crouse
Donald L. Anglin

lv
 Preface

The widespread acceptance of Small Engines: Op- totally rewritten to simplify explanations, shorten
eration and Maintenance has encouraged the publi- sentences, and improve readability.
cation of this second, greatly enlarged edition. In this Correlated with the textbook is an all new Work-
revision, many changes have been made and much book for Small-Engine Mechanics. It includes the
new material has been included. Retitled Small- basic engine-service jobs as proposed by small-
Engine Mechanics, this edition reflects the significant engine instructors and the small-engine manufactur-
technological advancements that have been made in ers. Taken together, Small-Engine Mechanics and the
small engines. Engines have been improved year workbook provide the user with the background in-
after year to make them more economical, more pow- formation and “hands-on” experience needed to be-
erful, more flexible, and longer lasting. Now, en- come a qualified small-engine mechanic.
gine-design work is aimed toward reduction of at- To assist the instructor, the Instructor’s Planning
mospheric pollution and noise, resulting in the Guide for Small-Engine Mechanics is available. This
introduction of various engine emission controls as instructor's guide was prepared to help the instructor
well as intensifying the search for alternative power do the best possible job of teaching by most effec-
plants and the modification of the present piston en- tively using the textbook, workbook, and other related
gine. instructional materials. The instructor's guide also
Many of the changes and additions to the book includes the answer key for the tests at the end of
resulted from suggestions made by its users. These each jobsheet in the workbook.
cover new material on safety in the shop, fuels and With the textbook, the workbook and instructor's
combustion, emission controls, overhead camshaft guide make up an instructional program that will fit
engines, brushless alternators with solid-state regu- any teaching situation. The program is flexible
lators, electronic and capacitor-discharge ignition enough to fit classroom instruction needs, shop activ-
systems, and many other new developments. .- ities, individual instruction, and “do-it-yourself”
Another important feature of the second edition is courses for hobbyists and consumers.
that metric equivalents of all United States Custom- The authors are grateful to the many people, both
ary measurements have been added following each in industry and in education, whose contributions
USC measurement. When a United States Customary and comments helped shape this book. They share,
measurement is given, it is usually followed by its with the authors, a hope that this program will help
metric equivalent in brackets; for example, 0.002 inch achieve the aims of all who work in the field of
[0.051 mm]. small-engine mechanics instruction: to train high-
The book is larger. The bigger 8'/2 X 11 [216 x caliber small-engine mechanics who are capable of
279 mm] format permits larger illustrations for easier taking their proper place in the small-engine servic-
understanding of details. The text has been almost ing profession.

William H. Crouse
Donald L. Anglin
 To The Student

This book, Small-Engine Mechanics, was prepared SERVICE PUBLICATIONS

with you, the student, in mind. It covers all aspects of
While you are in the shop, study the various service
small-engine construction, operation, applications,
publications. All small-engine manufacturers pub-
maintenance, and servicing. When you have finished
lish service manuals on their engines. Studying these
this book and the related shopwork, you should be
manuals will provide you with specifications and
ready to enter the world of small-engine servicing.
special procedures.
Here are some hints on how to get the most out of
the book. If you follow these suggestions, you will KEEPING A NOTEBOOK
find studying much easier.
Keeping a notebook is a valuable part of your train-
ing. Start it now, at the beginning of your studies.
1. The first thing to do before studying the assign-
Your notebook will help you in many ways: it will bea
ment is to turn the pages one by one. Look at the
record of your progress, it will become a ready refer-
pictures and study the numbered headings. This
ence source, it will help you learn, and it will help
will give you an idea of what the assignment is
you organize your training program so that it will do
about.
you the most good.
2. If you are starting a new chapter in the textbook,
When you study a chapter in the book, have your
read the Student Performance Objectives listed at
notebook open in front of you. Start with a fresh note-
the beginning of each chapter. These objectives
book page at the beginning of each lesson. Write the
tell you what you will learn from the chapter.
textbook page number and date at the top of the
3. Read the first section in the assignment. Then read
page. As you read your lesson, jot down important
the section again, slowly and carefully, so that you
points.
are sure you understand it.
In the shop, use a small scratch pad or cards to jot
4. Continue studying the pages assigned to you.
down important points. You can transfer these notes
Read each section carefully. When you come to the
to your notebook later.
Review Questions at the end of the chapter, try to
Use your notebook to make sketches of wiring or
answer the questions. If you can answer them, it
hose diagrams, fuel circuits, and so on. File articles
means you are doing a good job of studying. If a
and illustrations from technical and trade magazines
question stumps you, go back and reread until you
in your notebook. Also, save instruction sheets that
have the right answer.
come with service parts.
5. If you come to a sentence you don’t understand,
Your notebook will become a valued possession—a
read it aloud. If this does not help, write it down.
continuing record of what you have learned and are
Ask your instructor to explain it to you.
learning about small-engine mechanics.
6. Don't hesitate to admit that something puzzles you.
Everybody gets stuck once in a while. GLOSSARY AND INDEX
7. Don't worry about not understanding everything
the first time you read it.
A glossary (a definition list) of small-engine terms is
given in the back of the book. Whenever you have any
8. If you get sleepy, or if your attention wan-
doubt about the meaning of a term or what purpose
ders—wake up! Stretch. Put cold water on your
some part has, refer to this list. Also, there is an
face. Have coffee or a soft drink. Then get back
to work!
index at the back of the book. This index will steer
you to the page in the book where you will find the
GETTING PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE information you are seeking.
And now, good luck to you. You are studying a
This book alone will not make you an expert in small
fascinating and admirable machine—the small en-
engines. You also need practice in handling engine
parts and the tools of the trade. If you are taking a gine. Your studies can lead you to success in the
small-engine field, a field where opportunities are
regular course in small-engine servicing, you will get
nearly unlimited.
this practice under the supervision of a teacher. If you
are not taking a regular course, you can still get
practical experience in a local shop where small en- William H. Crouse
gines are serviced. If you are already working in a Donald L. Anglin
repair shop, this book will broaden your knowledge
of small engines.

vi
 SHOPWORK
AND SHOP TOOLS

This is your introduction to the small engine

and the small-engine service industry. In this
first part we point out many opportunities for
jobs in the small-engine service field. We de-
scribe shopwork and shop manuals that you
will use. We discuss safety in the shop, the
basics of shopwork, fasteners, and tools. There
are seven chapters in Part One of Small-Engine
Mechanics:

Chapter 1: Opportunities for the Small-Engine

Technician —
Chapter 2: Shopwork and Shop Manuals
Chapter 3: Safety in the Shop
Chapter 4: Fasteners
Chapter 5: Hand Tools
Chapter 6: Cutting Tools
Chapter 7: Measuring Tools
Opportunities for
the Small-Engine
Technician

O1-1 NUMBER OF SMALL ENGINES IN USE The

variety of jobs that small engines do is amazing (Fig.
1-1). Small engines are used in lawn mowers, edgers,
minibikes, snowblowers, chain saws, water pumps,
After studying this chapter, you should be air compressors, sprayers, grinders, post-hole dig-
able to: gers, and other vehicles and equipment. It is esti-
mated that there are more than 100 million small
1. Discuss the employment opportunities for engines now in use in the United States. At least 10
the small-engine technician million more engines come off the assembly line each
year. |
2. List the basic tasks performed by the small-
O1-2 NEED FOR SERVICE Several million small
engine technician
engines are junked each year. Some of these engines
really wear out. Many could have given additional
3. Describe the purpose of, and how to keep, a
service if they had been serviced and repaired. Many
notebook could have lasted much longer if the owners had not
abused them and had given them proper care and
service. This is what this book is all about—how to
take care of small engines properly so they will give
the user the life that is built into them.
Small engines are like any other machine. They
will give good service if properly cared for. But they
will wear rapidly and fail if they are not cared for
properly. That is where you, as a small-engine tech-
nician, come in. You will service and repair small
engines so they will last longer, operate better, and
give better performance.

O1-3 TYPES OF OPPORTUNITIES Many small-

engine technicians start out in a small way on a
part-time basis. As they learn about small engines,
they get started making money by servicing the en-
gines of neighbors and friends (Fig. 1-2). If they doa
good job, this part-time work can grow into a full-time
business. But there are certain cautions you must
heed if you do small-engine work in your home or
garage. First of all, gasoline is dangerously explo-
sive. Gasoline vapor in a basement can blow a house
right off its foundations. And the explosion can injure
or kill anyone in that basement. Also, running an
 ee
\\ ee
Frtierameal [ara] ge
RL Aea! en

FIG. 1-2 Many small-engine service technicians start out

by earning money servicing the powered equipment of
neighbors and friends.

shops, garages, and service stations sometimes have

a small-engine repair department. Some of these
shops are factory-authorized dealers for certain
makes of small engines. They specialize in one or
more lines—for example, Briggs & Stratton or Kohler
engines—and stock the small-engine parts for these
engines. Normally, the dealers will service all kinds
of small engines, not just the engines for which they
are authorized dealers. Another possible source of job
opportunities is in motorcycle repair shops. Although
motorcycle engines are a special type of small en-
gine, the basic repair and servicing procedures are
similar for all small engines.

O1-4 YOUR OWN BUSINESS There are many ad-

vantages in running your own business (Fig. 1-3). You
are on your own and you cannot be fired from the job.
Whatever income you receive is yours (after expenses
and taxes). You become an independent business
person. As such, you are an important individual in
FIG. 1-1 Some of the many types of small-engine-powered
vehicles and equipment that have become part of our way your hometown.
of life. There are disadvantages, too. You may find your-
self working harder and longer hours than you ever
would work for someone else. You have to put your
engine in a closed room or space can kill you. A
business sense to work, as well as your hands. You
running engine puts out deadly carbon monoxide.
have to keep records and, if you hire others, you must
We will have more to say about these dangers in
take on responsibilities for these employees.
Chap. 3, which concerns safety in the shop. Mean-
time, there is another problem of a different sort that
might come up if you do work in your home or garage.
This is that you must observe local residential zoning
laws. In many communities, there are ordinances or
laws that prohibit certain kinds of business in resi-
dential areas. You would have to check out the local
regulations with city hall before you began to set upa
regular business of servicing small engines in your
home.
If you start a business of your own and if you need
replacement parts for a small engine, you can usu-
ally get them through one of the authorized dealers in
your neighborhood. Look in the phone book.
Many small-engine technicians, after they finish
their small-engine courses, go to work in an estab-
lished service shop. Some shops are set up especially FIG. 1-3 Your part-time business of servicing small engines
to service small engines. Regular automotive repair can grow until it becomes your full-time business.
O1-5 YOUR JOB AS A SMALL-ENGINE ME- REVIEW QUESTIONS
CHANIC Regardless of where you work in the
At the end of each chapter in this book is a series
business, the basic tasks are the same. As a small-
of review questions. These questions will help you to
engine mechanic, you must fix the small gasoline
review what you have just studied. Try to answer
engines that are used to power lawn mowers, garden
them all. If you are not sure about the answer to any
tractors, and similar machines. You will have to know
question, reread the section in the chapter that gives
how to use hand tools and measuring tools, locate
troubles, disassemble engines, examine parts for de- you the answer.
fects, and repair or replace these parts. Installing
1. How many small engines are in use in the
piston rings and bearings also is part of the job. Then
when the engine is all together, you must clean and United States?
adjust the carburetor and magneto, service the 2. How many new small engines are sold each year
starter, and troubleshoot and diagnose and repair in the United States?
any other problems. Afterwards, you must test the
engine for proper performance and install the engine 3. Why do small engines wear out?
in the machine it powers. 4, What opportunities are there for qualified,
When you consider all the things that a small- trained small-engine mechanics?
engine mechanic must know how to do, there doesn't
seem to be anything small about the job. It is just as 5. What things must you check before doing much
challenging and as rewarding as working on larger small-enagine work at home?
engines. And it is for this work that the course you are 6. What advantage is there to owning your own
taking and this textbook, Small-Engine Mechanics, business?
aim to prepare you. Their purpose is to provide you
with the knowledge and skills that you need to be a 7. How can keeping a notebook help you learn
professional small-engine mechanic. small-engine mechanics?

DELE RROlec!,
O1-6 KEEPING A NOTEBOOK Keeping a note-
book is a valuable part of your training to become an Self Projects are projects you do yourself, on your
expert small-engine mechanic. Start it now, at the own. Their purpose is to help you understand more
beginning of your study of this textbook. Your note- about the small-engine service business. They will
book will help you in many ways. It will be a record of help you learn about the many kinds of jobs there are
your progress in your studies. It will become a store- in this business.
house of valuable information you will refer to time
after time. It will help you learn. And it will help you Look in the Yellow Pages of your local telephone
organize your training program to do you the most directory under “Engines— Gasoline.” Make a list
good. Do not overlook this valuable way of becoming of the various businesses listed. You may be sur-
the small-engine expert you want to be. Keep a note- prised at the number and variety of firms in the
book! small-engine business.
 Chapter
Shopwork and
Shop Manuals

O2-1 STEPS IN SERVICE JOBS Service on small

engines and on equipment using small engines can
be classified into six basic steps:

After studying this chapter, you should be Measuring

able to:
. Disassembly
1. List the six steps in any service job and ex- . Machining
plain what each means
. Installing new parts
2. Discuss the various sources of small-engine . Reassembly
service information and specifications . Making adjustments

3. Explain the purpose of the illustrations in

this textbook and describe the types used Many jobs require fewer steps. Let us look briefly at
each step.

O2-2 MEASURING Many times, before you begin

work on an engine, you have to find out what is
wrong with it. You often begin by measuring. This
does not necessarily mean you get out your tape
measure. When you listen to a noisy engine, you are
measuring the sounds of the faulty engine against
the sounds of a good engine as you remember them.
Whenever you service and repair an engine, you
will be taking various measurements. For example,
you may measure point opening in the magneto, the
valve-stem clearance, engine-cylinder diameter, and
so on. You may be taking these measurements in the
United States Customary System (inches and frac-
tions of inches) or in the metric system (centimeters
and millimeters). We describe these two systems
along with measuring instruments in Chap. 7.

02-3 DISASSEMBLY To repair an engine or to

perform a service such as installing new piston rings,
you have to disassemble (“tear down,” or take apart)
the engine. We describe in detail, in later chapters,
how to disassemble engines.
02-4 MACHINING When you disassemble an magneto points, and other adjustable parts must be
engine, you may find that some parts are so worn adjusted to specs whenever the engine is serviced.
they must be thrown away. Other parts may require
nothing more than machining. For example, the ©2-9 SHOP MANUALS Every engine manufac-
valves in a four-cycle engine may require grinding. turer issues a shop manual such as shown in Fig. 2-1.
Power tools are required for most machining jobs. We These manuals cover all service procedures, includ-
explain in a later chapter how to grind valves and the ing the specs, on the engines manufactured by the
machine used to do this job. company. When you need specific information on an
engine, you look it up in the manual covering that
O2-5 INSTALLING NEW PARTS If the old parts engine (Fig. 2-2).
are worn so much they cannot be used, then new Manuals for specific engines can be purchased
parts are required. New engine parts can be pur- from the manufacturer. You should have the service
chased from a local small-engine parts dealer. If the manual that applies before you work on an engine.
dealer does not have a part in stock, the dealer then You will find, however, that the general servicing
orders it from a regional warehouse. procedures are quite similar for all engines. The dif-
ferences lie in some specific servicing recommenda-
O2-6 REASSEMBLY After the parts have been tions and in the specifications. If you do not have a
machined or replaced with new parts, everything is manual for an engine you are working on, the author-
put back together. This is called reassembly, or ized dealer for the engine either has the manual for
buildup. sale or will special-order it for you.

02-7 ADJUSTMENTS Asany machine runs, parts ©2-10 TYPES OF ILLUSTRATIONS Before we
tend to wear. After some time has passed, the wear is leave the subject of small-engine shop manuals, we
great enough so that adjustment is needed. For ex- would like to explain the various kinds of pictures, or
ample, if magneto points or valves wear, adjustments illustrations, you will find in these shop manuals.
have to be made to restore the proper specifications. Many of the illustrations used in the book have
been supplied by the manufacturers of small en-
02-8 SPECIFICATIONS Inthe shop you will often gines. Therefore, you may be sure that the illustra-
hear the word “specifications” or “specs.” The specs tions are accurate. Also, many of the illustrations
are the right measurements for the engine you are have been prepared especially for this book to make
working on. These measurements, or specs, tell you it easier for you to understand the text.
what the cylinder diameter should be, for example. Illustrations are of several types, such as external
They are set by the factory and are included in the views, sectional views, cutaways, line drawings, and
manufacturer's shop manual. The specs also give you phantom views. For example, Fig. 2-3 is an external
the allowable wear. If the cylinder wears beyond this view of an engine. Figure 2-4 is a sectional view of an
allowable dimension, service is required. Valves, engine. This view is called a sectional view because

ano pants HST

insrayction BOOK
* yaoaals
$70
9-80

FIG. 2-1 Shop manuals available from the engine manu-

facturers provide the specs and service procedures.

6
FIG. 2-2 When you need some specific information on a
small engine, you look it up in the manufacturer's service
manual.

FIG. 2-3 An external view of an engine. (Briggs & Stratton

Corporation)

EXHAUST PORT EXHAUST MANIFOLD

WATER JACKET
SPARK-PLUG
HOLE

CYLINDER
HEAD

PISTON

TRANSFER
PORT
CONNECTING
ROD

CRANKPIN

REED VALVE

»
ma
INTAKE
MANIFOLD

FIG. 2-4 Sectional view from the top of a V-4 two-cycle

outboard engine.
FIG. 2-5 Cutaway view of a chain saw showing the internal
construction of the engine. (Homelite Division of Tex- the engine is pictured as if it had been cut in two
tron, Inc.) (sections) to show what it looks like inside. It appears
to be cut in half like an apple.
Another type of picture prepared to show the inside
of a part is a cutaway view. Figure 2-5 is a cutaway
view of a chain saw. There is also the exploded view,
MAGNETO
BACK such as shown in Fig. 2-6, which pictures the parts
PLATE
used to make a one-cylinder air-cooled engine for a
power lawn mower. Notice that the parts are laid out
in the order in which they go together to make the
SEAL CYLINDER
HEAD assembly. Exploded views are very helpful, because
ya they show you the order in which parts are to be put
together.
eee
Figure 2-7 is a line drawing, so called because it is
5 made up of lines. The picture shows a technician
checking the lawn-mower engine.
Figure 2-8 is a still different kind of picture. It is
GASKET called a phantom view. In the illustration, various
CIRCLIP
parts are painted in as though they were transparent.
CRANKCASE CYLINDER It is as though you can see through them so you can
PIN look into the inside of the engine. This is the reason
CAGE
CRANKSHAFT : —
¢ 00 —¥ PISTON
ca RINGS
o=

PISTON
CAP

BEARING

BEARING

GASKET

ENGINE BASE

FIG. 2-7 Line drawing showing how to check engine com-

FIG. 2-6 Completely disassembled view of a single-cylin- pression by slowly pulling the engine through the compres-
der two-cycle engine. (Jacobsen Manufacturing Company) sion stroke with the starter rope.

8
 for the name. You can see through the parts, almost
as though they were phantoms, or ghosts.
You will find many pictures of all these types in this
book and also in shop manuals issued by the various
engine manufacturers. The purpose of the illustra-
tions is to help you understand how small engines,
and the equipment on which they are used, are con-
structed, how they work, and how to repair them.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What are the six basic steps in any smaii-engine

job?
2. Name four measurements you might make on an
engine.

3. In small-engine terms, what does “tear down”

mean?
4. Name three machining jobs you might do on an
engine.

5. What does the word “specs” mean?

6. Where do you find specs?
7. Name four types of illustrations used in shop
manuals and in this textbook.

bELE PROJECTS

1. Look at a small-engine service manual. At the

front, on the first or second page, there is a quick
reference index. Find out how to use it.
eo
FIG. 2-8 Phantom view of a four-cycle outboard engine. 2. Now make a list of the sections listed in the
(Homelite Division of Textron, Inc.) quick reference index.
 Chapter
Safety in the Shop

O3-] SAFETY IS-YOURJOB Safety in the shop

means protecting yourself and those around you from
danger or injury. Safety is everybody's job. It is your
job. When working in the shop, you are being “safe” if
After studying this chapter, you should be you are protecting your eyes, your fingers, your
able to: hands—your whole body—from danger at all times.
And, just as important, safety also means looking out
1. Explain what good safety practice in the for those around you.
shop means
O3-2 LAYOUT OF THE SHOP The first thing you
2. Explain what you should do in an emergency should do when you go out into a shop is to find out
where everything is located. A typical layout for a
3. Discuss fire prevention small lawn-mower repair shop is shown in Fig. 3-1.
See what the layout of your shop is. You should do
4. Describe the various types of fire extinguish- this regardless of whether it is a school shop or a
ers and the types of fires they are to be shop where you are going to work.
used on You should note where the machine tools—the
power tools—are located. Read the warning and
5. List the safety guidelines you should follow caution signs posted on the walls. They are posted to
warn you against potential danger. Notice where the
in the shop
fire extinguishers are located. You might need to get
a fire extinguisher quickly some day.

03-3 EMERGENCIES If there is an accident and

someone gets hurt, notify your instructor at once! Your
instructor will make the decision what to do—
whether to call the school nurse, a doctor, or an am-
bulance. If there is a fire, get help at once. The
quicker you get at a fire, the easier it is to control.

03-4 FIRE PREVENTION Gasoline is such a fa-

miliar item in the shop that people often forget that it
can be extremely dangerous. A spark or lighted
match in a closed place filled with gasoline vapor
can cause an explosion. Even the spark from a light
switch can set off gasoline vapors. There have been
cases in which employees washed the shop floor with
gasoline—with the doors closed—and then turned
off the lights. The spark from the light switch set off
an explosion of gasoline vapor that destroyed the

10
 POWER MOWER
WORK STAND
GRINDER MOWER
STORAGE
Y)N

GASOLINE
SAFETY

MAGNETO
TESTER
FIG. 3-3 An approved type of safety container for gasoline.

sparks around gasoline. Store gasoline in an ap-

proved safety container (Fig. 3-3). Never keep gaso-
line in a glass jug or a household type of thin plastic
WORK BENCH PARTS BINS
jug. The jug could break and cause an explosion or
FIG. 3-1 A typical layout for a lawn-mower repair shop. fire.
(Lawn Boy Division of Outboard Marine Corporation)
Oily rags are another possible source of fire. The
oil on the rags might cause so much heat to develop
building and also injured or killed the employees that the rags ignite spontaneously, or catch fire. This
(Fig. 0-2). is called spontaneous combustion. It results from a
It also is dangerous to pour gasoline down floor chemical action that produces heat and fire. Oily
drains. Gasoline can form vapors in the sewer line. rags and waste should be put into special closed
These vapors could be set off by a lighted match or metal containers where they can do no harm.
cigarette thrown down a drain.
To prevent explosions, keep the shop doors open or
the ventilator system going if there is gasoline vapor 03-5 TAKING CARE OF YOURSELF IN THE SHOP
around. Wipe up spilled gasoline at once, and put the Some people say, “Accidents will happen!” Safety
‘rags outside to dry. Never light or smoke cigarettes experts do not agree. They say, “Accidents are
around gasoline. If you are working on a small en- caused” —caused by carelessness, by inattention to
gine with a leaky carburetor, fuel line, or fuel pump, the job at hand, by the use of damaged or incorrect
catch the leaking gasoline in a container or with tools, and sometimes by just plain stupidity. To keep
rags. Then put the rags outside as soon as possible. accidents from happening, follow these simple safety
Fix the leak right away. Be very careful to avoid guidelines:

1. Work quietly and give the job your undivided

attention.

2. Keep your tools and equipment under control.

3. Never indulge in horseplay or other foolish ac-

tivities. You could cause someone to get seri-
ously hurt.

4. Do not put sharp objects, such as screwdrivers,

in your pocket. You could cut yourself or get
stabbed.

5. Make sure your clothes are suitable for the job.

Dangling sleeves or ties can get caught in ma-
chinery and cause serious injuries. Do not wear
sandals or open-toe shoes. Wear full leather
shoes with nonskid rubber heels and soles.
Steel-toe shoes are best for shopwork.

6. Wipe excess oil and grease off your hands and

tools so that you can get a good grip on tools or
FIG. 3-2 Gasoline vapors are highly explosive. parts.

11
 If you spill oil or grease, or any liquid, on the
floor, clean it up so that no one will slip and
fall.
Never use compressed air to blow dirt from your
clothes, and never point a compressed-air hose
at another person. Flying particles could put
out an eye.

. Always wear goggles or a face shield on any

job where there is danger from flying particles
(Fig. 3-4).

10. Watch out for flying sparks when you are using
the grinding wheel or welding. The sparks can
set your clothes on fire.

11. To protect your eyes, wear goggles when using

FIG. 3-5 When you must lift or move a heavy object,
chemicals, such as solvents. If you get a chem- get help.
ical in your eyes, wash them out with water and
see the school nurse or a doctor at once.
rinse out your mouth several times. Avoid tak-
12. Always use the right tool for the job. The wrong ing deep breaths. If you swallow some gaso-
tool could damage the part being worked on line, do not try to vomit. Instead, get medical
and could also cause you to get hurt. help at once. Your life may depend on it!

13. If you have to lift a heavy object, do it right. You

can strain your back and injure yourself if you CAUTION: Never run an engine in a closed garage
try to lift too much or lift improperly (Fig. 3-5). that does not have a ventilating system. The exhaust
When you must lift or move a heavy object, get gases contain carbon monoxide. Carbon monoxide is
help. a colorless, odorless, tasteless, poisonous gas that
can kill you! Enough carbon monoxide to kill you can
14. Never siphon gasoline from a tank using your accumulate in a closed one-car garage in only three
mouth and a piece of hose. Swallowing even a minutes.
small amount of gasoline can cause serious
respiratory infection and pneumonia. Also, the REVIEW QUESTIONS
lead in gasoline is poisonous. If you should get
some gasoline in your mouth, spit it out, and ile What is the first caution to observe when you are
using a grinding wheel?
. What is wrong with using gasoline to clean the
floor or workbench with the shop doors closed?
. Why are oily rags dangerous?
. What is wrong with operating an engine in a
shop or room with the garage doors closed?
. How many fire extinguishers are there in your
shop, and where are they located?
. Why should you never store gasoline in a glass
or thin plastic jug?
. Why must you never point the compressed-air
hose at another person?

DELLE PROJECI

Make the floor plan of the school shop, showing the

FIG. 3-4 Always wear safety glasses, goggles, or a face various working areas and the location of the
shield when using a bench grinder. workbenches and power equipment.

12
 Chapter
Fasteners

O4-1 TYPES OF FASTENERS Fasteners include

screws, bolts, studs, nuts, cotter pins, lockwashers,
snap rings, keys, rivets, and safety wire. We discuss
each of these in this chapter.
After studying this chapter, you should be
able to: O4-2 MACHINE SCREWS AND BOLTS _ Screws, or
machine screws, enter threaded holes, but bolts need
1. Discuss screw threads and explain thread nuts. However, as far as appearance is concerned,
pitch, series, and classes screws and bolts may be very similar. A great variety
of screws and bolts are used on the engine and en-
Explain how bolts and screws are marked to gine-driven equipment. Most bolts have hexagonal or
indicate their strength six-sided heads, as shown in Fig. 4-1. Screws may
also have hexagonal (usually called hex) heads, but
. Explain how metric threads differ from USCS they are also supplied with other provisions for driv-
ing. Wrenches and screwdrivers used with screws
threads
and bolts are discussed in Chap. 5.
. List the various typesof nuts, screws, and
04-3. SCREWS The term “machine screw” refers
bolts and common applications for each
to the type of fastener which is driven, or turned, into
drilled and threaded holes in metal parts. The screw
. Describe the various types of locking devices
is turned down into the threaded holes to hold an-
other part in place. There are many types of screws.

04-4 BOLTS Bolts require nuts, as shown in

Fig. 4-1. The bolt is put through holes in parts to be
attached to each other, and the nut is then turned
onto the bolt.

O4-5 STUDS Another type of bolt is the stud. The

stud does not have a head. It is essentially a piece of
threaded rod. A common use is to fasten the cylinder
head to the cylinder. Several studs are screwed into
the threaded holes around the cylinder. The cylinder
head is set down over the stud bolts, and nuts are
used to hold the head in place.

04-6 NUTS Various nut shapes are shown in

Fig. 4-2. The slotted and castle, or castellated, nuts
are used with cotter pins. Other nuts are used with
lockwashers. The differences are explained later.

13
 COLLAR

( 4

CC
(a) SELF-LOCKING (6) INTERFERENCE

(c) SELF-LOCKING (d) PALNUT

FIG. 4.3 Self-locking nuts.

a slot cut in the side, and the upper threads are

somewhat distorted. When the nut is turned down on
the bolt, the separated sections of the nut are drawn
STUD slightly together. This spring effect produces friction
on the threads that acts to prevent nut movement.
NUT} NUT) The self-locking nut with the vertical slots (Fig.
FIG. 4-1 Screw, bolt, and stud. Top shows the attaching 4-3c) is made with the inner diameter of the upper
parts separated, but aligned for assembly. Bottom shows sections slightly smaller than the bolt diameter. The
the parts together, in sectional view.
upper segments of the nut press against the bolt
threads to hold the nut in position. The Palnut
Cotter pins and lockwashers prevent the nuts from
(Fig. 4-3d) is a single-threaded lock nut.
working loose and dropping off. Lockwashers are
The interference nut (Fig. 4-3b) has a collar of fiber
also used under the heads of bolts and screws to keep
or soft metal. The bolt threads cut threads in the fiber
them from loosening.
or soft metal as the nut is turned on the bolt. The
Another locking method uses two nuts. The second
additional material jams in the bolt threads to keep
nut is turned down on and tightened against the first
the nut from loosening.
nut. The second nut, sometimes called a “jam nut,”
locks the first nut in place and keeps it from working
O4-7 THREADS Screws, bolts, and studs all have
loose.
external threads, or threads on the outside. Nuts and
The speed nut, shown in Fig. 4-2, is formed from
threaded holes have threads on the inside. Nuts and
sheet metal and is properly called aTinnerman nut. It
bolts come in many sizes, -from very small to very
is quickly installed by pressing it down into place on
large. Large nuts and bolts have coarse threads,
the stud or bolt.
which means that there are only a few threads per
Some nuts have a “built-in” locking feature, as
inch. You can count the number of threads on a bolt.
shown in Fig. 4-3. The self-locking nut (Fig. 4-3a) has
Just measure 1 inch from the end of the bolt and count
the number of threads. There are also other measure-
ments of a bolt. These include the length of the bolt,
diameter of the bolt and length of the thread.

04-8 PITCH Pitch is the number of threads per

SQUARE SLOTTED inch. In addition to using a ruler to count the number
HEX of threads per inch, you can also use a thread gauge.
To use the gauge, find the blade that has the proper
number of teeth to fit the threads, as shown in
Fig. 4-4. The blade is marked with the pitch, or num-
ber of teeth per inch.
CASTLE ACORN SPEED Screw threads are puzzling, but you should know
FIG. 4-2 Several common nuts used on small en- about them. A screw that is % inch in diameter can
gines. have 20, 28, or 32 threads per inch. Now let us find out

14
 1 has the loosest fit and is easiest to remove and
install, even when the threads are dirty and some-
what battered. Class 2 has a tighter fit. Class 3 has a
very close fit. An external thread, which is used on a
bolt, screw, or stud, is called an A thread. An internal
thread, which is used in a nut or threaded hole, is
called a B thread.

O4-11 COMPLETE THREAD DESIGNATION Now

let us put together all that you have learned about
threads. A thread is designated by size, pitch, series,
and class. For example, suppose you have a %4-20
UNC-2A bolt. This means that the bolt is % inch in
diameter, that it has coarse threads (20 threads per
inch), and that the thread is an external class 2
thread.
FIG. 4-4 Using a thread gauge. Here is why it is important to know about threads:
You cannot use a %-28 UNF-2A bolt with a %4-20 UNC-
how to tell the difference. You cannot put a %-inch 2B nut because the threads do not match. Not only the
20-thread nut on a %-inch 28-thread bolt. bolt size but also the threaded pitch must be the same
for a bolt or screw to fit a nut or a threaded hole.
©O4-9 THREAD SERIES There are three thread se-
ries: coarse, fine, and extrafine. By “coarse,” “fine,” O4-12 TYPES OF BOLTS AND SCREWS Bolts and
and “extrafine,” we mean the pitch, or number of hex-head screws are made of materials of different
threads in an inch. A %-inch bolt, for example, could strengths. The table in Fig. 4-5 shows the head mark-
have coarse threads (13 threads per inch). Or a %-inch ings that tell the quality of the bolt or screw and how
bolt could have fine threads (20 threads per inch) or much tightening one manufacturer recommends for
extrafine threads (28 threads per inch). A coarse that size bolt or screw. High-quality bolts and screws
thread shortens the disassembly and reassembly are more expensive and are used only where added
time, because fewer turns are required to remove or strength is necessary.
install it. The fine and extrafine threads are smaller
than the coarse threads. The fine and extrafine ©4-13 OTHER TYPES OF SCREWS The setscrew,
threads are used where greater bolt strength and shown in Fig. 4-6, is a special type of screw. Its pur-
additional accuracy of assembly are required. pose is to fasten a collar, gear, or similar part to a
shaft. The setscrew is turned down in a threaded hole
04-10 THREAD CLASSES There are three thread in the collar or gear until the inner end contacts the
classes. The difference is in the closeness of fit. Class shaft. The inner end, or point, of the setscrew “bites”

BOLT OR GRADE 2 GRADE 5 GRADE 8 9

SCREW SIZE
165 in. lb.
200 in. Ib.

5/16-18 350 in. Ib.

5/16-24 30 ft. Ib.

3/8-16 50 ft. Ib.

3/8-24 60 ft. Ib.

80 ft. Ib.
105 ft. Ib.

115 ft. Ib.

165 ft. Ib.

U7As itis [Toy

230 ft. Ib.

260 ft. Ib.

330 ft. Ib.
350 ft. Ib.
470 ft. Ib.

FIG. 4-5 Grade and torque for various sizes of bolts and
screws. (Kohler Company)

15
 =e
NUT (OR SCREWHEAD)
LOCKWASHER
7A
CONE POINT
PLAIN

neo
EXTERNAL

FLAT POINT FLAT WASHER

ca
MM)
INTERNAL EXTERNAL
INTERNAL
HEADLESS
FIG. 4-7. Lockwashers (left) and a plain lockwasher in-
SETSCREW
stalled between a flat washer and a nut or bolt (right).
SOCKET-TYPE
SETSCREW
washer is not used. A lockwasher is placed between
the nut or screwhead and the machine part.

O46 COTTER SRINS Cotter pins, shown in

Fig. 4-8, are used with slotted and castle nuts. The
FLAT POINT CONE POINT
bolt has a hole through which the cotter pin passes.
FIG. 4-6 Types of setscrew points.
To use the pin, the nut is tightened, and the nut slots
are lined up with the hole in the bolt. Then the cotter
pin is inserted and the two legs of the pin are bent as
into the shaft and holds the collar or gear in the set shown.
position. Figure 4-6 shows various types of setscrew To remove the cotter pin, straighten out the two legs
points. Often the shaft has a flat side machined on it and pull it out with a pair of pliers. Once the inex-
for the setscrew to bite into. This makes it easier for pensive cotter pin has been used, throw it away. Its
the setscrew to prevent the gear, or collar, from slip- legs may break if bent again.
ping on the shaft.
One special type of screw cuts its own threads. This O4-17. RIVETS Rivets are metal pins used to
is a self-tapping screw. The end of the screw is some- fasten two parts together more or less permanently.
what smaller and may have one or more slots cut in In a garden tractor or other small vehicle, rivets may
it. These slots form cutting edges on the threads so be used to hold the brake lining on the brake shoes.
that, when the screw is turned into the hole, threads They also are used to keep the clutch lining in place
are cut in the hole. The end of the screw acts like a and to hold linkage together.
tap to cut its own threads. One end of the rivet has a head. After the rivet is in
There is another special type of screw that not only place, a driver, or hammer-and-rivet set, is used to
cuts its own threads but also drills the hole. The point form a head on the other end. In blind holes, where
of the screw is formed into a drill and tempered. one end of the rivet cannot be reached for flattening,
When the screw is used, only one operation is re- a Pop rivet can be used.
quired, because it drills, taps the hole, and fastens Rivets are usually removed by cutting off one end
itself. with a chisel. They can also be driven out with a
punch or drilled out.
O4-14 OTHER TYPES OF FASTENERS There are
other types of fasteners used in an engine besides
screws and bolts. Lockwashers, cotter pins, and
safety wire are used with screws and bolts to keep
them from loosening or coming off completely. Rivets
are used to permanently fasten two or more pieces
together. Keys and splines are used to keep collars or
gears from slipping on a rotating shaft.

04-15 LOCKWASHERS Lockwashers, shown in

Fig. 4-7, are generally placed between the nut or
screwhead and a flat washer. The edges left by the
split in the plain lockwasher cut into the nut or
screwhead and keep it from turning and loosening.
FIG. 4-8 Cotter pin before installation (top) and after in-
The toothed lockwashers provide many edges to im- stallation through the hole in the bolt and the slot in the
prove the locking effect. In some assemblies, the flat nut.

16
04-18 KEYS AND SPLINES Keys and splines are device is required to fasten the collar firmly to the
used to lock gears, pulleys, collars, and other, similar shaft. ,
parts to shafts. Figure 4-9 shows a typical key instal- Splines, shown in Fig. 4-10, are internal and exter-
lation. The key is a wedge-shaped piece of metal. It nal teeth cut into both the shaft and the installed part.
fits into slots, called keyways, cut into the shaft and When the pinion, gear, pulley, or collar is installed,
collar or pulley or gear being installed on the shaft. the use of splines is the same as having a great
The key locks the shaft and collar so they rotate to- number of keys between the installed part and the
gether. shaft. In many mechanisms, the splines fit loosely so
To install the key, as shown in Fig. 4-9, place the that the gear or other part is free to move back and
key into the keyway in the shaft. Then slide the collar forth endwise on the shaft. The splines force both
over the key until it fits in place. If the collar or gear is parts to rotate together. Splines may be curved or
to be installed on the end of the shaft, the keyway straight.
often extends to the end of the shaft. With this type of
assembly, the collar is placed on the shaft so that the ©4-19 SNAP RINGS External snap or retaining
keyways match. Then a wedge-shaped key is driven rings, shown in Fig. 4-11, are used on shafts to pre-
into the two keyways for a tight fit. No other holding vent endways movement of a gear or collar on the
shaft. Internal snap or retaining rings are used in
pistons, transmission cases, and similar parts to
KEY COLLAR
KEYWAY keep pins, shafts, or other components in position.
The external snap ring must be expanded with spe-
cial snap-ring pliers so that it slips over the shaft and
into the undercut on the shaft. The internal snap ring
must be contracted so that it can slip into the hole
and into the undercut.
SHAFT Figure 4-12 shows snap-ring pliers being used to
FIG. 4-9 A key fits into slots, called keyways, to hold two remove the snap ring from a piston. Since snap rings
parts in place. are made of spring steel, they are somewhat difficult
to work with. If you do not hold them securely during
removal or installation, they have a bad habit of
EXTERNAL INTERNAL flying across the room.
SPLINES SPLINES Snap-ring pliers are made specifically to expand
external snap rings, or compress internal snap rings,
for removal or installation. These pliers hold the snap
ring securely while the ring is under spring tension.
The Tru-Arc retaining rings shown in Fig. 4-1l area
special type of snap ring. They have two lips with
holes into which the pin ends of special snap-ring
PINION pliers fit. There is less chance of these pliers slipping
off the ring during removal or installation. These
FIG. 4-10 Internal and external splines. rings are made for both internal and external instal-
lation.

INTERNAL EXTERNAL INTERNAL EXTERNAL EXTERNAL EXTERNAL

©)
BOWED
e,
BOWED
CD
BEVELED
C2
BEVELED
7
BOWED E-RING
€)
PRONG-LOCK®
FOR HOUSINGS FOR SHAFTS FOR HOUSINGS FOR SHAFTS FOR SHAFTS FOR SHAFTS
TAKE-UP AND BORES
END-PLAY AND PINS AND BORES AND PINS AND PINS AND PINS

INTERNAL EXTERNAL INTERNAL EXTERNAL EXTERNAL EXTERNAL

&
BASIC
e,
BASIC
O
INVERTED
O
INVERTED
O
HEAVY-DUTY
O
HIGH-STRENGTH
FOR HOUSINGS FOR SHAFTS FOR HOUSINGS FOR SHAFTS FOR SHAFTS FOR SHAFTS
AXIAL
ASSEMBLYAND BORES AND PINS AND BORES AND PINS AND PINS AND PINS

FIG. 4-11 Various types of internal and external Tru-Arc

retaining or snap rings. (Waldes Kohinoor, Inc.)

Li
 PISTON-
PIN LOCK

BOLT HEADS

NEEDLE-
NOSE
PLIERS

FIG. 4-12 Removing a piston-pin lock, or snap ring, with

needle-nose pliers. (Briggs & Stratton Corporation)
SAFETY WIRE AROUND HEAD

TWIST METHODS
O4-20 SAFETY WIRE Small engines, small-
engine-powered equipment, and motorcycles gener-
ally are considered to vibrate a lot. This heavy vibra-
tion can cause nuts, bolts, and other fasteners to work
loose. Different types of lockwashers act to prevent
threaded fasteners from loosening. But sometimes
the vibration in an engine or machine is so severe SINGLE-WIRE METHOD
that no threaded fastener can remain securely tight- FIG. 4-13 Safety-wiring methods, shown for right-hand
ened. Installing a cotter pin, as we discussed earlier, threads. For left-hand threads, install wire in opposite di-
is one way of safetying, or securing, a nut onto a stud rection.
or bolt. Another way is to use safety wire, as shown in
Fig. 4-13.
Safety wiring can be used to secure screws, studs, hands, not with regular pliers. When you have fin-
nuts, and bolts by wiring together two or more nuts or ished twisting the safety wire, cut off any unused,
bolts. The safety wire is installed so that any ten- excess wire. To safety-wire a castle nut, tighten the
dency of one of the nuts or bolts to loosen is countered nut to its minimum specified torque. If necessary,
by the tightening of the wire and the other nut or bolt. continue tightening the nut until a slot in the nut
Two different methods of installing safety wire are aligns with a hole in the bolt or stud. Then install the
used. These are the single-wire plain method and the safety wire.
twist method (shown in Fig. 4-13). For use on small
parts that have several closely spaced nuts or bolts, O4-21 METRIC BOLTS, SCREWS, AND THREADS
the single-wire method is used. However, the twist The metric system of measurements is described in
method is the more common method of safety wiring. Chap. 7. Metric bolts, screws, and nuts are measured
With this method of safety wiring, no more than three in millimeters (mm). The threads are also different
widely spaced fasteners should be wired together. from the threads used on engines built in the United
Once safety wire is used, it should never be used States. A small-engine mechanic working on both
again. domestic and imported engines needs two sets of
Safety wire must be installed so that all pull ex- fasteners and two sets of wrenches.
erted by the wire tends to tighten the nut. The twists The different ways that wrench size for bolts is
should be tight and even. Special wire-twister pliers measured are shown in Fig. 4-14. In both the United
are available for installing safety wire. If you do not States Customary System (USCS) (inch system) and
have the special pliers, twist the wire with your the metric system (millimeter system), the wrench

18
 We REVIEW QUESTIONS

e
l. What is the basic difference between a bolt and
a stud?

. Name four kinds of nuts.

. What is the purpose of the cotter pin? How

is it used?
3
ery . What is the purpose of lockwashers?
axis ae
. Explain how a rivet works.
BRITISH . What is the name of the screw that is used with-
STANDARD out a nut?

. What is the most common type of bolt head?

SELF PROJECTS

Ly Start a collection of different sizes and grades of

hex-head screws and bolts. Remember, bolts
METRIC and screws can be classified by size, length,
FIG. 4-14 Different ways that wrench sizes for a bolt are pitch, series, and quality. You can measure size
determined. and length with a ruler. For pitch you need a
thread gauge. The quality is indicated by the
size is determined by measuring across the flats of markings on the top of the hex head. Tag your
the bolt head. In past years, the British Standard bolts and screws to identify them, or mount them
System was used on engines and motorcycles built in on a board with the identification under each.
England. In this system, the wrench size is deter-
. Collect different kinds and sizes of lockwashers.
mined by measuring, in inches, across the outside
diameter of the threads. . Make a collection of different kinds of nuts.

19
 Chapter
Hand Tools

O$-1 TYPES OF TOOLS _ A great variety of tools

are used in the modern small-engine shop. Figure 5-1
shows a set of tools for small-engine mechanics.
These tools enable the technician to handle any kind
After studying this chapter, you should be of job that comes along with speed and efficiency.
able to: Actually, that is the purpose of tools: to enable the
mechanic to do the required job as easily and quickly
1. Describe the various types of hand tools as possible. Whenever a new design of engine or
machine comes along, the tool engineers examine it.
2. Explain what a torque wrench is and when it Then they design the proper service tools that will
is used enable the mechanic to service it correctly.
Despite the fact that there are thousands of differ-
3. Demonstrate proper use of the impact driver ent kinds of tools, there are only a few basic types.
These include tools for hammering, cutting, measur-
ing, and turning bolts or nuts. We discuss cutting and
measuring tools in later chapters. This chapter covers
the common hand tools, such as _ screwdrivers,
wrenches, pliers, and hammers.

O5-2 SCREWDRIVERS _ The screwdriver is used to

drive, or turn, screws with slotted or recessed heads.
The most common type of screwdriver is the one for
slotted screwheads shown in Fig. 5-2. Do not use a
screwdriver as a prybar, punch, or chisel, because
you are likely to break it. Keep the tip properly
ground, with the sides practically parallel at the end.
If the sides are tapered, the tip tends to rise up out of
the screw slot when it is turned.
The blade of a screwdriver is made of tempered
steel. This means it has been heat-treated for hard-
ness. If you get it too hot when you are grinding the
tip, you will “pull” the temper, or soften it. Keep a cup
of water near the grinder. Dip the screwdriver tip in
the water every few secondsds you are grinding it to
keep the steel from overheating.
Always select the proper screwdriver for the job.
The tip should fit snugly in the screw slot. A screw-
driver that is too large or too small is hard to use and
may damage the screw or part being worked on.

20
 FIG. 5-3 A Phillips-head screwdriver and the slotted head
of a Phillips-head screw.

Figure 5-5 shows a number of different types of

screwheads and the screwdrivers and wrenches re-
quired to drive them.

©5-4 WRENCHES Bolt heads and nuts commonly

used in machines and engines are of the hexagonal
(six-sided) type. They have six flats around the outer
FIG. 5-1 A set of tools for a small-engine mechanic. (Onan surface, as shown in Fig. 5-5. These flats permit the
Corporation) use of a wrench to turn the nut or bolt. Types of
wrenches include open-end, box, combination,
socket, torque, impact-driver, and adjustable. A vari-
©O$-3 SPECIAL SCREWDRIVERS Some screws
ety of wrenches are used in the shop. To work on both
have what resembles two screw slots at right angles.
domestic and imported engines, you will need two
The Phillips-head screw is one of these. It requires a
sets of wrenches. Most engines made in the United
special screwdriver with a tip to fit the crossed slots
States use bolts that have heads which are measured
as shown in Fig. 5-3. There is less chance that the
in fractions of an inch. These need inch-type
Phillips-head screwdriver will slip out of the slots
wrenches. A 10-piece set (% to 1 inch) will handle
and damage the finish of chromed or painted parts.
most jobs. Imported engines and some domestic en-
Three sizes of Phillips-head screwdrivers —4-, 6-, and
gines use metric nuts and bolts. The bolt heads and
8-inch [102-, 152-, and 203-mm]—are enough for most
nuts are measured in millimeters (mm). A 10-piece
shopwork.
metric set (6 to 19 mm) will handle most of these. We
The offset screwdriver is a variation of the standard
discuss the metric system in Chap. 7.
screwdriver. With the offset screwdriver, a screw that
is set in an awkward place can be reached and
O5-5 OPEN-END WRENCHES Open-end wrenches,
turned. The blade tips are set at right angles so that
such as shown in Fig. 5-6, are designed to tighten
first, one end of the screwdriver can be used, and
or loosen nuts and bolts. The opening is usually at an
then the other can be used to keep the screw turning.
angle to the body to permit turning in a tight space.
The allen wrench, shown in Fig. 5-4, is a special
The nut or bolt is turned as far as the space allows.
form of turning tool. It has a hexagonal (six-sided)
Then the wrench can be flipped over to permit further
shape and fits into a hexagonal hole in the head of a
turning of the nut or bolt: By flipping the wrench after
screw. This wrench is used for allen screws and many
each swing, the nut or bolt can be loosened or tight-
setscrews.
ened satisfactorily.
There are many types of special screwdrivers and
wrenches, used to turn different types of fasteners.

HANDLE
BLADE

SHANK
FIG. 5-2 A typical screwdriver. FIG. 5-4 An allen screw and an allen wrench.

21
 a
®)
W
PHILLIPS
eg
of of
CLUTCH
® i
SQUARE
U
HEXAGONAL
stand the maximum leverage you can apply on its
end. Added leverage may cause the wrench to break.
Never use a hammer to strike on a wrench except
where the wrench has been specifically designed to
SOCKET SOCKET
be used in this manner.

©O5-6 BOX WRENCHES Box wrenches, such as

shown in Fig. 5-6, do the same job as open-end
SLOTTED CROSS HOLT ONE WAY
SLOTTED SLOTTED wrenches. However, the opening for the nut or bolt
head surrounds, or “boxes,” the nut or bolt head. Box
wrenches can be used in very tight spaces because
the wrench head is so thin. The wrench cannot slip off
END SLOTTED SLOTTED WRENCH WRENCH
the nut. The 12-point box wrench is now used almost
COLLAR HEXAGONAL SQUARE everywhere. It has 12 notches in the head. A nut or
bolt can be turned even where there is a swing of only
15 degrees to the handle. This provides added clear-
ance for your hand.
INDENTED HEXAGONAL HEXAGONAL SLABBED A combination wrench has a box wrench on one
HEXAGONAL WASHER HEAD SHOULDER COLLAR end and an open-end wrench on the other (Fig. 5-6).
FIG. 5-5 Types of screwdrivers and wrenches required to The box wrench is more convenient for the final tight-
drive various kinds of screws. ening or breaking loose of a nut or bolt. It is less
convenient for otherwise turning the nut or bolt. The
A typical open-end wrench has the open end at an box must be lifted completely off and then placed
angle of 15° with the handle, as shown at the bottom back on for each swing. The open-end wrench is more
of Fig. 5-6. A few have a 90° angle for special pur- likely to slip off. It is less convenient for the final
poses. The open-end wrench is used by placing the tightening or breaking loose of a nut or bolt. But it is
open end over the flats of the bolt head or nut. The more convenient for running a nut or bolt off or on.
wrench handle provides considerable leverage so The combination wrench lets the mechanic use first
that the bolt or nut can be tightened or loosened one type and then the other by reversing ends. Both
easily. ends of the combination wrench fit the same size nut
By turning the wrench after each swing, you can or bolt.
loosen or tighten the nut or bolt satisfactorily. Pull on
the wrench rather than pushing it. If you must push, O5-7 ADUSTABLE WRENCH The adjustable
do so with the palm of your hand, keeping your fin- wrench, shown in Fig. 5-7, has an adjustable jaw that
gers out of the way. In this way, if the nut or bolt can be moved back and forth to narrow or widen the
suddenly gives, your knuckles will not be hurt.
Make sure that the wrench fits the nut or bolt head
snugly. A loose fit throws excessive strain on the
wrench. Asa result, the jaw may spring or break. The
KNURLED NUT
nut or bolt head may also be damaged. Do not use a ADJUSTS JAWS
pipe or another wrench on the end of the wrench for
additional leverage. The wrench is designed to with-
APPLY FORCE
IN DIRECTION
12-POINT
INDICATED
6-POINT é
BY ARROW

BOX WRENCH

OPEN END BOX END

FIG. 5-7 When using an adjustable wrench, pull on the

OPEN-END WRENCH
handle so the major load is carried by the stationary jaw, as
FIG. 5-6 Box, combination, and open-end wrenches. shown in the lower left illustration. (Ford Motor Company)

22
distance between the jaws. An adjustable wrench Each blow, or impact, of the hammer turns the bit up
can be made to fit many sizes of nut or bolt heads. to 20 degrees. Loosening seized screws and nuts is
This tool is not intended to take the place of the regu- the most frequent use of the impact driver. However,
lar wrench. But it is handy to have for special jobs or it is reversible and can be set to tighten screws and
odd sizes of nuts or bolts. When using this wrench, nuts. A wide variety of bits and sockets are available
make sure that it is properly tightened on the nut or for use with the impact driver.
bolt head. Attach the wrench so that the adjustable
jaw will be on the inside of the turning motion, as
CAUTION: Always wear safety goggles to protect |
shown in Fig. 5-7. In this way, the pulling pressure
your eyes when using the impact driver.
will keep the adjustable jaw tight against the nut or
bolt head.
05-10 TORQUE WRENCHES On small engines,
©O5-8 SOCKET WRENCHES Socket wrenches are nuts and bolts must be tightened properly. If they are
somewhat similar to box wrenches, except that the not tightened enough, they will come loose and
sockets are detachable, as shown in Fig. 5-8, and something may fall apart. This could cause great
they are used with special handles. Figure 5-8 illus- trouble, damage to the engine, and possibly a serious
trates a set of socket wrenches with several types of accident. If nuts or bolts are tightened too much, they
handles. The sockets fit into the handle selected for would be strained excessively and could break later,
the particular job. again with disastrous results.
The ratchet handle lets the socket be used like a To assure proper tightening of nuts and bolts, you
box-end wrench, except that the socket does not have must use a torque wrench. Three types of torque
to be lifted from the nut or the bolt at the end of the wrenches are shown in Fig. 5-10. The torque wrench
swing. The handle can be returned to the original is a special form of socket wrench that has a measur-
position to start a new pull. The socket stays unmov- ing device to indicate the amount of torque, or twist,
ing, as shown in Fig. 5-8. A lever changes the ratchet being applied to a bolt or nut. For example, a specifi-
so the handle can be used to either loosen or tighten cation might call for tightening a bolt to “20-24
the nut or bolt. The handle extension goes between pound-feet.” This means that you have to put a 20- to
the handle and the socket so you can reach hard- 24-pound pull at 1 foot from the bolt. The torque
to-get-to places, as when removing spark plugs. wrench lets you do this accurately. You snap the cor-
The hinged offset handle, also called nut spinner rect socket on the torque wrench, fit the socket on the
and breaker bar, lets you turn the socket quickly for bolt head, and pull the wrench handle. As you gradu-
such things as running on a nut or a bolt. Then you ally increase your pull, the scale on the torque
can swing the handle to the 90-degree position for wrench registers somewhere between 20 and 24. Then
final tightening. The speed handle serves much the you know you have tightened the bolt correctly. This
same purpose. It acts like a carpenter's brace-and- procedure is called torquing the bolt.
bit, but you cannot get the leverage with it that you
can with the other handles. O5-11 PLIERS A few of the many kinds of cutting
The sliding offset handle is generally used in very and gripping pliers are shown in Fig. 5-ll. Each
cramped spaces. The universal joint can be attached comes in a number of sizes and has a specific pur-
between the handle and the socket. With it you can pose. You will use pliers to do many things as you
use any of the handles at an angle to the axis of the work on a small engine. Although each type is ver-
socket. All these tools are identified in Fig. 5-8. satile, it can easily be ruined if it is used for the
wrong job.
O5-9 IMPACT DRIVER The impact driver, shown
NOTE: Do not use standard pliers to tighten nuts and
in Fig. 5-9, is also known as the impact screwdriver
bolts. This damages the nut or bolt head so that the
and as the hand impact tool. When struck with a
proper wrench will not fit.
hammer, the impact driver delivers a forceful turning
blow to a frozen screw, nut, or bolt. It is used in The adjustable combination pliers, shown in the
small-engine work to loosen seized screws and lower left in Fig. 5-11, have been around a long time.
rusted, corroded, or frozen nuts and bolts. The impact At one time or another, they have been called pin-
driver is available with %-inch drive or with %-inch cers, gas pliers, and slip-joint pliers, among other
drive. For work in the small-engine shop, %-inch terms. They have been a common household tool,
drive is the size most often needed. used for everything from driving tacks to pulling
To use the impact driver, no electric or air connec- teeth. However, they have a definite place in a me-
tion is made. A hammer blow delivers the driving chanic’s toolbox. A slip joint holds the two parts of the
force. The correct size screwdriver bit, or socket, is pliers together. The jaws can be opened or closed to
placed on the drive end of the impact driver. Then the hold large or small parts.
head of the impact driver is struck with the hammer. Many combination pliers have two cutting edges at

23
 EXTENSION

oa HINGED
HANDLE

RATCHET
HANDLE

SLIDING
OFFSET HANDLE

SPEED
HANDLE UNIVERSAL
JOINT

EXTENSIONS

® ® HEX CLUTCH TRIPLE HEX-

POZIDRIV PHILLIPS HEAD STANDARD TYPE IMPACT SQUARE LOBULAR
SCREW- SCREW- SCREW- SCREW- SCREW- SCREW- CAP SCREW- FASTENER
DRIVER DRIVER DRIVER DRIVER DRIVER DRIVER DRIVER DRIVER
> eo Y

SOCKET END OF
HINGED NUT SPINNER
SWUNG AT RIGHT
ANGLE FOR GREATEST
LEVERAGE

RATCHETING | © PULLING PULLING ‘ RATCHETING

SLIDING HANDLE ©

FIG. 5-8 Set of sockets with handles, extensions, screw-

drivers, and universal joints. (Snap-on Tools C orporation)

24
 the back of the jaws for wire cutting. However, com-
bination pliers are intended to be used for gripping,
such as for holding a small part against a grinding
wheel. The lineman’s pliers, shown in the top left of
Fig. 5-11, should be used for large wire-cutting jobs.
Abusive use of combination pliers usually results in
damage to the part rather than to the pliers. One such
abuse is using them to tighten or loosen screws or
nuts. A wrench is the proper tool. Used properly,
combination pliers can help you do many things.
Channellock pliers, called interlocking-joint pliers
in Fig. 5-11, have a quick adjustment for widening or
narrowing the jaws to hold various materials. There
are interlocking tongues and grooves on the two parts
of the pliers, so that the jaw halves can be moved
closer together or farther apart, as shown in the cir-
cled inset in Fig. 5-11. These pliers have a wide range
of jaw-opening settings. Because the jaws are paral-
lel, Channellock pliers can be used to grip round,
BEAM-TYPE square, and flat objects, as well as bolt heads and
nuts. Long handles provide good leverage.
A very handy multipurpose tool is the locking pli-
ers-wrench, or Vise-Grip wrench, shown in Fig. 5-12.
DIAL-INDICATOR TYPE
This type of pliers locks to the work when the handles
are squeezed together. The size of the jaw opening is
FIG. 5-10 Various types of torque wrenches.

LINEMAN‘S BATTERY
IGNITION PLIERS
PLIER GRIPS PLIERS PLIERS

INTERLOCKING- WATER-PUMP
COMBINATION PLIERS
JOINT PLIERS PLIERS
FIG. 5-11 Various types of pliers. (Snap-on Tools Corpora-
tion)

29
 JAW
ADJUSTMENT

QUICK
RELEASE

FIG. 5-12 Multipurpose locking pliers-wrench, commonly FIG. 5-14 How a hammer head is wedged on a handle.
known as the Vise-Grip wrench. (Petersen Manufacturing
Company, Inc.)

adjusted by turning the jaw-adjustment screw in the opposite the driving head for pulling nails. This is a
end of the handle. The Vise-Grip pliers can be loos- carpenter's tool and is not of much use around the
ened with the quick release lever on the movable engine shop. Instead, the ball peen hammer is used.
handle, as shown in Fig. 5-12. When using this hammer, grip the handle firmly near
its end and swing it so that the face strikes the object
05-12 HAMMERS A variety of hammers are used squarely.
in the shop, as shown in Fig. 5-13. You are probably If the work requiring the use of a hammer is apt to
familiar with the claw hammer, which has a claw be dented or otherwise damaged by the hard face of
the ball peen hammer, then a rawhide-faced hammer
should be used.
Check the head of the hammer occasionally to
make sure that it is firmly in place on the handle. A
small wedge or screw is used to spread the handle
and tighten it in the eye of the hammerhead, as
shown in Fig. 5-14. If the wedge or screw has become
loose, it should be driven tight. Someone could be
BALL-PEEN
very seriously hurt if the hammerhead should happen
RAWHIDE-FACED
to fly off when the hammer is swung.

GeNS REVIEW QUESTIONS

. Describe a Phillips-head screwdriver.

. Explain the correct way to use a hammer.
Name three types of wrench.
What are box wrenches?
PLASTIC-TIP BRASS
What are sockets?

ee
oo
Pn
oneName and describe the use of three types of
socket handles.
7. What is a torque wrench? How is it used?

DELE PROJEGE

Start getting your tools together. Think about the

tools you will need to work with. When you start to
CROSS-PEEN RUBBER work, you will be expected to have your own set of
FIG. 5-13 Various types of hammers. hand tools. No tools, no job!

26
 chPter
Cutting Tools

06-1 TYPES AND PURPOSES OF CUTTING

TOOLS Cutting tools have one purpose: to remove
metal from the piece of metal being worked on. Cut-
ting tools include chisels, hacksaws, files, taps, and
After studying this chapter, you should be dies. In a sense, all these tools work in a similar way.
able to: A chisel has one cutting edge. A hacksaw blade has a
hundred or more. A file may have several hundred
1. List the cutting tools used in the shop cutting edges. As a cutting edge is forced along the
surface of a piece of metal, it cuts the metal, remov-
2. Explain the use of a die and tap ing shavings or chips of the metal. Now, let us look
more closely at the various cutting tools.
3. Demonstrate the use of a stud remover
O6-2 CHISELS The chisel has a single cutting
4, Demonstrate how to cut and double-flare a edge and is driven with a hammer to cut metal. Sev-
piece of tubing eral different shapes of chisels are shown in Fig. 6-1.
Each shape has its special purpose, but the chisel
most commonly used is the plain flat cold chisel.
The chisel should be held loosely in the left hand,
with the right hand swinging the hammer (or the
reverse if you are left-handed). The reason for holding
the chisel loosely is one of safety. If the hammer does
not strike squarely or if it misses, the left hand will
give with the blow and will be less subject to injury.

CAUTION: When using a chisel, always protect your

own eyes and the eyes of others in the shop with you.
You should always wear goggles, and others near
you in the shop should also wear them. You can also
set up a chipping shield. Flying chips will hit the
shield and will not fly out into the shop. These pre-
cautions will protect your eyes and the eyes of other
workers or customers. Always make sure that the
hammerhead is tight on the handle. Never use a dull
chisel or a chisel with a mushroomed head. Such
chisels should be ground and tempered.

A chisel that has mushroomed on the end because

of repeated hammer blows, should be dressed on a
grinding wheel as shown in Fig. 6-2. All the turned-

27
 ———_—— LEFT HAND ON
TOOL REST

DIAMOND-POINT CHISEL

C—O ROUND-NOSE CHISEL

COLD CHISEL

_—<——
CAPE CHISEL
FIG. 6-1 Various types of chisels. CHISEL CANTED AND
MOVED SIDE TO SIDE
FIG. 6-3 Dressing or grinding a chisel.
over metal should be removed. Otherwise, the metal
could break off and fly away as the hammer strikes it. 4, When chipping cast iron, do not chip all the way
It is difficult to be accurate with a mushroomed to the finishing (back) edge. This might cause a
chisel, and the flying chips might cut your hand or large piece to break off. Instead, stop when you
hurt someone else. Notice also how the cutting edge approach the finishing edge. Start a second cut
of the chisel should be dressed on the grinding from the finishing edge back toward the first cut.
wheel, shown in Fig. 6-3. Be careful to ease up on the hammer blows as
Examine the various chisels shown in Fig. 6-1. The the second cut nears the first to avoid breaking
flat chisel is used for cutting sheet metal and for off a piece of the cast iron.
chipping, or removing metal from, flat surfaces. The
cape chisel is used for cutting grooves or slots, such Now here are a few tips on how to handle jobs you
as keyways, and for chipping narrow, flat surfaces. might have to perform using various types of chisels:
The diamond chisel is used for cutting V-shaped To cut sheet metal, place a piece of sheet metal ina
grooves. The round-nose chisel is used for cutting vise. Make sure the part to be cut off projects above
round grooves. the jaws. Use soft jaws, as necessary, to protect the
Remember the following when using a chisel: sheet metal from marring. Use a flat chisel to shear
off metal as shown in Fig. 6-4. Start your cut at one
1. Always work with a sharp chisel. A dull chisel edge and move along the vise jaws. Hold the chisel at
will not do good work. a 45° angle to the jaws to secure a good shearing cut.
2. Make the hammer blows uniform. To cut a keyway in round stock, use soft jaws to
clamp a length of round stock in a vise. Place a wood
3. Keep the chisel at the proper angle constantly. block under the stock to hold it in position in the vise.
Use a steel rule and scriber to mark off, on the stock,
the width and length of the keyway to be cut.
Select a cape chisel, shown in Fig. 6-1, of the proper
width for the cut. Hold the chisel at the proper angle,

SHEET
METAL CHISEL

7 Mt

FIG. 6-4 How to use a chisel and hammer to cut sheet

FIG. 6-2 Grinding the mushroom from the chisel head. metal.

28
and begin cutting. At the start, the chisel will have to brittle and will break. Flying fragments of the file
be held so that it cuts down into the metal. Work from could cut your hands or face or give you a serious eye
both ends toward the middle. injury.

O6-3 HACKSAWS Hacksaws are used for cutting There are a number of cautions to be observed in
metals as shown in Fig. 6-5. A hacksaw is basically a using a file. First, never attempt to use a file without
blade held in an adjustable metal frame. The blades a handle on the tang. Otherwise, your hand might
are replaceable and are made with from 14 to 32 teeth slip, and the tang might be driven into your hand. To
per inch. There is a proper blade with the correct install a handle, put the file tang into the hole in the
number of teeth for each job. Using the wrong blade handle. Then tap the butt end of the handle on the
makes the job more difficult and could cause the bench. This drives the file firmly into the handle.
blade to break. Never try to hammer the file into the handle. The file
is brittle, and hammering could shatter it.
O6-4 FILES A file is like a series of tiny chisels, Now here is a tip you can use in the shop: Some-
each with a sharp cutting edge. Files come in many times you must save and reuse a bolt that has bat-
sizes and shapes and have many uses. As the face of tered threads. Note how the threads are flattened, or
the file is moved across a metal piece, the cutting pushed down, so that a nut will not turn on the bolt.
edges or teeth remove shavings from the metal. Clamp the bolt head in a vise, with the battered
The coarseness of the file determines how thick the threads up. Select a 6-inch [152-mm] triangular file.
shavings are. The term “cut” is used to designate With one edge, file into the root between two battered
the coarseness or fineness of the file, as shown in teeth. Use a rounding stroke to follow the circumfer-
igs .6-0: ence of the bolt. Continue to file until all the material
that was battered down is removed and the nut can
be turned onto the bolt. If the job is well done, the nut
CAUTION: Be very careful that the handle is firmly
should go on and turn easily.
in place on the file you are using. Never try to use a
file without a handle. The tang is sharp enough to cut
O6-5 TAPS Taps are used to cut screw threads in
you severely if the file “hangs up” while you are
holes in metals and plastics. A tap looks somewhat
filing. If the file catches momentarily on the work and
like a screw, but the tap has a square end to fit intoa
stops moving, your hand will jam against the file
tap wrench. Flutes, or grooves, run the length of the
tang. Also, never try to use a file as a pry bar. A file is
threads. They allow chips cut from the metal to es-
cape so they do not jam the tap threads as shown in
Fig. 6-7.
Taps are made in several styles. To tap a hole that
has been drilled, the square end of the tap fits into a
tap handle like the one shown in Fig. 6-7.
Taps are available in many different sizes. The tap
size is the classification of the threads being cut. For
example, to tap a hole for a 1/4-20 bolt, you use a tap
marked 13/4-20. Most taps have their sizes etched on
the shank. Taps are very hard, as they must be to cut
threads in metal. Therefore, taps are very brittle. The
smaller the diameter of the tap, the easier the tap will
break. Be very careful when using taps with a diame-
ter of 1/s inch [8 mm] or less. These small taps break
FIG. 6-5 How to hold and use a hacksaw.

“4 bie’
on K.
va eIEY SINGLE-CUT
COARSE BASTARD SMOOTH
ROCCE xO B DEX
tote,
Sesetecetateteteten
RRO
Wererecererecene,
eS
xsYes es
RS
7

%
RISeSRESLT FERRIS
q 0,9,

SRE RNLLEM
Kees } KB
SOK KK
DOD

SSR EON

FIG. 6-6 Types of file cuts.

Zao
 TAP HANDLE Drill (see Drill (see
: note below q note below
Thread size table) Thread size table)
and threads eee and threads
per inch Size No. per inch Size No.

1-64 0.0595 53 10-32 0.1610 20

TAP 1-72 0.0595 53 12-24 0.1770 16
WIRE 2-56 0.0670 82 12-28 0.1800 15
2-64 0.0700 50 1/4-20 0.1990 8
3-48 0.0781 ®/es 1/4-24 0.2090 4
3-56 0.0810 46 1/4-32 0.2187 /se
4-40 0.0890 43 5/16-18 0:25705e ee
4-48 0.0935 42 5/16-24 O:27207
5-40 0.0995 39 5/16-32 0:28 12 “32
er CHIPS 5-44 0.1040 37 3/g-16 0.3125 re
FIG. 6-7 Using a wire to clean metal clips from the flutes of 6-32 0.1065 36 3/g-24 0/8320 3@
a tap. 6-40 0.1130 33 3/g-32 0.3437 14/s2
8-32 0.13860 29 7/16-20 0.3906 25/64
8-36 OnG60 29 7/16-28 0.4162 13/s2
10-24 0.1470 26 1/2-20 0.4531 29/64
easily, and a broken tap can be very difficult to re-
move. Sometimes a part with a broken tap in it must NOTE: Drill sizes are designated in four ways by numbers (Nos. 80 to 1 or from
be replaced with a new part because it is impossible 0.135 to 0.228 in.), by letters (A to Z or from 0.234 to 0.413 in.), by fractions (1/64
to 31/2 in.), and by millimeters (in the metric measurement system).
to remove the broken piece of the tap. NOTE: The drill sizes indicated in the table are based on approximately 75
To tap a hole that goes completely through a piece percent thread depth; that is, the tap will not give a full thread when it is run
down into the hole but will give a 75 percent thread. This means that the top
of metal, as shown in Fig. 6-7, you use a taper tap. To 25 percent, or one-fourth of each thread crest is absent. However, the remain-
thread a hole only part way, you use a plug tap. To ing 75 percent is sufficient for most commercial purposes. For special preci-
sion applications, a fuller thread may be desirable. The fuller thread in-
make threads all the way to the bottom of a hole that creases the thread strength only slightly (perhaps 5 percent) but makes the
is open on only one end, you use a bottoming tap. tapping job much harder; many more taps are broken.
To make a tapped hole in a piece of metal, first FIG. 6-8 Table of drills for tapped holes.
determine the thread size you need. Then consult a
tap drill chart, such as shown in Fig. 6-8. This chart
There is a shoulder on the inside bore at the top of
shows you the size of drill required to make the
the die stock so that the chamfered teeth are away
proper hole for the threads. Selection of the tap is
from the shoulder. There is a chamfer on one side of
based on the size of the hole, the type of thread to be
the die. The die teeth are cut straight to the back of
cut, and whether the hole is to be tapped all the way
the die. The chamfered opening is the side that you
through the work.
place on the rod to be threaded.
To thread a rod, brush some tapping compound or
O6-6 THREAD DIES Adie is run over the outside
soluble oil on the rod. Then carefully start the die
of a rod to make external, or outside, threads. The die
is held in a die stock such as shown in Fig. 6-9.
Taps are not adjustable. However, some method
must be available to vary threads that are being cut
in order to provide a tight or loose fit. Many dies have
an adjusting screw. The screw can be set to cut the
standard thread depth or to cut slightly oversize or
undersize threads. With the adjusting screw, the die
can be set to cut 0.001 to 0.003 inch [0.03 to 0.08 mm]
under or over the standard size.
Not all dies are alike. Some small dies are not
adjustable. Other dies are 12-sided (have 12 points)
on the outside. These dies may be turned with a
l-inch socket in tight places where a die stock cannot
be used. The adjusting screw on an adjustable round
die is used to make a fine adjustment of the depth of
thread to be cut. Tightening this screw spreads the
die for a slightly shallower cut, resulting in a tighter
fit. Another type of die is the round split die. This type
of die is used in a die stock which has setscrews. The FIG. 6-9 To use a die properly, turn it ahead one-half turn,
setscrews are tightened to make a fine adjustment of then back one-quarter turn, while keeping the threads
the thread depth. coated with lubricant.

30
squarely with the work as shown in Fig. 6-9. To start
the thread, hold. one handle in each hand, and apply
downward pressure, while turning the die stock.
When you feel the die starting to cut teeth, turn the
die stock forward one-half turn and back one-quarter
turn. This breaks off the chips and prevents them
from jamming the threads. Add lubricant every cou-
ple of turns. When you have cut the length of thread
desired, remove the rod. Test the threads with a nut of
the correct size. It should go on smoothly and evenly BROKEN
and should not have any play or wobble. \SS BOLT

O6-7 STUD REMOVERS Sometimes a stud or

screw will break off. Often this occurs while you are
threading a screw into a hole. The screw strikes chips
or dirt at the bottom of the hole, and the head twists
FIG. 6-11 Removing a broken screw with a center punch.
off. This can happen easily to smaller sizes of screws.
The bolt may snap off in two different ways. It may
break with a fairly long piece sticking up above the
hole, or it may break off flush with the hole. How the
of, the hole, a screw or bolt extractor such as shown
broken piece is removed depends on where the screwe
in Fig. 6-12 is required. One type, called the Ezy-Out,
broke.
is tapered and has a coarse spiral thread. Other types
To remove a broken screw sticking up above the
of screw extractors have gradually tapering flutes
hole, attach Vise-Grip, or locking, pliers to the pro-
instead of spiral threads. Both work by wedging
truding part as shown in Fig. 6-10. Then try to turn the
against the shell of the broken screw after the center
broken screw. In most cases, it can be turned out
of the screw is drilled out. Screw extractors are avail-
easily.
able in sets, because larger screws require larger
There are other ways to remove a broken stud or
screw extractors.
screw. If the break is above the surface, it may be
The first step in removing a screw broken off at the
possible to file flats on two sides. Then a wrench can
surface is to file the broken portion smooth, if possi-
be used to back it out. Or a slot may be cut so that a
ble. Then center-punch the exact center of the screw.
screwdriver can be used. Light tapping with a ham-
Next determine the size of the broken screw you are
mer on the top and around the sides of a broken screw
trying to remove, and select the drill size to use.
may help loosen it.
Following good safety procedures, and wearing eye
A different procedure is required when the screw
protection, drill out the center of the screw. If the
breaks off about flush with the hole. You may have to
screw has a fairly large diameter, use a small drill
drill out the center of the screw and remove the re-
first. Follow this with a larger drill. Try to make a hole
mainder with a screw extractor. However, the first
nearly as large as the small diameter of the threads.
and easiest way is to try removing the broken screw
This will leave only a thin shell.
with a center punch. This technique is shown in
Now insert a screw extractor of the correct size into
Fig. 6-11. Place the point of the punch on the screw,
the hole. Drive the screw extractor into place with a
but not at its center. Tap the punch lightly with a
few taps from a hammer. This will cause the edges of
hammer to try to back the broken part out of the hole.
the extractor to bite into the sides of the shell. To get
This method will not work on screws that break be-
the broken piece out, fit the tap handle from your
cause of rust or cross-threading.
If the break is about level with, or below the surface

LOCKING PLIERS
REMOVING
BROKEN
STUD
WITH
EXTRACTOR

BROKEN BOLT FIG. 6-12 Using a bolt extractor to remove a broken stud.
FIG. 6-10 Removing a broken screw with locking pliers. (General Motors Corporation)

31
tap-and-die set to the extractor. Turn the tap handle,
using both hands, to turn out the broken screw. If a
tap handle is not available, turn the extractor with a
wrench. TUBING

When no extractor is available, a diamond-point

chisel can be used to remove a broken screw. Drill out
the screw as outlined above. Then drive the end of the
diamond-point chisel into the hole. Use a wrench to
turn the chisel and remove the screw. FITTING
Another method of removing a broken screw or stud
is to drill out as much of the center of the broken piece vais LE FLARE
as possible. Be careful that the drill does not touch FIG. 6-14 A fuel line, used to carry gasoline from the fuel
the inside of the threads. Then use a chisel to col- pump to the carburetor.
lapse the remaining shell as shown in Fig. 6-13. Once
collapsed, the shell of the screw can usually be
worked out easily. Use care to avoid damaging the
copper tubing. The proper way to cut tubing is with a
threads of the tapped hole. After removing the screw,
tubing cutter. Never use shears or a hacksaw or break
examine the tapped hole. If the threads are damaged,
the tubing by bending it back and forth. A tubing
retap them with the proper tap.
cutter, shown in Fig. 6-15, is similar in construction
and operation to a pipe cutter. A cutting wheel and
©6-8 METAL TUBING CUTTER AND FLARING
two rollers are positioned to hold the piece of tubing
TOOL Small engines and small-engine powered
between them. The rollers are adjustable. They are
equipment use copper and steel tubing to carry air or
moved toward or away from the cutting wheel by the
fluid from one part of the engine to other parts. Such a
adjusting screw.
piece of tubing is shown in Fig. 6-14. Any time a
The only safe way to bend copper, aluminum, and
section of tubing is replaced, you probably will have
steel tubing is with a tubing bender. Several different
to cut, bend, and flare it. Rolls of tubing are available
types are available. One type will bend the most
from dealership parts departments and local auto-
commonly used sizes of tubing at angles of up to 180°.
parts stores. Steel-wire armor wrapping is also avail-
This tubing bender has a movable forming block with
able. It is used to cover tubing that is exposed to
several tubing channels. Each channel accepts one of
stone damage.
the four different sizes of commonly used automotive
All fittings on steel lines must be double-flared.
tubing. For heavy jobs, the bender can be mounted in
Seamless steel tubing can be bent and flared with a
a vise. In general, you should never try to bend tub-
tubing cutter and a flaring tool. With the proper tools
ing without a tube bender.
and a little practice, steel tubing is as easy to work as
Tubing is used to connect the parts of air- or liq-
uid-operated systems. To prevent leakage at the con-
nections, the ends of the tubing are flared. A flare is a
widening at the end of the tube. It is shaped like a
funnel and held in the connector by a threaded fit-

a
CHISEL
ting. A flaring tool, such as shown in Fig. 6-16, must
be used to flare a tube without cracking it. There are
two types of flare: the single flare and the double
flare. Most engines and equipment connections re-
quire double flares. Single flares are not strong
enough and may crack in service. A fitting or flare nut
is often used to fasten a flared tube to a flare fitting. If

ADJUSTING TUBING
SCREW
‘ CUTTING ROLLER

REAMER
FIG. 6-13 Remove the drilled shell of a broken screw by FIG. 6-15 Cutting tubing with a tubing cutter. (Imperial
collapsing it with a chisel. (Ford Motor Company) Brass Manufacturing Company)

32
 FLARING
FIRST
ates FLARE

FLARING
TOOL

FINAL
FLARING FLARE
HEAD
aee;
tas
TUBING ——~> a

FIG. 6-16 Using a flaring tool to flare the end of a tube. FLARING
(Imperial Brass Manufacturing Company) TOOL

FIG. 6-17. Using an adapter to make the first flare (top).

so, the fitting or nut should be placed on the tube Making the final flare in the double-flare procedure (bot-
before it is flared. tom).
As you can see in Fig. 6-16, the flaring tool has
several different sizes of openings. There is one open- as shown in the lower part of Fig. 6-17. Remove the
ing for each size of tubing that the tool can flare. If flaring head and yoke, and inspect the flare. If it is
necessary, square the ends of the tubing with a file. correctly made and without cracks, be sure all fittings
Then ream the tubing again to remove any burrs. or nuts are in place. Then flare the other end of the
Make certain that no chips or filings are left in the tube.
tube. Loosen the wing nut of the flaring tool until the
tubing will fit in the proper opening. Place the tube in REVIEW QUESTIONS
the opening, with the end slightly above the tool.
Then, holding the tubing in place, tighten the wing 1. Describe the proper way to use a chisel.
nut. 2. Explain how to use a hacksaw.
Select the correct size of double-flare adapter from
the flaring kit. Place it in the end of the tube that is 3. What is a tap? What is a die? Describe their
sticking up above the flaring tool as shown in Fig. 6- uses.
17. Then place the yoke flaring head in the recess in 4. Explain how to remove a broken stud.
the adapter. Tighten the handle of the yoke. Fig-
ure 6-17 (top) shows this first step in the double- 5. Describe how to cut and flare tubing.
flaring procedure. 6. Explain how to sharpen a chisel.
Loosen the yoke, remove the adapter, and note the
condition of the flare. It should be as shown at the top SELF PROJECTS
of Fig. 6-17. The first flaring operation should leave
the end of the tubing bent outward and upward at 1. Study the catalog of a hand-tool manufacturer,
about a 45° angle. and make a list of hand tools you would like to
Place the flaring head directly in the tubing, and own.
tighten the handle as shown in Fig. 6-16. As the flar- 2. Make a list of the special tools for small engines
ing head goes down into the tubing, the head will that you find in the catalog. Explain what they
bend down the first flare, making a tight double flare are used for.

33
 chdfites
Measuring Tools

O7-1 IMPORTANCE OF MAKING CORRECT MEA-

SUREMENTS All the parts that go into engines and
machines have exact measurements (length, width,
diameter, thickness). Many of the parts have ex-
After studying this chapter, you should be | tremely close fits, and so some dimensions must be
able to: accurate to within one-thousandth of an inch
[0.03 mm]. The service technician must be constantly
1. Describe the various measuring tools and measuring these dimensions to make sure that the
explain how each is used different parts will fit together correctly. If the mea-
surements are not made accurately, the parts may not
2. Explain how to read the USCS micrometer | fit together correctly and a failure will occur.
and how to convert the readings into metric Many measurements are made in inches or frac-
Moccirements tions of an inch. However, as the United States begins
to use the metric system, the meter and its divisions
3. Read the metric micrometer will become familiar to the mechanic. We will study
the metric system of measurements first. Then we will!
4, Demonstrate the use of the vernier caliper look at some of the most frequently used measuring
tools.

O7-2. BASIC MEASURING SYSTEMS There are

two basic measuring systems that we use in working
with small engines, motorcycles, and automobiles.
The first one is the inch-foot-mile measurement. This
is the United States Customary System. It includes
liquid measurements of pints, quarts, and gallons,
and weight measurements of ounces, pounds, and
tons. The second system is called the metric system.
In the metric system, everything is measured by tens,
just as in our money system (10 pennies make a dime,
10 dimes make a dollar). Likewise, the metric system
starts out with a millimeter, which is a very small
distance of about 0.0394 inch. Ten millimeters (abbre-
viated mm) equals one centimeter (abbreviated cm).
One inch is equal to 25.4 mm. It is important for you
to know about the metric system because some small
engines are built to metric measurements. When you
work on these engines, you will have to use tools
made to metric measurements. So let us find out
about the metric system.

34
METRIC SYSTEM Length

1 millimeter = 0.039 inch

10 millimeters = 1 centimeter (0.394 inch)
100 centimeters = 1 meter (39.37 inches, or a
little more than 1 yard)
1,000 millimeters = 1 meter
1,000 meters = 1 kilometer (0.62 mile)

LENGTH VOLUME WEIGHT

Volume (liquid)

U.S. CUSTOMARY SYSTEM 1,000 milliliters = 1 liter (1.057 quarts)

Weight

1,000 milligrams = 1 gram (0.035 ounce, or

the approximate weight of
a paper clip)
1,000 grams = 1 kilogram (2.2 pounds)
1,000,000 milligrams = 1 kilogram
1,000 kilograms = 1 metric ton
FIG. 7-2 Some basic metric measurements.

Looking at these figures, you could become a little

confused. Our system did not grow logically.
The metric system, however, is more logical

s
(Fig. 7-1). It is based on the decimal system, on multi-
ples of 10. For example, 1 meter (m) (which is 39.37
inches) is 10 decimeters (dm), or 100 centimeters, or
1000 millimeters. Volume, in the metric system, is
BARREL measured in liters (L). One liter equals 1.057 quarts.
In other words, a liter is a little larger than a quart.
As you can see in Fig. 7-1, the metric system's three
units of measure replace many different units used in
FIG. 7-1 Three metric units replace many different U.S. the U.S. Customary System. Weight is measured in
Customary System units. grams (g), length in meters, and volume in liters. The
units of money are the same in both systems. Also,
time is measured in the same units of hours, minutes,
and seconds used in the U.S. Customary System.
Now, let us look more closely at some basic metric
O7-3 COMPARING THE METRIC AND U.S. CUS-
measurements shown in Fig. 7-2.
TOMARY SYSTEM First, let us look at the inch-
You have probably noticed that the names of metric
foot-mile and pint-quart-gallon system. This is the
units sometimes include prefixes (“milli-,” “centi-,”
United States Customary System (USCS). The mea-
“kilo-,” etc.) as in “milliliter,” “centimeter,” and “kilo-
surements in the system include the following:
gram.” These prefixes indicate multiples or sub-
Length
multiples of the units. The most commonly used pre-
fixes and the multiplication factors they indicate are
12 inches = 1 foot given in Fig. 7-3.
3 feet = 1 yard The term “kilometer” means 1000 meters. A centime-
5280 feet = 1 mile ter is 1/100 of a meter, and a millimeter is 1/1000 of a
meter. The conversion table shown in Fig. 7-4 gives
Liquids you the metric measurements that you need to work
16 fluid ounces = | pint
2 pints = 1 quart Prefix Multiplication factor
4 quarts = 1 gallon
kilo 1000 (one thousand)
centi 0.01 (one hundredth)
Weight
milli 0.001 (one thousandth)
16 ounces = 1 pound FIG. 7-8 Commonly used prefixes in the metric system and
2000 pounds = | ton the multiplication factors they indicate.

35
CONVERSION TABLE

LENGTH

1 in. (inch) = 25.4 mm (millimeters) 0.0254 m (meter)

1 cm (centimeter) = 0.390 in. 0.03281 ft (foot)
1 mm (millimeter) = 0.039 in. 0.003281 ft
1 ft = 304.8 mm 0.3048 m
1 mi (mile) = 1.609 km (kilometers) 1,609 m
1 km = 0.62 mi 3,281 ft

VOLUME/CAPACITY

1 cu in. (cubic inch) = 16.39 cc (cubic centimeters) 0.01639 L (liter)

Il (le = 0.061 cu in. 1 ml (milliliter)
It = 61.2 cu in. 1,000 cc
1 gal (gallon) = 4qt 3.7854 L
1 fl. oz. (fluid ounce) = 29.57 cc 29.57 ml

WEIGHT

1 kg (kilogram) = 2.2 lb (pounds) 35.2 oz (ounces)

1 lb = 0.454 kg 16 oz
1 oz = 0.0625 lb = 28.35 g

TORQUE

1 lb-ft (pound-foot) = 12 lb-in. (pound-inch) = 0.138 kgm (kilogram-meter)

1 kgm = 7.233 lb-ft = 86.796 lb-in.

Here are the metric measurements, taken from the complete Metric System Table, that
you will work with most often.

LENGTH

1 km = 1,000 m 100,000 cm
lm = 100cm 1,000 mm (millimeters)

VOLUME/CAPACITY

1 kl (kiloliter) = 1,000 L 100,000 cl (centiliters)

Ih ale = 1,000 cc 1,000 ml (milliliters)

WEIGHT

1 kg (kilogram) 1,000 g (gram) 100,000 cg (centigrams)

FIG. 7-4 Conversion table: The U.S. Customary System

versus the metric system.

on imports, along with their USCS equivalents. With as small as '/ea inch. Other rules or steel scales are
this table, you can convert USCS measurements to marked with both inches and centimeters. This is the
metric measurements, and vice versa. type shown in Fig. 7-6. The top markings are the
Now study Fig. 7-5 to familiarize yourself with the centimeter scale. Rules are also made with only met-
difference between metric and standard sizes of ric markings.
sockets. Examine the markings on the illustrated steel rule,
which is also called a scale (Fig. 7-6). Note that the
longest line between the inch marks is the 2/2-inch
©O7-4 RULES The common rule, or steel scale, mark. Shorter lines are used for the 1/4-inch marks.
such as shown in Fig. 7-6, is marked off in inches and Still shorter lines are used for the 1/s- and ¥/1e-inch
fractions of an inch. Sometimes these markings are marks.

36
 METRIC REGULAR METRIC
SOCKET SOCKET
SIZES SIZES

A 16mm

FIG. 7-5 Comparison of metric and standard sizes sockets

in the U.S. Customary System. (Dana Corporation)

|1/4 |1/2 |3/4 |

1/8 3/8 5/8 7/8

1/16 3/16 5/16 7/16 9/16 11/16 13/16 15/16

FIG. 7-6 Rule, or steel scale, marked in inches (U.S. Cus- FIG. 7-7 Table of decimal equivalents.
tomary System) and centimeters (metric system).

Another type of rule has one edge divided into O7-5 FEELER GAUGES Feeler gauges are strips
decimal fractions of an inch. The inches are divided or blades of hardened steel or other metal, ground or
into 50 equal parts so that a measurement of 0.020 rolled with extreme accuracy to the proper thickness.
(twenty-thousandths) inch can be read directly from This is the reason feeler gauges are sometimes called
the rule. Refer to the decimal-equivalent chart shown thickness gauges. They are generally supplied in
in Fig. 7-7. Note that this measurement is slightly sets, such as shown in Fig. 7-8. Each blade is marked
larger than 3/ea inch. with its thickness in thousandths of an inch, hun-

37
 WIRE FEELER GAUGE

SPARK PLUG

FIG. 7-11 Using a wire feeler gauge to check spark-plug

gap. (Briggs & Stratton Corporation)
FIG. 7-8 Using a feeler gauge to check the side clearance of
the piston ring in the ring groove.

dredths of a millimeter, or both. Figure 7-8 shows a are made of carefully calibrated steel wire of the
feeler gauge being used to check piston-ring clear- proper thickness. They are useful in checking spark-
ance. plug gaps and similar dimensions, as shown in
Some feeler gauges have two steps, or thicknesses, Fig. 7-11. Metric wire feeler gauges are also availa-
as shown in Fig. 7-9. These are stepped feeler ble. When specifications are given in the metric sys-
gauges. The tip of the blade of a stepped feeler gauge tem and you do not have metric gauges, you can
is thinner than the rest of the blade. The blade convert the measurements by using metric conver-
marked 4-6 in Fig. 7-9 is 0.004 inch [0.10 mm] thick at sion charts.
the tip. The thicker portion that starts about !/z inch Feeler gauges are made in many shapes and sizes.
back from the end of the blade is 0.006 inch [0.15 mm]. Some feeler gauges, or blades, are straight, as in
Stepped feeler gauges are handy on certain jobs Figs. 7-8 and 7-9. Other feeler gauges are bent at an
where the specifications might, for example, call for angle, as in Figs. 7-10 and 7-11. A feeler gauge set
a clearance of 0.005 inch [0.13 mm]. By using the usually consists of several blades which often range
0.004- to 0.006-inch [0.10- to 0.15-mm] gauge, an ad- in thickness from 0.0015 to 0.040 inch [0.037 to
justment can be made so that the 0.004-inch [0.10-mm] 1.02 mm]. Sometimes you might need to measure a
portion will fit and the 0.006-inch [0.015-mm] portion space that is a size for which your set does not have a
will not fit. For this reason, stepped feeler gauges are blade. Should this happen, you can make up the size
often called go, no-go gauges. gauge you need by combining blades of various
Wire feeler gauges, like the set shown in Fig. 7-10, thicknesses from the set. The total thickness of all the
are similar to the flat feeler gauges, except that they blades used to fill the space is the measurement
between the surfaces.
Most feeler gauges are made of steel. However,
sometimes a mechanic needs a nonmagnetic feeler
gauge. Brass feeler gauges are available for work
around permanent magnets, such as measuring the
air gap in an electronic distributor or a magneto. A
permanent magnet will attract the steel gauge and
prevent an accurate measurement.

©7-6 MICROMETERS Measurements made with

FIG. 7-9 A set of stepped feeler gauges. These are also
a steel scale are usually not accurate enough for
called go, no-go feeler gauges.
engine service and repair work. In such work, mea-
surements must be taken in much finer detail than 1/64
inch [0.397 m]. For these measurements, more precise
instruments are used, such as the micrometer, the
dial indicator, and the vernier caliper.
A typical micrometer is shown in Fig. 7-12. The
micrometer measures much more accurately than a
steel rule. In addition, the measurements can be read
directly from the micrometer itself. Instead of reading
in fractions of an inch like many rulers, the microme-
FIG. 7-10 Set of wire feeler gauges. ter measures in tenths, hundredths, thousandths, and

38
 SPINDLE THIMBLE THIMBLE
HUB ;

RATCHET
STOP

BARREL (HUB)

REVOLUTION LINE
FRAME
FIG. 7-14 Hub and thimble markings on a micrometer.
FIG. 7-12 Outside micrometer. (The L. S. Starrett Company)

sometimes ten-thousandths of an inch. It uses the Notice we said “at least.” Noting the figures on the
decimal system. barrel is only the first step in reading the measure-
In the shop, the micrometer is usually called a ment. The second step is to notice exactly where the
mike, and measuring something with the mike is markings on the thimble stand with regard to the line
called miking. To use the micrometer to mike the on the barrel.
diameter of a round shaft or stock, it is held as shown At the top in Fig. 7-15, for example, the thimble has
inFig.'7-13. been turned so that marking-number 4 on it lines up
Examine Fig. 7-12. Identify the anvil, frame, spin- with the barrel line. This means that the thimble has
dle, hub, and thimble of the outside micrometer. been turned 0.004 inch past the 0.300-inch mark. The
When you turn the thimble counterclockwise, the actual measurement being shown at the top is 0.304
spindle moves away from the anvil, uncovering the inch (0.300 plus 0.004).
markings on the hub and thimble. Note that the hub, Now look at the middle and the bottom of Fig. 7-15.
or barrel, is marked off in uniform spacings of 0.025 In the middle, the thimble has been turned just one
(twenty-five—thousandths) inch each (Fig. 7-14). The thimble marking past the ninth barrel marking. The
circumference of the thimble is marked off into 25 barrel markings indicate 0.225 inch. The single thim-
graduations. Each graduation represents 0.001 (one- ble marking, indicating 0.001 inch, must be added to
thousandth) inch. : give an actual measurement of 0.226 inch. To get a
To make a measurement with a micrometer, the reading on the mike, first note how many barrel
thimble is turned until the piece being measured is a markings have been exposed as the thimble is
light-drag fit between the anvil and the end of the backed off. Each barrel marking represents 0.025
spindle. Then the measurement is read off the barrel inch. Then notice the thimble marking aligned with
and thimble. The barrel markings each indicate 0.025 the barrel line. Each thimble marking represents
inch. Four of them make 0.1 inch. If three of the fig- 0.001 inch. Add the two to get the total.
ures are visible, as shown at the top of Fig. 7-15, then Now notice the bottom measurement in Fig. 7-15.
the thimble will have uncovered 12 markings and the Here the thimble has been turned to uncover only
measurement will be at least 0.300 inch. eight barrel markings, and so the reading is 0.200
inch. But the thimble has been turned until it is mark-
ing 24 lines with the barrel line. This figure is 0.024
RATCHET STOP \
inch, and the total measurement is 0.224 inch (0.200
LOCK NUT m \\ plus 0.024).

wae
STOCK The metric micrometer, shown in Fig. 7-16, reads in
millimeters and hundredths of a _ millimeter
2
aaK.<a
(0.01 mm). The barrel is marked off in millimeters

iN
h\
6
above the line and half millimeters (0.50 mm) below
the line. The thimble is divided into divisions of
0.01 mm. To read the measurement shown on the
an “€ micrometer in Fig. 7-16, add the reading on the bar-
rel, 11 mm, to the reading on the thimble, 0.45 mm.
Ww
ZZ
The total measurement is 11.45 mm. Reading a metric
GZ
\ A,
Oy) micrometer is probably easier than reading a mike
FIG. 7-18 Using an outside micrometer to measure the marked in inches.
diameter of a rod. The micrometer has very precisely cut screw

39
 REVOLUTION LINE

THIMBLE
"

0,
Y) 4,4, 9,
WAS

4,
YY
Oo XE
OOK
40QQY YK
YY
x¢<
OXOOX
OOOO
O
"ieXS
YY) \) () 9.0.0
Xe“o' ‘NY
RKKK
O " MY& yy
o,

“
«
o. < XY
*
Ay
XY ) “.
“
ay)

CORRECT READING 0.224 INCH

FIG. 7-15 Reading a micrometer.

threads in it, and rough treatment will ruin it. The The thimble should be tightened only enough to
micrometer should not be thrown about carelessly on cause the micrometer to drag slightly as it slides over
the workbench. It should be kept in a special drawer the piece. Clamping will distort the threads and
or in a case where it is protected from dirt and from frame and could ruin the micrometer.
damage by other tools that might be dropped on top Never try to measure a metal part in a lathe while
of it. It should be wiped clean after every use. Never the part is revolving. The micrometer might tighten
clamp the micrometer on the piece being measured. on the piece and be torn out of your hand. This could

REVOLUTION
LINE THIMBLE

BARREL

FIG. 7-16 Simplified metric micrometer (Volkswagen of

America, Inc.)

40
not only ruin the work and the micrometer but also crometer squarely against the cylinder wall, as
injure you. shown in Fig. 7-17. Then, with your other hand, turn
Many variations of the micrometer are used in the thimble to extend the length of the micrometer as
shopwork. For example, there are inside micrometers you feel for the maximum diameter by moving the rod
for measuring hole diameters like the one shown in end slightly from left to right and up and down. When
Fig. 7-17. In addition, much of the precision power no left-to-right movement of the rod end is possible
machinery in the shop has micrometer adjustments. and a light drag is felt as you move the rod end up
Such tools as cylinder honing or boring equipment, and down, take the reading.
lathes, and grinders have micrometer adjustments so
that the machining operations can be carefully con-
O7-7 DIAL INDICATOR The dial indicator is a
trolled.
gauge that uses a dial face and a needle to register
Inside micrometers are used to measure hole diam-
measurements. A typical dial indicator is shown in
eters, such as the diameter, or bore, of an engine
Fig. 7-18. The dial indicator has a movable contact
cylinder. Extension rods of various lengths, such as
arm. When the arm is moved, the needle rotates on
the one shown in Fig. 7-17, can be attached so the
the dial face to show movements in thousandths of an
mike will measure large diameters. The markings on
inch.
the hub and thimble correspond to those on the hub
The dial indicator is used to measure end play in
and thimble of the outside micrometer. By using the
shafts or gears, movement of contact points, runout of
inside micrometer and extension rods, cylinder di-
disk brake rotors, and so on. Figure 7-19 shows a dial
ameters from 11/2 inches to several inches can be
indicator being used to measure the bore, or diame-
measured by changing the extension rod.
ter, of a cylinder. As the dial indicator is moved up
When assembling an inside micrometer to the
and down, any difference in the diameter will cause
length that you need by inserting an extension in the
the needle to move. Differences in the cylinder diam-
micrometer, be sure that the extension seats prop-
eter at the various points indicate cylinder wear.
erly. There is a shoulder on the rod that must seat in
These special dial indicators for measuring cylinder
order for the inside micrometer to provide a correct
wear also are called cylinder bore gauges.
reading.
There are two scales on some dial indicators. In the
Figure 7-17 shows an inside micrometer being used
U.S. Customary System, the outer scale is usually
to measure the diameter, or bore, of an engine cylin-
marked in measurements of 2/1000 inch (0.001 inch). If
der. To measure a cylinder bore, first turn the thimble
an inner scale is used, it frequently records or counts
clockwise until the overall length of the assembled
the number of revolutions made by the large indicator
micrometer is less than the diameter of the cylinder
bore. With one hand, hold the head end of the mi-
BEZEL-CLAMP SCREW
INSIDE MICROMETER

MOUNTING DEVICE

EXTENSION ROD

RENEWABLE
CONTACT POINT
(BUTTON)
MAGNETIC BASE

FIG. 7-17 Using an inside micrometer to measure the bore

of a cylinder. FIG. 7-18 A dial indicator. (Ford Motor Company)

4]
 INNER SCALE OUTER POINTER
FULL MILLIMETERS

FIG. 7-19 Using a cylinder bore gauge to measure the

diameter of a cylinder bore.

INNER POINTER
needle. On the metric dial indicator, shown in
Fig. 7-20, the outer scale is divided into 100 divisions, OUTER SCALE
each division representing ¥/100omm (0.01 mm). The HUNDREDTHS OF
inner scale is divided into 10 divisions. Each division MILLIMETERS
is 1 mm, and so every complete revolution of the outer
scale represents 1 mm.
Now let us read the measurement shown on the dial
indicator in Fig. 7-20. The needle on the inner scale
has passed 4 but has not quite reached 5, making a
reading of 4 mm. To find out how much more than 4
the complete measurement totals, add the reading on
FIG. 7-20 A metric dial indicator. (Volkswagen of America,
the outer dial. The dial on the outer scale determines Inc.)
the fractional (?/1o0mm) reading. In Fig. 7-20, the
outer needle is pointing to 98, which is read and
written as 0.98. Added together, the total reading is ordinary caliper, the result was a measuring instru-
4.98 mm. ment called a vernier caliper. Basically, the vernier
caliper is made of two graduated steel rules, such as
O7-8 VERNIER CALIPER In 1631, Pierre Vernier, a shown in Fig. 7-21. One rule is fixed and is called the
French mathematician, invented an accurate, di- fixed rule or frame. To one end of the frame is at-
rect-reading scale for use in making linear measure- tached the fixed jaw. The second rule is movable and
ments. When Vernier’s scale was combined with an slides along the frame. One end of the sliding rule

JAW LOCK SCREW SLIDING RULE

THE LS STARALTT CO.

ATROL.MASS USA
NO.1e3
MAROCNLEO
& STABILIZED
V2 IAESHOTOH, LP IESHE THO, Zr asH IAD ae MASTER BAR

ADJUSTING NUT
VERNIER
FIXED SCALE
JAW
ADJUSTABLE JAW

FIG. 7-21 A vernier caliper. (The L. S. Starrett Company)

42
 scale coincides exactly with a line on the fixed scale.
Each of these lines represents 1/1000 inch (0.001 inch).
Some vernier calipers have slightly different scales
on one side to be used for reading inside diameters.
Other vernier calipers have different zero marks to be
used when reading inside diameters.
O
4
-1dO SOTHO 12d45e7OD Figure 7-23 shows a simplified metric vernier cali-
UYU YU UMMM LOA TL
per that can be used for practice. On this caliper, the
fixed scale is divided into 1-mm sections. The mova-
ble vernier scale is divided into 10 lines each repre-
senting 2/10 mm (0.10 mm). To read the metric vernier
caliper, count the number of millimeters on the fixed
scale that precede the vernier scale zero. Then look at
FIG. 7-22 Using the vernier caliper to measure an outside
diameter. the vernier scale until a line is located that coincides
exactly with a line on the fixed scale. Count each line
on the vernier scale from zero to the point where the
has the other measuring jaw attached. This jaw is two lines coincide. Since each line is 0.10 mm, be
called the adjustable, or sliding, jaw. sure to count by tens. This is the decimal portion of
To measure an outside diameter with a vernier the reading, which must be added to the first reading
caliper, place the object snugly between the jaws of to obtain the complete measurement.
the caliper, as in Fig. 7-22. The number of inches is
read off the fixed scale on the frame. To this, add the ©7-9 SMALL-HOLE GAUGES For measuring
number of tenths that are seen between the last inch small holes or slots that telescope gauges cannot fit
reading and the zero on the vernier scale. Then add into, small-hole gauges can be used. These gauges
the number of 0,025-inch marks seen between the last are available in sets of four or more and will measure
tenth reading and the zero on the vernier scale. Fi- distances from about }/s to 3/2 inch [3.2 to 12.7 mm].
nally, read the number of lines from zero on the re- Figure 7-24 shows a small-hole gauge. It consists of a
verse scale to the point where the line on the vernier small split ball mounted on the end of a handle.

O
1 2 3 4

——
eee O 5 10

ae
FIXED SCALE
VERNIER SCALE

FIG. 7-23 A simplified metric vernier caliper. (Volkswagen

of America, Inc.)

43
 shaft of the T as a handle and uses the cross arm for
measuring. To use the telescope gauge, loosen the
knurled nut at the end of the gauge handle. Compress
the arms with your hand into a size slightly smaller
than the cylinder to be measured. Tighten the nut to
lock the arms in position.
Insert the gauge into the cylinder, as shown in
Figure 7-25. Loosen the nut. A light spring inside the
arms will push the adjustable end out so that the
gauge will adjust to fit the cylinder. Make sure the
telescoping end is at right angles to the cylinder wall.
Then tighten the nut and withdraw the gauge. To find
the diameter of the cylinder, measure the telescope
gauge setting with a micrometer.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
(a) (b) 1. What is a feeler gauge? Explain how to use it.
FIG. 7-24 Using a small-hole gauge to measure the size of a
2. What is a stepped feeler gauge? Explain how to
hole. (a) Gauge is adjusted to enter hole. (b) Measuring the
small-hole gauge with a micrometer to determine size use it.
of hole. 3. What is a vernier caliper? Explain how to use it.
4. Explain how to use a micrometer.
When the knurled knob at the top of the handle is
turned, the split ball expands. Proper feel is obtained 5. Explain how to use the decimal-equivalent
when you can feel a slight drag of the ball end table.
against the sides of the hole. Then remove the gauge
6. Explain how to use an inside micrometer.
from the hole, and measure the size of the ball end
with a micrometer. The reading on the micrometer 7. Explain how to use a dial indicator and outside
gives you the diameter of the hole. Note the narrow micrometer to measure the diameter of a cylin-
shank that has the split-ball ends attached. The der bore.
shank is not as wide as the ball ends. This permits 8. Explain how the United States Customary Sys-
the small-hole gauge to extend into a hole or small tem and the metric system differ.
bore to measure the diameter some distance from the
open end. 9. Study the conversion table until you understand
how to convert inches to millimeters, millimeters
07-10 TELESCOPE GAUGES Telescope qauges to inches, miles to kilometers, gallons to liters,
are used for measuring the diameter of holes up to and so on. Then make the following conversions:
about 6 inches [152.4 mm] in diameter. A typical tele-
l inch = millimeter(s)
scope gauge is shown in Fig. 7-25. A telescope gauge
1 millimeter = inch(es)
is a T-shaped measuring instrument that uses the
1 gallon = liter(s)
Phiter= 222 -gallon(s)
1 mile = kilometer(s)
1 kilometer = __ mile(s)
1 kilogram = pound(s)
1 peund — kilogram(s)

PELE PROGR

When you buy your steel scale, try to find one indi-
cating inches on one side and centimeters on the
other. Then you can use the one scale for both
United States Customary and metric measure-
ments. Add a foot ruler, a tape measure, and a
yardstick to your tools. Many automotive-parts
dealers give away extra-wide yardsticks with num-
bered holes in them. The purpose of the holes is to
FIG. 7-25 Using a telescoping gauge to measure the diam- hold and to keep in order the valves you remove
eter of a cylinder bore. from an engine.

44
 SMALL ENGINES
Wo
This part of Small-Engine Mechanics describes
the construction and operation of small en-
gines. Two-cycle, four-cycle, and Wankel en-
gines are discussed, along with basic engine
principles and engine measurements. There
are seven chapters in Part Two:

Chapter 8: Engine Principles

Chapter 9: Two-Cycle-Engine Operation
Chapter 10: Small-Two-Cycle-Engine
Construction
Chapter 11: Four-Cycle-Engine Operation
Chapter 12: Small-Four-Cycle-Engine
Construction
Chapter 13: Wankel Engines
Chapter 14: Engine Measurements
SS

Sy
AUNWw
OF
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WH Qaanr
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45
 Chapter
Engine Principles

©O8-1 ATOMS You might think it strange for us to

start this chapter on engine principles with an expla-
nation of atoms. But an engine will not run until atoms
start getting together inside the engine. Therefore,
After studying this chapter, you should be we should take a close look at atoms.
able to: You can make a long list of all the different things
you see around you: this book, your chair, the win-
1. Describe the parts of the atom dow, the trees or buildings outside, the clouds, and
so on. All these things are made of metal, wood,
2. Explain the combustion process paper, glass, cloth, leather, clay, water, air, and
thousands of other materials. But amazingly enough,
3. Discuss change of state all these different things are made of only a few kinds
of basic “building blocks,” called atoms. Atoms are
4. Define “pressure” and “‘vacuum” not really “blocks,” as we will learn when we study
them. There are only about 100 different kinds of
atoms. But these 100 kinds of atoms can be put to-
gether in millions of different ways to form millions of
different substances. You can compare them with the
26 letters of our alphabet. These letters can be put
together in many different ways to make up the sev-
eral hundred thousand words in our language.
Now about those 100 or so kinds of atoms: We have
special names for each kind, such as copper, iron,
carbon, oxygen, silver, gold, uranium, aluminum,
and mercury. The silver in a coin in your pocket is
made up of an almost countless number of one kind of
atom. The oxygen in the air you breathe and in the
water you drink is made up of a vast number of an-
other kind of atom. Any substance made up of only
one kind of atom is called an element. Silver is an
element. So are oxygen, hydrogen, sodium, and all
the others listed in the table of elements (Fig. 8-1).
Actually, the table lists only a few of the more com-
mon elements.

08-2 SIZEOF ATOMS Atoms are very small. Ina

single drop of water there are more than 100 billion
billion atoms. This is about 30 billion atoms for every
person living on the earth. If you tried to count your
share—your 30 billion atoms—it would take you 1000

46
V—_—_—__—_—_—_—_—_—_—_——:,,"::00OX”——
=—_asxX—~—OOOO

TABLE OF ELEMENTS

Approximate
Atomic atomic Electron
Name Symbol number weight arrangement

Aluminum Al 13 27 -2)8)3
Calcium Ca 20 40 -2)8)8)2
Carbon C 6 12 *2)4

Chlorine Cl 17 35.5 -2)8)7

Copper Cu 29 63.6 -2)8)18)1
Hydrogen H l ] “1

Iron Fe 26 56 2)8)14)2
Magnesium Mg 12 24 -2)8)2

Mercury Hg 80 200 -2)8)18)32)18Ja

Nitrogen N 7 14 *2)5

Oxygen O 8 16 -2)6
Phosphorus 15 on -2)8)5

Potassium K 19 39 , 2)8)8)1

Silver Ag 47 108 -2)8)18)18)1

Sodium Na 11 23 -2)8)1
Sulfur Ss 16 32 -2)8)6

Zinc Zn 30 65 -2)8)18)2
FIG. 8-1 Table of some of the more common elements.

years if you counted one atom every second, day and The rubber band pulls the ball toward your hand. But
night. And this is only your share of just one drop of the centrifugal force pushes the ball away. The result
water. is that the ball moves in an orbit, or in a circle,
around your hand.
08-3 INSIDE THE ATOM Now let us, in our imag-
ination, look inside atoms to see what they are made O8-4 HELIUM The simplest atom is hydrogen. It
of. You are likely to be disappointed. For there is has one proton and one electron. Next, as we go from
almost nothing inside the atoms. For example, let us the simplest to the more complex atoms, is helium,
examine the hydrogen atom. It is made up of only two another gas. The helium atom has two protons (+
particles. One of these is at the center, or nucleus, of charges) in its nucleus and two electrons (— charges)
the atom. The other, a comparatively long distance circling the nucleus (Fig. 8-3). In addition, the nucleus
away, is whirling in an orbit around the nucleus. The
center particle is called a proton. The outside parti-
cle, in orbit around the proton, is called an electron.
The proton has a tiny charge of positive electricity,
indicated by a plus (+) sign. The electron has a tiny
charge of negative electricity, indicated by a minus
(—) sign. Opposites attract. Minus attracts plus. Plus
attracts minus. The negatively charged electron is
pulled toward the positively charged proton. But bal-
ancing this inward-pulling force is the outward pull —~
_—
— — —

of centrifugal force. This is somewhat like the bal- FIG. 8-2 The electron in a hydrogen atom circles the proton
ancing of forces you get when you whirl a ball ona like a ball on a rubber band swung in a circle around the
rubber band in a circle around your hand (Fig. 8-2). hand.

47
 PROTONS

a
\
Q——— ELECTRONS

{
NEUTRONS ®
FIG. 8-38 Helium atom has two electrons, two protons, and HYDROGEN
two neutrons.
HYDROGEN

has two other particles which are electrically neutral

(have no charge) and are therefore called neutrons. FIG. 8-4 One atom of oxygen uniting with two atoms of
The neutrons weigh almost the same as the protons. hydrogen to form a molecule of water, or H,O.
They seem to serve as a sort of nuclear “glue” to keep
the two protons together in the nucleus. Like electri-
cal charges repel each other, and, ‘without the neu- hydrogen, and 11 atoms of oxygen and the chemical
trons, the protons would fly apart. But the presence of formula C,.H,.0;).
the neutrons in the nucleus seems to nullify this re- During a chemical reaction, one or more of the
pulsive force between the protons so that they stay electrons in the outer shells of some of the atoms are
together inside the nucleus. shared with other atoms. This matter of sharing will
become clearer as we discuss electron shells, or or-
O8-5 MORE COMPLEX ATOMS _ The next element bits.
after helium in complexity is lithium, a very light
© 8-7 COMBUSTION Combustion, or fire, is a
metal. The lithium atom has a nucleus with three
common chemical reaction in which the gas oxygen
protons and four neutrons. Three electrons, one for
combines with other elements, such as hydrogen or
each proton, circle the nucleus.
carbon. one type of combustion occurs in the small
Next is beryllium, another metal, with four protons,
engine. A mixture of air and gasoline vapor is com-
four neutrons, and four electrons; boron with five
pressed and then ignited, or set on fire. The air is
protons, five neutrons, and five electrons; carbon
about 20 percent oxygen. Gasoline is mostly hydro-
with six, six, and six; nitrogen with seven, seven, and
gen and carbon (and therefore is called a hydrocar-
seven; oxygen with eight, eight, and eight; and so on.
bon). The chemical reaction during combustion is
Each atom normally has the same number of elec-
between the three elements oxygen, hydrogen, and
trons as protons. This makes the atom electrically
carbon.
neutral, since negative charges equal positive
We have seen how one oxygen atom combines with
charges. However, some kinds of atoms are not al-
two hydrogen atoms to form H,O, or water. Similarly,
ways able to hold on to all their electrons. In these
one carbon atom combines with two oxygen atoms to
atoms some electrons may “wander” off, leaving
form a molecule of CO,, or carbon dioxide (Fig. 8-5).
electrically unbalanced atoms behind (with +
Carbon dioxide is a gas. The carbon atom has six
charges). The ability of electrons to free themselves
electrons in two shells: two electrons in the inner
from atoms in this manner gives the phenomenon of
shell and four in the outer shell. When an atom of
electricity.
carbon combines with two atoms of oxygen, each
oxygen atom takes two of the carbon atom’s outer-
O8-6 CHEMICAL REACTIONS When two or more shell electrons.
atoms link up, or combine, they form a molecule. The
linking-up process is called chemical reaction. For ©8-8 HEAT Combustion is accompanied by high
example, two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of temperatures or “heat.” From the scientific point of
oxygen react to form one molecule of water (Fig. 8-4). view, heat is simply the rapid motion of atoms or
Water has the chemical formula H,O, which means molecules in a substance.
each molecule has two atoms of hydrogen and one The atoms and molecules of any substance are in
atom of oxygen. When one atom of sodium (chemical rapid motion. Even though a piece of iron appears
symbol Na) unites with one atom of chlorine (chemi- solid and motionless, the atoms and molecules in the
cal symbol Cl), a molecule of common table salt, is iron are in rapid motion. The atoms in a piece of hot
formed (NaCl). Another example is sugar, each mole- iron are moving faster than those in a piece of cold
cule of which has 12 atoms of carbon, 22 atoms of iron.

48
 be said to produce this rapid motion. Now the newly
formed and rapidly moving molecules from the fire
below the pan bombard the pan. This bombardment
sets the molecules of metal in the pan into rapid
motion. The pan becomes hot. The metal molecules,
in turn, bombard the ice molecules. The ice melts and
then turns to vapor.

O8-11 LIGHT AND HEAT RADIATIONS This is

only a partial description of what takes place during
combustion. In addition to the swiftly moving mole-
cules, the fire also produces radiations. We can see
Tay these radiations as light and feel them as heat. They
oy are produced by certain actions inside the atoms of
CARBON fuel and oxygen. A partial explanation of these ac-
tions is that the inner electrons of the atoms are dis-
turbed by the actions of the outer electrons as they
move between atoms. The inner electrons jump be-
tween shells. Each jump is accompanied by a tiny
flash of radiant energy.

©8-12 EXPANSION OF SOLIDS WITH HEAT When

a piece of iron is heated, it expands. A steel rod that
measures 10 feet [3.048 m] in length at 100°F [37.8°] -
will measure 10.07 feet [3.069 m] in length at 1000°F
[537.8°C] (Fig. 8-6). As the rod is heated, the mole-
cules in it move faster and faster. They need more
FIG. 8-5 Two atoms of oxygen uniting with one atom of room to do so and therefore push adjacent molecules
carbon to form a molecule of carbon dioxide, or COs.
away so that the rod gets longer.

©8-13 EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS AND GASES WITH

HEAT Liquids and gases also expand when
O8-9 CHANGE OF STATE _ If we put a pan of ice heated. One cubic foot of water at 39°F [3.89°C] will
cubes over a fire, the ice cubes soon melt, or turn to become, when heated to 100°F [37.8°C], 1.01 cubic
water. Then the water boils, or turns to vapor. Most feet. A cubic foot is a cube measuring one foot on
substances can exist in any of three states: solid, each side. A cubic foot of air at 32°F [0°C] heated to
liquid, or gas (vapor). When a substance changes 100°F [37.8°C] without a change of pressure will be-
from one state to another, it undergoes a change of come 1.14 cubic feet. These expansion effects result
state. from more rapid molecular motion, which tends to
A change in the speed of molecular motion, if great push the molecules farther apart so that they spread
enough, results in a change of state. For example, in out and take up more room.
ice, the water molecules are moving slowly and in
restricted paths. But as the temperature increases, 08-14 INCREASE OF PRESSURE A different sort
the molecules move faster and faster. Soon the mole- of effect results if the volume is held constant while
cules are moving so fast they they break out of their the cubic foot of air is heated from 32 to 100°F [0 to
restricted paths. The ice turns to water at 32°F [0°C]. 37.8°C]. If we start with a pressure of 15 pounds per
As molecular speed increases still more, the boiling square inch[103 kPa], the pressure increases to about
point is reached: 212°F [100°C] at sea level. Now the
molecules are moving so fast that great numbers of
them fly clear out of the water. The water boils, or t) [3.048 M AT 37.8°C]
turns to vapor.
ee 10 FEET AT 100° F pie maa
O8-10 PRODUCING CHANGE OF STATE What 0 [3.069 M AT 537.8°C]
makes the water molecules move faster? During com-
bustion, oxygen unites with carbon or hydrogen etd cates FEET AT 1000° F rae aed
atoms. The new molecules formed are set into ex- FIG. 8-6 A steel rod that measures 10 feet [3.048 m] at
tremely rapid motion. The rushing together of the 100°F [37.8°C] will measure 10.07 feet [3.069 m] at 1000°F
atoms to satisfy the unbalance of electric charges can (So7Aeszer

49
 08-16 THE THERMOMETER The thermometer
(Fig. 8-8) shows a familiar use of the expansion of
liquids as temperature goes up. The liquid, usually
mercury (a metal that is liquid at ordinary tempera-
tures), is largely contained in the glass bulb at the
bottom of the glass tube. As temperature increases,
the mercury expands. Part of it is forced up through
the hollow glass tube. The higher the temperature,
the more the mercury expands and the higher it is
forced up through the tube. The tube is marked off to
indicate the temperature in degrees.

FIG. 8-7 Gas pressure in a container is the result of the

©8-17. THE THERMOSTAT Different metals ex-
ceaseless bombardment of the inner sides of the container pand at different rates with increasing temperatures.
by the fast-moving molecules of gas. For simplicity, this Aluminum expands about twice as much as iron as
bombardment is shown on only one side of the container. their temperatures go up. This difference in expan-
Actually, the bombardment takes place against all inside sion rates is used in thermostats. Thermostats do
surfaces. The molecules are shown greatly enlarged. There
are billions of molecules in action—not just the few shown
numerous jobs in small engines and in automobiles.
here. One type consists of a coil made up of two strips of
different metals, such as brass and steel, welded
together. When the coil is heated, one metal expands
17 psi [117 kPa] at 100°F [37.8°C]. This can also be faster than the other, causing the coil to wind up or
explained by the molecular theory of heat. unwind.
Gas pressure in.a container is due entirely to the
unending bombardment of the gas molecules against O8-18 GRAVITY Gravity is the attractive force
the inside of the container (Fig. 8-7). Gas molecules between all objects. When we release a stone from
move about in all directions at high speeds. They are our hand, it falls to earth. When a car is driven up a
continually bumping into one another and into any hill, part of the engine power is being used to lift the
solid that is in their way. The walls of the container car against gravity. Likewise, a car can coast down a
are bumped by these billions of molecules. These hill with the engine turned off, because gravity pulls
“bumps” add up to a combined push, or pressure. downward on the car.
As temperature increases, the molecules of gas Gravitational attraction is usually measured in
move faster. They bump the walls of the container terms of weight. We put an object on a scale and see
harder and more often. The result is higher pressure
in the container.
Another way to increase pressure in a container is q
to compress the gas in the container into a smaller pews POINT \ col
OF WATER f
volume. This is what happens in engine cylinders.
The mixture of air and gasoline vapor is squeezed to
about one-eighth or one-ninth of its original volume.
The molecules then move much faster, hitting the
cylinder head and piston more often and faster. The
pressure goes up. 50

NORMAL BODY \
O8-15 INCREASE OF TEMPERATURE Pressure TEMPERATURE {|

and temperature increase when a gas is compressed. {NORMAL ROOM \

Moving the molecules closer together causes them to TEMPERATURE |

bump into one another more often so that they are set
{FREEZING POINT \
into faster motion. Faster motion means a higher OF WATER o
temperature. For example, in the diesel engine, air is
compressed to as little as one-sixteenth of its original =17.7
volume. This raises the temperature of the air to
about 1000°F [537.8°C]. The heat produced by the
-40
action soon escapes from the compressed air and its
container into the surrounding air. Any hot object iC
loses heat until its temperature falls to that of the FIG. 8-8 Thermometers comparing Fahrenheit and Celsius
surrounding medium. (also called centigrade) readings.

90
that it weighs 10 pounds [4.5 kg]. What we mean is
that the object has sufficient mass for the earth to
register this much pull on it. Gravitational attraction
gives any object its weight.

08-19 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE The air is also

an “object” that is pulled toward the earth by gravity.
At sea level and average temperature, one cubic foot
of air weighs about 0.08 pound, or about 1.25 ounce.
This seems like very little. But the blanket of air—our
atmosphere—surrounding the earth is many miles
thick. This means that there are, in effect, many
thousands of cubic feet of air piled on top of one
another, all adding their weight. The total weight, or
downward push, of this air amounts to about 15 psi
[103 kPa] at sea level. The pressure of all this air
pushing downward is about 2160 pounds [980 kg] on
every square foot. Since the human body has a sur-
face area of several square feet, it has a total pres-
sure of several tons on it.
It would seem that this tremendous pressure would
crush you. The reason that it does not is that the
internal pressures inside the body balance the out-
side pressure.

©O8-20 VACUUM A vacuum is the absence of air

or any other matter. Astronauts, on their way to the
moon and the other planets, soon leave the blanket of
air surrounding the earth and pass into the vast re-
gion of empty space. Out in space, there are only a MERCURY
few scattered atoms of air. This is a vacuum. FIG. 8-9 Barometer. The mercury in the tube will stand at
about 30 inches [762 mm] above the surface of the mercury
©8-21 PRODUCING A VACUUM There are many in the dish at an atmospheric pressure of 15 psi [1.05
ways to produce a vacuum. The engine, as it oper- kg/cm’).
ates, produces a partial vacuum in the engine cylin-
der. The fuel pump works by producing a partial
vacuum. 2. Vacuum Gauge. The vacuum gauge is really a
pressure gauge. The type of vacuum gauge used
1. Barometer. The mercury barometer (Fig. 8-9) is in engine service contains a bellows or dia-
another device that utilizes a vacuum. You can phragm which is linked to an indicating needle
make a barometer by filling a long tube with on the dial face (Fig. 8-11). When the vacuum
mercury and then closing the end. Next, turn the gauge is connected to the engine (to the intake
tube upside down, and put the end in a dish of
mercury. Now open the end. Some of the mercury
will run down out of the tube, leaving the upper
end of the tube empty (a vacuum).
The barometer is used to measure atmo-
spheric pressure. When atmospheric pressure in-
creases, the increased push on the mercury
forces it higher in the tube (Fig. 8-10). When
atmospheric pressure goes down, the mercury
also goes down in the tube. The barometer is
used to forecast weather. Before a storm, the
atmospheric pressure usually drops. This is be-
cause of the heated and therefore lighter air
FIG. 8-10 The pressure of the air, acting on the surface of
accompanying a storm. When the mercury falls the mercury and through the mercury, holds the mercury up
in the barometer, it indicates that a storm is in the tube. If the air pressure increases, the mercury will be
coming. forced higher in the tube.

ol
 6. Describe combustion in the engine cylinder.
7. Explain what heat is in terms of molecular mo-
tion.
8. Explain gas pressure in terms of molecular
action.
9. Why does the gas pressure in a container in-
crease with increasing temperature?
10. What is atmospheric pressure?
11. Explain how a barometer works.
FIG. 8-11 A vacuum gauge. (Onan Corporation) 12. What is vacuum?
13. What is a coil thermostat? How does it work?
manifold), the vacuum produced by the engine
causes the needle to move and register the 14. What is atmospheric pressure? What causes it?
amount of vacuum. This action results because
the vacuum causes part of the air in the bellows SELF PROIECE
or back of the diaphragm to pass into the engine.
For complete small-engine servicing, several ther-
Then air pressure causes the bellows or dia-
mometers are needed to measure various tempera-
phragm to move, thereby causing the needle to
tures. For example, you may need to know the tem-
move. The amount that the needle moves de-
perature of the electrolyte (liquid in the battery)
pends on the amount of vacuum. The amount of
when checking the battery state of charge. You may
vacuum that a running engine can produce is a
need to measure the temperature of the coolant
measure of engine condition. The vacuum gauge
(liquid) in the engine cooling system. Other tem-
is a good diagnostic tool to determine the actual
peratures to be measured include the cooling-
condition of the engine. This is discussed in
system-thermostat operating temperature, operat-
detail in a later chapter.
ing temperature of the thermostat in the carburetor
REVIEW QUESTIONS air cleaner, and so on. As you study the later chap-
ters in the book, you will find explanations of the
l . What are molecules? various temperature readings and how to take
them. You cannot use any one thermometer to take
2 . What are the major parts of atoms?
all these different measurements. Therefore, if you
3 . What is a chemical reaction? are going to be an expert mechanic, you will need
several thermometers. Collect them as you go
4 . What is combustion?
along and keep them in a safe place in your tool-
5 . What does the term “change of state’ mean? box.

52
Two-Cycle-Engine
Operation

O9-1 INTERNAL COMBUSTION Before we ex-

plain what two-cycle and four-cycle mean, we want
to mention that both of these engines are internal-
combustion engines. The combustion, or fire, that
After studying this chapter, you should be makes the engines go takes place inside the engine.
able to: This is in contrast to the steam engine. The fire for
this engine takes place outside the engine, in a sepa-
1. Describe the actions of the piston and rings rate boiler. The boiler boils water to produce steam.
Then the steam enters the steam engine to make it
2. Explain the strokes of the two-cycle engine run. The steam engine is called an external-combus-
tion engine because the combustion, or fire, that
3. Define “crankcase compression” makes it run takes place outside the engine.
Now, back to internal-combustion engines—two-
cycle and four-cycle. We will look at the two-cycle
engine first because it is simpler in construction, has
fewer internal parts to wear, and is the most widely
used engine for such equipment as power lawn mow-
ers, edgers, tillers, chain saws, and so on. However,
there are many small four-cycle engines in operation.
Almost all automotive engines are of the four-cycle
type. We will explain the basic differences between
these types of engines later. First, however, let us
look at the two-cycle engine.

09-2 THE PISTON AND THE CYLINDER Imagine

a tin can with one end cut out (Fig. 9-la). Imagine a
second tin can slightly smaller in size which will fit
snugly into the first can, as shown in Fig. 9-lb. Now
suppose you pushed the smaller can rapidly up into
the larger can, trapping air ahead of it. This air
would be pushed into a smaller space than it had
previously occupied. The air would be compressed. If
the air contained a small amount of gasoline vapor,
and if an electric spark were applied to this com-
pressed air-fuel mixture, there would be an explo-
sion. The smaller can would be blown out of the
larger can. This action is shown in Fig. 9-lc.
This is about what happens in the internal-combus-
tion engine except that the smaller can is not blown
all the way out. Instead, in the actual engine, there is

53
 CYLINDER

FIG. 9-1 Three views showing the actions in an en-

gine cylinder. (a) This piston is a metal plug that fits
(6)
snugly into the engine cylinder. (6) When the piston is
PISTON pushed up into the cylinder, air is trapped and com-
pressed. The cylinder is drawn as though it were
va transparent so that the piston can be seen. (c) The
(a)
increase of pressure as the gasoline vapor and air
mixture is ignited pushes the piston out of the cyl-
inder.

an arrangement to prevent this. In the engine, the rings which are free to move around in their ring
larger can is called the cylinder. The smaller can is grooves.
called the piston. The piston slides up and down in When the piston, with rings, is installed in the
the cylinder. cylinder, the rings are compressed into the ring
grooves so that the split ends come almost together.
The rings fit tightly against the cylinder wall and
O9-3 THE ENGINE CYLINDER The engine cylin-
der is a round hole in a block of metal. Most small
engines have only one cylinder. Some have two cyl-
inders. Also, some engines classified as “small” have
four cylinders. There is no set rule about how many
cylinders a small engine should have, as opposed to
a “big” engine. Regardless of how many cylinders an
engine has, the same actions go on in each cylinder.
Each cylinder has a piston that slides up and down
angle:

©O9-4 PISTON RINGS The piston must be a fairly

loose fit in the cylinder. If the piston fits too tightly, it
would expand as it got hot and would stick in the
cylinder. If the piston sticks, it could ruin the engine.
But if there is too much clearance between the piston
and cylinder wall, here is what would happen: Much
BLOWBY
of the pressure from the burning gasoline vapor
would leak past or “blow by” the piston (Fig. 9-2). This
means that there would be less push on the piston. It
is the push on the piston that delivers the power from
the engine. Blow-by means loss of engine power.
To provide a good seal between the piston and
cylinder wall, piston rings are used, as shown in
Fig. 9-3. So that the piston rings can be fitted to the
piston, two or more grooves are cut into the upper
part of the piston, as shown in Fig. 9-3. These are
called the piston-ring grooves. The rings are made of
cast iron or other metal. They are split at one point so
they can be expanded and slipped over the ends of
the piston and into the ring grooves cut in the piston.
Pistons for two-cycle engines usually have two rings
which are pinned or locked in place. This prevents FIG. 9-2 If the piston fits too loosely in the cylinder, much
the end of the ring from catching in a port and break- of the pressure will be lost as the exploding mixture leaks
ing. Four-cycle engine pistons usually have three past, or “blows by,” the piston.

94
 ra WN
CYLINDER
eae te Geen te4/7

JE <
Vy,
ae GAS PRESSURE ‘ SS

<< 7 wo a~ me

Uplggi\—
ie Z(H
a al
i ——_,

PISTON-RING
GROOVE
EOAEING
y Uy N RING
Ds.Za Ss

BOTTOM
PISTON RING FIG. 9-4 Pressure in the combustion chamber above the
FIG. 9-3 Typical piston with piston rings in place. When piston, either from compression of the air-fuel mixture or
the piston is installed in the cylinder, the rings are com- from its combustion, presses the ring against the cylinder
pressed into the grooves in the piston. (Lawn Boy Division of wall and the lower side of the piston-ring groove.
Outboard Marine Corporation)

against the sides of the ring grooves in the piston. do two-cycle engines. This additional oil must be
They form a good seal between the piston and the scraped off to prevent it from getting up into the com-
cylinder wall. The rings can expand or contract as bustion chamber, where it would burn and cause
they heat and cool and still make a good seal. They trouble.
are free to slide up and down the cylinder wall. In the Some four-cycle-engine pistons have four rings.
two-cycle engine, oil is mixed with the gasoline and The engine design requires this added ring for ade-
this mixture enters the crankcase, as we will explain quate oil control. We will discuss this further in
later. The gasoline goes on into the combustion Chapel:
chamber, where it is burned. Part of the oil covers the
cylinder wall so the wall is kept coated with oil. This
allows the rings and pistons to slide up and down the O9-5 THECRANK The piston moves up and down
wall easily, with little friction. We discuss oil and in the cylinder. This up-and-down motion is called
friction in a later chapter. reciprocating motion. The piston moves in a straight
Figure 9-4 shows how the piston ring works to hold line. This straight-line motion must be changed to
in the compression and combustion pressures. The rotary, or turning motion, in most machines, before it
arrows show the pressure from above the piston can do work. Rotary motion is required to make
passing through the clearance between the piston wheels turn, a cutting blade spin, or a pulley rotate.
and the cylinder wall. It presses down against the top To change the reciprocating motion to rotary motion,
and against the back of the piston ring, as shown by a crank and connecting rod are used (Figs. 9-5 and
the arrows. This pushes the piston ring firmly against 9-6). The connecting rod connects the piston to the
the cylinder wall and also against the bottom of the crank.
piston-ring groove. As a result, there are good seals The crank is a very common device which is used in
at both of these points. The higher the pressure in the many machines and in almost all engines. The crank
combustion chamber, the better the seal. is an offset part of a shaft. When the shaft rotates, the
Small two-cycle engines usually have two rings on crank and crankpin swing in a circle as shown in
the piston. Both are compression rings. Two rings are Fig. 9-7. When the piston is pushed down in the cylin-
used to divide up the job of holding the compression der by the combustion pressures, the push on the
and combustion pressures. This produces better seal- piston, carried through the connecting rod to the
ing with less ring pressure against the cylinder wall. crank, causes the shaft to turn. Figure 9-8 shows the
Some two-cycle engines, such as certain motorcycle motions that the piston, connecting rod, and crank go
engines, have only one piston ring. through. As the piston moves up and down, the top
Four-cycle engines have an extra ring, called the end of the connecting rod moves up and down with it.
oil-control ring. Four-cycle engines are so constructed The bottom end of the connecting rod swings in a
that they get much more oil in the cylinder wall than circle along with the crank.

99
 CRANKPIN

PISTON PIN

PISTON

CONNECTING ROD

CRANKPIN

CRANK

CRANKSHAFT
Sa SHAFT
FIG. 9-7 As the crankshaft rotates, the crank and crankpin
swing in a circle around the shaft.
ROD- BEARING CAP

FIG. 9-5 Piston, connecting rod, piston pin, and crankpin The piston end of the connecting rod is attached to
on an engine crankshaft in disassembled view. The piston
the piston by a piston pin, also called a wrist pin. The
rings are not shown.
other end of the connecting rod is attached to the
crankpin. There are bearings at both ends of the con-
necting rod so that the rod can move freely. We will
discuss bearings later.
The crank end of the connecting rod is sometimes
called the rod big end. The piston end of the connect-
ing rod is sometimes called the rod small end. These
terms are used in the shop and in some manuals.

09-6 CRANKSHAFT The crank is a part of the

PISTON crankshaft. It is an offset section, as shown in Fig.
9-9, to which the connecting-rod big end is attached
PISTON PIN by a bearing. The crankshaft is mounted in the en-
gine on bearings which allow the crankshaft to ro-
tate. As the crank rotates, it swings in a circle, as
shown in Fig. 9-8.
The crankshaft is assembled with flywheels, or
CONNECTING ROD counterweights, as shown in Fig. 9-9. These counter-
weights balance the weights of the crankpin and
ROD-CAP BOLT connecting rod to reduce the tendency of the crank-
shaft to go out-of-round when it is rotating. This
makes for a smoother running engine and much less
wear on the bearings which support the crankshaft.
CRANKSHAFT

09-7 ENGINE BEARINGS The crankshaft is sup-

ported by bearings. The connecting-rod big end is
attached to the crankpin on the crank of the crank-
FIG. 9-6 Piston and connecting-rod assembly attached to
the crankpin on a crankshaft. The piston rings are not
shaft by a bearing. A piston pin at the rod small end
shown. The piston is pictured as if cut away to show how it is used to attach the rod to the piston. The piston pin
is attached to the connecting rod. rides in bearings. Everywhere there is rotary action in

36
PISTON

FIG. 9-8 Sequence of actions as the crankshaft completes

one revolution and the piston moves from top to bottom to Bearings used in engines are of two types: sliding
top again.
and rolling (Fig. 9-10). The sliding-type bearings are
sometimes called bushings or sleeve bearings. They
the engine, bearings are used to support the moving are in the shape of a sleeve that fits around the rotat-
parts. The purpose of bearings is to reduce the fric- ing journal, or shaft. The sleeve-type connecting-rod
tion and allow the parts to move easily. Bearings are big-end bearings—usually called simply rod bear-
lubricated with oil to make the relative motion easier. ings—and the crankshaft supporting bearings—
In Chapter 15, we discuss friction, engine oil, and the called the main bearings—are of the split-sleeve
lubricating systems that get the oil to the moving type. They are split to permit their easy assembly into
parts. the engine. In the rod bearing, the upper half of the
bearing is installed in the rod. The lower half is in-
stalled in the rod-bearing cap. When the rod cap is
RECIPROCATING MOTION
fastened to the rod, as shown in Fig. 9-6, a complete
OF PISTON sleeve bearing is formed. Similarly, the upper halves
of the main bearings are assembled in the engine.
CONNECTING Then the main-bearing caps, with the lower bearing
ROD halves, are attached to the engine to complete the
CRANKSHAFT
sleeve bearings supporting the crankshaft.
BALL BEARING The typical bearing half is made of a steel or bronze
back to which a lining of relatively soft bearing ma-
terial is applied (Fig. 9-11). This relatively soft bear-
ROTARY
MOTION OF
ing material, which is made of several materials,
CRANKSHAFT such as copper, lead, tin, and other metals, has the
ability to conform to slight irregularities of the shaft
rotating against it. If wear does take place, it is the
COUNTERWEIGHTS bearing that wears. When that happens, the bearing
can be replaced instead of the much more expensive
CRANKSHAFT / crankshaft or other engine part.
FLYWHEEL The rolling-type bearing uses balls or rollers be-
FIG. 9-9 The crankshaft converts the reciprocating motion
tween the stationary support and the rotating shaft,
to rotary motion. The crankshaft mounts in bearings which as shown in Figs. 9-9, 9-10, and 9-12. Since the balls
encircle the journals so it can rotate freely. or rollers provide rolling contact, the frictional resis-

97
 OUTER RACE OUTER RACE

INNER ROLLERS
SPACER BALLS RACE

\
CONTACT
SPOT
CONTACT

SLEEVE SPLIT SLEEVE

BEARING BEARING BALL BEARING ROLLER BEARING
FIG. 9-10 Sleeve, ball, and roller bearings.

tance to movement is much less. In some roller bear- actions continue as long as the engine runs. We will
ings, the rollers are so small that they are hardly go into detail on these actions later.
bigger than needles. These bearings are called nee-
dle bearings. Some roller bearings have the rollers 09-9 THE PISTON STROKE = Inany piston engine,
set at an angle, and so the races the rollers roll in are the movement of the piston from one limiting position
tapered. These bearings are called tapered roller to the other is called a piston stroke. The upper limit-
bearings (Fig. 9-12). Some ball and roller bearings are ing position of the piston is called top dead center
sealed with their lubricant already in place. Such (TDC), and the lower limiting position is called bot-
bearings require no other lubrication. Others require tom dead center (BDC). A piston stroke takes place
lubrication from the oil in the gasoline (in two-cycle when the piston moves from TDC to BDC or from BDC
engines) or from the engine lubrication system (in to TDC (Fig. 9-13). When the piston moves from TDC to
four-cycle engines). BDC, after combustion has taken place, the stroke is
the power stroke. The high pressure of combustion,
©9-8 MAKING THE ENGINE RUN In order to run, forcing the piston to move during the power stroke,
an engine must have a mixture of air and gasoline results in power from the engine.
vapor. This mixture must enter the cylinder and be
compressed by the piston as it moves up. Then a 09-10 HOW THE TWO-CYCLE ENGINE GOT ITS
spark must occur in the cylinder so the mixture will NAME The full name of the two-cycle engine is
be ignited. The mixture burns rapidly and pushes the “two-stroke-cycle engine.” The reason for this is that
piston down. This push is carried through the con- it takes two piston strokes, an up stroke and a down
necting rod, causing the crankshaft to turn. Next, the stroke, to complete a cycle of engine operation.
burned gases must be removed from the cylinder and Everything that happens in the engine takes place in
a fresh charge of air-fuel mixture brought in. These these two strokes, and these events continue to be
repeated as long as the engine runs. This is the
INNER LAYER OF
STEEL BACK BEARING ALLOY
THIN OVERLAY OF A ROLLER
SOFT BEARING ALLOY BEARINGS

BEARING
CUP
BARRIER PLATING ROLLER
FIG. 9-11 Construction of a bearing half of the sleeve type. BEARINGS
The softer bearing material is applied to a hard back. FIG. 9-12 Crankshaft mounted on tapered roller bearings.
(Federal-Mogul Corporation). (Kohler Company)

98
 a DORE SPARK PLUG

TOC! 1mm
(ae, EXHAUST
Se, U0mesBZ PORT

NG A

STROKE ||oll INTAKE

TRANSFER
BDC PORT

EF
—
(ef EENNSEN
SS

CARBURETOR

FIG. 9-13 The bore and stroke of an engine cylinder.

FIG. 9-15 As the piston moves up in the cylinder, the lower
edge of the piston moves above the intake port. This allows
meaning of “cycle.” A cycle is a series of events that fresh air-fuel mixture into the crankcase. (Kohler Company)
repeat themselves. For example, the cycle of the
seasons—spring, summer, fall, and winter—is re-
peated every year. In a similar way, the two piston the exhaust port. The port through which the fresh
strokes in the two-stroke-cycle engine form a cycle air-fuel mixture flows from the carburetor into the
that is repeated continuously as the engine runs. crankcase is called the intake port. The reason that
Sometimes the word “stroke” is used and the word the air-fuel mixture first enters the crankcase and
“cycle” dropped, so that two-stroke-cycle engine has then transfers to the combustion chamber is dis-
become, in common usage, “two-stroke engine.” cussed in the next section.
However, there are two piston strokes in a single Figure 9-14 shows the locations of the ports in cuta-
cycle of the two-cycle engine. way views of a cylinder for a two-cycle engine. Let us
follow the complete sequence of actions in the en-
O9g-11 ENGINE ACTIONS The air-fuel mixture gine, from the time that the fresh air-fuel mixture
enters the cylinder, and burned gases leave the cyl- enters the crankcase.
inder, through ports, or openings, in the cylinder As the piston moves up the cylinder, the lower edge
wall. The port through which air-fuel mixture actu- of the piston moves above the intake port (Fig. 9-15).
ally enters the cylinder is called the transfer port. The This clears or opens the port and allows air-fuel mix-
port through which the burned gases leave is called ture to flow from the carburetor through the intake
4

EXHAUST
INTAKE PORT
PORT

d TRANSFER g TRANSFER
PORT (1 OR MORE PORTS

FIG. 9-14 Cutaway views of a cylinder showing the ports in

a two-cycle engine. (Kohler Company)

39
 IGNITION

TRANSFER

FIG. 9-16 As the piston nears TDC, ignition occurs. The FIG. 9-18 As the piston nears BDC, it opens the transfer
resulting high combustion pressure forces the piston down. _ Port, allowing fresh air-fuel mixture to flow from the crank-
(Kohler Company) case into the cylinder. (Kohler Company)

EXHAUST

G2sz \
Da
,
;

REED VALVE REED VALVE

FIG. 9-17 As the piston moves down the cylinder, it opens OPEN CLOSED
the exhaust port, allowing the burnt exhaust gases to flow FIG. 9-19 A reed valve is used in the intake port of many
from the cylinder. (Kohler Company) two-cycle engines.

60
 1. CHOKE-KNOB ASSEMBLY 9. MAGNETO ASSEMBLY 17. CYLINDER AND SLEEVE ASSEMBLY
2. GAS LINE 10. AIR-FILTER ASSEMBLY 18. GASKET
3. GAS-TANK ASSEMBLY 11. CRANKSHAFT 19. CONNECTING-ROD ASSEMBLY
4. SHUT-OFF VALVE AND SCREEN ASSEMBLY 12. CARBURETOR ASSEMBLY 20. CONNECTING-ROD PIN
5. STARTER PULLEY 13. CARBURETOR GASKET 21. PISTON RINGS
6. FLYWHEEL SCREEN 14. REED-VALVE ASSEMBLY 22. PISTON
7. FLYWHEEL ASSEMBLY 15. SPARK PLUG 23. CRANKCASE
8. GOVERNOR ASSEMBLY 16. EXHAUST SLEEVE 24. STARTER ROPE
FIG. 9-20 Disassembled view of a one-cylinder air-cooled
engine used on a power lawn mower. (Lawn Boy Division of
Outboard Marine Corporation) the cylinder by flowing through the open transfer
port.
port into the crankcase. At the same time, the piston After the piston has passed through BDC and starts
has closed off the exhaust port and the transfer port, up again, it closes the transfer port and the exhaust
as you can see in Fig. 9-15. This traps the air-fuel port (Fig. 9-15). Now the fresh air-fuel charge above
mixture that already is in the combustion chamber. the piston is compressed and ignited. This same se-
As the piston moves up, this air-fuel mixture is com- quence of events takes place again and continues as
pressed. long as the engine runs.
As the piston nears TDC, ignition takes place
(Fig. 9-16). The high combustion pressures drive the 09-12 CRANKCASE COMPRESSION In a two-
piston down. The force applied through the connect- cycle engine, the air-fuel mixture is delivered to the
ing rod against the crankpin turns the crankshaft. cylinder under pressure. This pressure is applied to
As the piston moves down the cylinder, the top of the air-fuel mixture in the crankcase. (The crankcase
the piston moves below the exhaust port in the cylin- is the lower part of the engine which contains the
der wall (Fig. 9-17). This opens the exhaust port. crankshaft.) In many engines, the crankcase is sealed
Burned gases, still under some pressures, begin to except for a reed (or leaf) valve located in the intake
flow out of the cylinder through the exhaust port. In port (Fig. 9-19). The reed valve is a flexible, flat metal
Fig. 9-17, notice that the piston also has closed the plate that fits between the carburetor and the intake
intake port into the crankcase. port.
As the piston nears BDC, the top edge of the piston There are holes under the reed valve that connect it
moves below the transfer port, opening it (Fig. 9-18). with the carburetor. Figure 9-19 shows the arrange-
Now the air-fuel mixture in the crankcase transfers to ment in which the reed valve is mounted on the side

61
of the crankcase, just outside the intake port. When sealed compartments. Each compartment provides
the piston is moving up, a partial vacuum is produced primary compression of the air-fuel mixture for the
in the sealed crankcase. Atmospheric pressure lifts piston-cylinder combination directly above it. Figure
the reed valve off the holes and pushes air-fuel mix- 9-22 shows a two-cylinder two-cycle engine. Notice
ture into the crankcase (Fig. 9-19). After the piston how the crankcase for each cylinder is sealed from
passes TDC and starts down again, pressure begins the others.
to build up in the crankcase. This pressure closes the
reed valve so that further downward movement of the ©O9-14 ENGINE CONSTRUCTION Some engines
piston compresses the trapped air-fuel mixture in use other kinds of valves than the reed valve. Also,
the crankcase. The pressure which is built up on the all engines have some sort of flywheel. And engines
air-fuel mixture then causes it to flow up through the must be provided with some means of getting rid of
transfer port into the cylinder when the piston moves excess heat. This means that all engines must have
down enough to clear the transfer port (Fig. 9-19). some sort of cooling system. In the following chapter,
A disassembled view of a two-cycle engine is which discusses various types of small engines and
shown in Fig. 9-20. Study this illustration carefully. the details of their construction, we describe these
Identify the reed-valve assembly, cylinder, piston, features.
connecting rod, and other parts. This is an air-cooled
engine. Notice that the cylinder and head have metal REVIEW QUESTIONS
fins to help carry away excess heat and prevent over-
1. What is the difference between an internal-
heating of the engine.
combustion engine and an external-combustion
This engine, installed in a lawn mower, is shown in
engine?
cutaway view in Fig. 9-21. Note that the cylinder is
placed horizontally (to the left in the illustration) and 2. How many cylinders does a “small engine”
that the carburetor is on the opposite side of the have?
crankshaft (to the right in the illustration). A later
chapter describes the fuel system. 3. What provides the seal between the piston and
the cylinder wall?
09-13 CRANKCASE PRESSURE IN MULTIPLE- 4. Why don’t the piston rings wear out quickly as
CYLINDER ENGINES In multiple-cylinder engines, they slide up and down the cylinder walls?
each cylinder must have its own individual sealed
crankcase. Therefore, on a two-cylinder two-cycle 5. How many rings are there on a two-cycle en-
engine, the crankcase is divided into two separate gine piston?

FLYWHEEL

DISCHARGE
CHUTE

CRANKSHAFT
GOVERNOR

HOUSING
MUFFLER

FIG. 9-21 Cutaway view of a two-cycle engine used in

HEIGHT-OF-CUT a power lawn mower. (Lawn Boy Division of Outboard
BLADE ADJUSTMENT Marine Corporation)

62
 REAR-OUTLET- #1 SPARK PLUG #2 SPARK PLUG BLOWER HOUSING
TYPE AIR-COVER CYLINDER HEAD
SHROUD GROMMET

CRA
CYLINDER BARREL

PISTON allea SS)

\ EXHAUST PORT
RING GEAR (ELECTRIC START)
db

CSSS

BEARING aA %y FAN
(SMALL END) Be rai: @ \ pate Ube a
PISTON PIN a7 TF is

AICI A
Ay
AN
\
Wy
SN?
4 Y Ty
il
<ter
“f

ep
—
IGNITION COILS

TRANSFER PORT ae |[EG Ne |) Se,

CONNECTING ROD |NI SBR
4.

im FN
WSSLESEETSEEEEOTEEOEE

[ iy Say
NG

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SS

rw)
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8‘ DRIVE
PULLEY
Y - N (Va > eh Y CUP
CRANKCASE ZENO SAIN Wi Va {= Ae
UPPER HALF Aa Y : N WY) OG A= ss='f HY
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PY (ee AS =a iL RETRACTABLE
BEARING SUPPORT \/ : RN, | |Z starter
PLATE 5 ZE
BALLBEARING /CRANKCASE |S
N. ‘a}4
ALTERNATOR COIL
(CENTER MAIN) LOWER = SZ
&
BALL BEARING HALF >

(REAR MAIN) <<

NEEDLE BEARING
SUPPORT FLYWHEEL
(BIG END)
PLATE (FRONT)
FIG. 9-22 In a two-cycle engine with more than one cylinder, such as
this two-cycle two-cylinder engine, each of the cylinders must have its
own sealed crankcase. The sealed ball bearings placed between the
cranks of the crankshaft, as shown, provide this seal. (Kohler Company)

6. What is the difference between reciprocating 15. Where is the reed valve located?
and rotary motion?
16. Why does a multicylinder two-cycle engine
7. In the engine, what changes the reciprocating have a sealed crankcase for each cylinder?
motion of the piston into rotary motion?
SELLE PROJECTS
8. What two types of bearings are used in en-
gines? 1. To understand the operation of the two-cycle
engine, you must understand the action of the
9. Why are sleeve bearings used so often in small
ports. Look at an assortment of two-cycle engine
engines?
cylinders. Identify each of the ports. On a sheet
10. What is a piston stroke? of paper for your notebook, write down the make
of cylinder and its size. Then locate the intake
11. What are the three ports required by a two-
port. If there is no mounting for the carburetor,
cycle engine?
you know that the cylinder is from a rotary-valve
12. Where does the intake port lead? engine. Write down that fact.
Next, locate the transfer ports in the cylinder
13. What opens and closes the ports in the two-
wall. Probably there will be more than one
cycle engines discussed in this chapter?
transfer port. Count the number of transfer-port
14. What is crankcase compression? holes, and write that down. Look for any bridges

63
 or other special design features to prevent the 2. On a sheet of paper for your notebook, make a
piston rings from hanging in the transfer ports rough sketch of the location and shape of the
and breaking. Then examine the exhaust port. It ports. Then identify and label each port in your
probably will be the port that comes closest to sketch. As you do this for several two-cycle-
the top of the cylinder. Carbon deposits in the engine cylinders, you will begin to see the great
port is another indication that you found the variety of port shapes and locations in two-cycle
exhaust port. engines.

64
 Chapter
Small-Two-Cycle-
Engine Construction

010-1 ONE-CYLINDER TWO-CYCLE ENGINE CON-

STRUCTION Figure 9-20 shows a disassembled
one-cylinder two-cycle engine used in a power lawn
mower. Figure 10-1 shows a similar engine assem-
After studying this chapter, you should be bled. Notice that this assembly includes the engine, a
able to: rope-rewind starter, and a cooling shroud for direct-
ing cooling air around the engine.
1. Describe the construction of the two-cycle Figure 10-2 shows the cylinder and cylinder head
engine removed from a similar engine. There is a difference
between the engines in Figs. 10-1 and 10-2. This dif-
. List the various types of valves used in two- ference is that the engine in Figs. 9-20 and 10-1 has a
cycle engines one-piece head-and-cylinder assembly. There is no
particular advantage to having a one-piece head-
. Explain why flywheels are necessary and-cylinder assembly or to having the head and
cylinder separate. Different engine manufacturers
have different ways of manufacturing engines. Fig-
ure 10-3 shows all of the parts, in exploded view, of
an engine having a separate cylinder and cylinder
head.
©10-2 OTHER TYPES OF VALVES In 09-12, we
described the reed valve. It is one of three devices
used to control the timing and amount of air-fuel
mixture that enters the crankcase while the intake
port is open. Other devices include transfer ports that
use the piston as a valve, described in 09-11, and
’ rotary valves. Figure 10-4 compares the construction
of engines using these three means of controlling the
valves (more frequently called ports) in two-cycle en-
gines.
In Fig. 10-4a, a reed valve is used. It is attached to
the crankcase, and opens and closes the intake port
from the carburetor into the crankcase. Notice the
location of the carburetor on the bottom of the crank-
case. When you see an engine with the carburetor
mounted on the crankcase, the engine is a two-cycle
engine that probably uses a reed valve.
010-3 ROTARY VALVES To improve the intake of
the air-fuel mixture into the crankcase, some engines
use a rotating disk valve, or rotary valve. Figure 10-4c

65
 ROPE-REWIND O10-4 FLYWHEELS The power impulses resulting
STARTER
from the power strokes occur only during half a revo-
lution of the crankshaft in two-cycle engines. As the
piston passes TDC, the high pressure from the com-
bustion of the air-fuel mixture pushes down on the
piston. This push does not last long, however, be-
cause as the piston passes the exhaust port, the pres-
SHROUD sure is relieved. During the rest of the piston, con-
necting rod, and crankshaft motion, as the piston
passes BDC and starts back up, there is no power
being produced. It is only the momentum of the mov-
ing parts that carries the piston up to TDC so another
power stroke can take place. Therefore, a single-
cylinder engine has a tendency to speed up during
the power stroke and slow down the rest of the time.
VERTICAL To smooth out this speed-up and slow-down action,
CRANKSHAFT CYLINDER the engine is equipped with a flywheel.
FIG. 10-1 Single-cylinder two-cycle engine removed from The flywheel, as shown in Fig. 9-9, is mounted on
lawn mower. (Lawn Boy Division of Outboard Marine Corpo- the end of the crankshaft. Some engines have built-
ration) up crankshafis that include the flywheel inside the
crankcase. A flywheel makes use of the property of
shows the disk and its location in the crankcase. inertia that all material things have. An object that is
Figure 10-5 is another view of a rotary valve. The moving tends to keep moving. That is inertia. An
intake port is in the crankcase wall and not in the object that is stationary tends to stay put. That also is
cylinder wall. Rotation of the valve either closes the inertia. So the flywheel, once it is set in motion, tends
intake port or, when the notch in the valve is passing to keep moving. Then, when the engine tends to slow
it, opens it. down during the nonpower part of the cycle, the fly-
Figures 10-6 and 10-7 show the positions of the wheel helps to keep it moving. Also, when the power
rotary valve when the port is open and when it has stroke occurs and the engine tends to speed up, the
just been closed. Notice that from the time the port flywheel helps to keep it from suddenly speeding up.
just starts to open until it is just closed, the rotary The flywheel gives up energy to keep the engine
valve has turned almost 180 degrees. The air-fuel moving during the nonpower time and then stores
mixture can flow into the crankcase for nearly half a energy when the engine tends to speed up.
crankshaft revolution. This is much more time than
the transfer port controlled by the piston can provide ©10-5 CRANKSHAFTS In most small engines the
(Fig. 10-4). With the transfer port, intake can take crankshaft is a single piece, as shown in Fig. 10-8. In
place only after the piston has moved up far enough other engines, the crankshaft is built up from several
to clear the intake port into the crankcase. Intake is separate pieces. Figure 10-9 is an example of a built-
cut off when the piston moves down past the intake up crankshaft for a single-cylinder engine. Notice
port. This could provide as little as 90 degrees of that the crankpin is inserted in holes in the two
crankshaft rotation, as contrasted with the 170 to 180 crankshaft halves. This arrangement permits the use
degrees of crankshaft rotation with the rotary valve. of a roller bearing at the connecting rod big end. A

CYLINDER HEAD

CRANKCASE

SPARK PLUG

HEAD GASKET

CYLINDER
FIG. 10-2 Cylinder head and cylinder of a single-cylinder two-cycle
engine, with related parts. (Jacobsen Manufacturing Company)

66
 MAGNETO
BACK
PLATE

CYLINDER
HEAD

SPARK
PLUG

GASKET CIRCLIP

CRANKCASE

CAGE 4
CRANKSHAFT :
Fou —¢ PISTON
Noo OY RINGS
o*

PISTON
CAP
BEARING

BEARING

S; SEAL
S)

ENGINE BASE

FIG. 10-3 Completely disassembled view of a single-cylinder two-cycle

engine. (Jacobsen Manufacturing Company)

67
 TRANSFER
PORT

EXHAUST
PORT ))r\\ EXHAUST INTAKE
PORT
PORT EXHAUST
TRANSFER
PORT 5 TRANSFER CARBURETOR PORT
PORT ©) = = pErLECTOR
eau SS PISTON
DEFLECTOR
PISTON

os Dy eile
CARBURETOR [ 2& VALVE
AND REED VALVE DISC

(b) CROSS SCAVENGED (c) LOOP SCAVENGED

CARBURETOR—
ROTARY-VALVE ENGINE THREE-PORT ENGINE
(a) CROSS SCAVENGED
REED-VALVE ENGINE
FIG. 10-4 Various ways of scavenging and valving a two-
cycle engine. (Kohler Company)

COMPRESSION
IN CRANKCASE
POWER

ROTARY

ROTARY
VALVE
CLOSED
EXHAUST PORT
FIG. 10-7 Further rotation of the crankshaft moves the
space in the rotary valve past the intake port, so that no
air-fuel mixture can enter the crankcase.

FIG. 10-5 Carburetor and side cover removed from engine

to show rotary disk valve.
PISTON

AIR-FUEL MIXTURE
FROM CARBURETOR
COMPRESSION VACUUM IN
PRESSURE CRANKCAS CONNECTING
INTAKE
PORT
~~ ROD
TRANSFER PORT |

¥,
tr poe
&
744
ROTARY
ONE-PIECE
CRANKSHAFT

{
EXHAUST PORT
VALVE OPEN

FIG. 10-6 As the crankshaft rotates, the valve port in the

crankshaft lines up with the inlet port in the crankcase to FIG. 10-8 Crankshaft, connecting rod, and piston from a
admit the air-fuel mixture to the crankcase. single-cylinder engine.

68
 CONNECTING
ROD
NEEDLE
BEARING
~ PISTON PIN
RIGHT 5)
SPACER CRANKSHAFT

ROLLER
BEARING
THRUST
WASHER LEREn
CRANKSHAFT

THRUST
WASHER

CRANKPIN

FIG. 10-9 Disassembled view of a built-up crankshaft for a

single-cylinder engine. (Harley-Davidson Motor Com-
pany, Inc.)

roller bearing also is used at the piston pin. The To prevent such troubles, there has to be some
piston-pin bearing has small rollers, almost needle means of getting rid of the excess heat of the cylinder
size. Therefore, the bearing is called a needle bear- walls, head, and piston. Two different means of doing
ing. Engine bearings are described in detail in 09-7. this are used. One method uses air to carry away the
Multiple-cylinder two-cycle engines also may have heat. The other uses a liquid, such as water. In the
built-up crankshafts. Many larger engines, and all method using air cooling, the cylinder walls and
automotive engines, use a one-piece crankshaft. head have fins, as shown in Fig. 10-10. These fins are

YLINDER-
010-6 ENGINE COOLING The combustion pro- |. ,7 aoe
cess in the engine cylinder produces a great deal of DISSIPATING FINS
heat. Part of the heat is useful. It causes the push on FINS
7 F ; SHROUD
the piston which makes the piston move and the DIRECTS
crankshaft rotate. Part of the heat is lost in the hot AIR
exhaust gases. Some of the heat passes into the cyl- ae
inder wall, cylinder head, and piston. This heat must FINS
be disposed of to prevent the cylinder walls, head,
and piston from getting too hot. Excessive tempera-
ture will cause the oil film on the cylinder wall to fail.
Without adequate means of disposing of the excess
heat, the oil would char or burn and its lubricating
properties would be lost. The result would be engine
failure.
But even before seizure occurred, there could be
serious difficulty in the engine. As the heat accumu-
lated and the cylinder-head and spark-plug tempera-
ture went up, there would soon be a point at which
preignition would occur. The spark plug would be so
FLYWHEEL DRAWS
hot that it would ignite the air-fuel mixture prema- IN AIR
turely. This condition could also cause engine fail- FIG. 10-10 Single-cylinder air-cooled engine showing fins
ure, because preignition can melt holes in pistons in the cylinder and cylinder head. Note the shrouds that
and cause other internal damage. direct air over the fins. (Wisconsin Motor Corporation)

69
actually part of the head and cylinder. They greatly jackets, or pockets, that surround the cylinder walls
increase the outer metal surfaces and the area from and cylinder head. Most multiple-cylinder engines,
which heat can escape into the surrounding air. To particularly those used in automobiles, are of the
assist in this heat escape, many engines have liquid-cooled type. Chapter 9 covers liquid-cooling
shrouds and an air fan which forces air over and systems in detail.
around the fins as shown in Fig. 10-11. The shroud is
simply a metal sheet shaped to fit around the cylinder REVIEW QUESTIONS
in such a way as to force the air to flow close to the
1. What is the difference between an engine with a
fins. The air fan is built into the engine flywheel. The
separate cylinder head and an engine that has a
engine is cooled by the flow of air around the fins and
one-piece head-and-cylinder assembly?
is therefore called an air-cooled engine. Practically
all single-cylinder engines are air-cooled. Some mul- 2. What are three methods of controlling the intake
tiple-cylinder engines are also air-cooled. port in a two-cycle engine?
The second method of cooling the engine uses a
3. What operates the reed valve?
liquid, such as water, mixed with an antifreeze. In
the liquid-cooled engine, the liquid is circulated in 4. What operates the rotary valve?
5. What type of engine has the carburetor located
on the crankcase?
CYLINDER-
HEAD FINS 6. Name two types of crankshatfts.
7. What two methods of cooling are used in small
engines?
HOT AIR
peer PROJECT

Locate several disassembled two-cycle engines

and examine their construction closely. Compare
BLOWER FAN an engine with a separate cylinder and head to an
engine that uses a single-piece cylinder-and-head
assembly. Identify the ports and trace the passages
for each port. Determine the type of intake-port
control used in each engine. Study the crankshaft
CYLINDER FINS to determine if it is a single-piece crankshaft or a
FIG. 10-11 Circulation of air around the cylinder cooling built-up crankshaft. Compare the connecting rod
fins. and bearings used with each type of crankshaft.

70
Four-Cycle-Engine
Operation

O11-1 COMPARING THE TWO-CYCLE AND FOUR-

CYCLE ENGINES The four-cycle engine is very
similar in many ways to the two-cycle engine. In both
engines, a piston moves up and down in the cylinder.
After studying this chapter, you should be The piston is attached to a crank on the crankshaft by
able to: a connecting rod. When ignition of the compressed
air-fuel mixture takes place, the high pressure drives
1. Explain the various ways in which small en- the piston down. This push, carried through the con-
gines are classified necting rod, causes the crankshaft to rotate.
To this point, the actions are similar in both en-
. List the four strokes of the four-stroke cycle gines. However, in the two-cycle engine, the air-fuel
and describe each mixture is admitted to the cylinder, and the burned
gases exit from the cylinder, through openings, or
. Describe the valves and explain how they ports, in the cylinder wall. This action is shown in
Figs. 9-15 to 9-18. Also in the two-cycle engine, air-
are operated
fuel mixture is compressed in the cylinder every time
. Define “volumetric efficiency” the piston moves up. Every time the piston nears
TDC, there is combustion and a resulting high pres-
sure which pushes the piston down. Only two piston
. Discuss the need for automatic compression
strokes are required to complete the cycle of engine
release
operation in the two-cycle engine. Actually, the
proper name is “two-stroke-cycle engine,” because
. Explain the differences between a two-cycle
there are two piston strokes in the cycle. The proper
engine and a four-cycle engine
name of the four-cycle engine is “four-stroke-cycle
engine,” because it takes four piston strokes to com-
. Identify correctly each type of engine
plete the cycle.
The four-cycle engine does not have ports in the
cylinder wall. Instead, this engine has two openings
at the top of the cylinder. These openings are plugged
part of the time by movable metal plugs called
valves. Figure 11-1 shows typical valves for a four-
cycle engine. These valves are operated by a cam-
shaft driven by gears in many engines. Other engines
use a chain and sprockets, as we explain later.
The valves move up and down in valve guides in
the cylinder block (or in some engines, in the cylinder
head). One of the valves operates to allow air-fuel
mixture to enter the cylinder. This is the intake valve.
The other valve operates to allow the burned gases to
escape from the cylinder. This is the exhaust valve.

TAN
 YW)
VALVE ne
7
INTAKE EXHAUST
VALVE VALVE
WATER JACKET:

CYLINDER 7
BLOCK Yy)

VALVE GUIDE

VALVE SPRING

VALVE-SPRING-RETAINER
LOCK GROOVES

SSSSSSSSSSSSASS
Ys WY
ee) WZ
OIL PASSAGE
OS

FIG. 11-1 Typical engine valves. (Chrysler Corporation) VALVE LIFTER =e

In Fig. 11-1 (and in many engines) the intake valve

is larger than the exhaust valve. The intake valve is CAMSHAFT
larger because the only pressure pushing the air-fuel
mixture into the cylinder, when the intake valve is CAM LOBE Lips
open, is atmospheric pressure. But when the exhaust
FIG. 11-2 Valve mechanism used in an L-head engine. The
valve is open, there is a much higher pressure on the valve is raised up off its seat with every camshaft rotation.
exhaust gases. Therefore, a smaller exhaust valve is
satisfactory. The space in the cylinder block or head
for valves is limited. The valve sizes and location If it is the exhaust valve that opens, then it is the
must be selected to make the engine as efficient as exhaust gases (the gases left after the air-fuel mix-
possible. ture has burned) which pass through the valve open-
ing on their way out from the engine cylinder.
©O11-2 OPERATING THE VALVES Figure 11-2 Then, as the piston continues its movement and the
shows a typical arrangement for operating a valve in crankshaft continues to rotate, the gears on the
a small engine. The valve moves up and down in a crankshaft rotate the camshaft. The lobe on the cam
valve guide which is part of the cylinder block. There moves out of the way of the valve lifter. Now the
is a valve spring that puts tension on the valve and spring on the valve forces the valve to close so the
tries to keep the valve closed or seated on the valve opening is sealed off, as shown in Fig. 11-5.
seat in the cylinder block. The valve spring is held Notice that the gear on the camshaft is twice as
between the cylinder block and a spring retainer. The large as the gear on the crankshaft. There is a reason
spring retainer is attached to the valve stem by a for this. The camshaft must rotate at half the speed of
retainer lock which fits into grooves in the valve the crankshaft. This makes the camshaft rotate only
stem. Below the valve stem is a valve lifter, or valve once for every two times the crankshaft turns. We will
tappet, as it also is called. The valve lifter moves up explain why this is necessary later.
and down in a bore, or hole, in the cylinder block.
The valve lifter rests on a cam which has one high O11-3 ENGINE OPERATION Now let us take a
spot, or lobe. The cam rotates as the crankshaft ro- closer look at the operation of the four-stroke-cycle
tates. The two are geared together. Figure 11-3 shows engine. Figures 11-6 to 11-9 illustrate these four
a gearing arrangement for a small four-cycle engine. strokes. To start with, the intake valve has been
As the camshaft rotates, the cam lobe moves around pushed up off its seat by a cam lobe on the rotating
under the valve lifter, causing it to be pushed up- camshaft as the piston is moving down. A mixture of
ward, as shown in Fig. 11-4. This upward push over- air and fuel is being taken into the cylinder, flowing
comes the valve-spring tension so that the valve is past the intake valve. This is the intake stroke, shown
raised off the valve seat. The valve is then open, and in Fig. 11-6.
gas can pass through the opening between the valve Then, as the piston passes BDC, the intake valve
seat and valve. If the valve is the intake valve, it is closes. Now the piston starts up on the compression
the air-fuel mixture from the carburetor that passes stroke, compressing the air-fuel mixture into the top
through the valve opening on its way to the cylinder. of the cylinder. This is shown in Fig. 11-7.

ee
 Iy MAIN GALLERY

AIR-OIL POCKET

TOP PORT
HOLLOW IN
CRANKPIN

CRANKSHAFT
GEAR ti HOLLOW
x0 Gl CAMSHAFT
O|

BOTTOM
ONS EEVEL PICK-UP
CAMSHAFT PORT
GEAR
FIG. 11-38 Gearing arrangement in a small four-cycle hori-
Now, as the piston moves up on the exhaust stroke,
zontal engine for driving the camshaft from the crankshatft.
This illustration also shows the flow of lubricating oil to the the burned gases in the cylinder are forced out, as
camshaft, crankshaft, and connecting-rod bearings. (Kohler shown in Fig. 11-9.
Company) As the piston nears TDC on the exhaust stroke, the
intake valve opens. Then, after TDC, the exhaust
Next, as the piston nears TDC on the compression valve closes, and the whole cycle of events is re-
stroke, an electric spark takes place at the spark peated once again. The cycle is repeated continu-
plug. This sets fire to, or ignites, the compressed ously as long as the engine runs.
air-fuel mixture. Combustion and a pressure rise re- A completely disassembled view of the engine il-
sult, forcing the piston downward on the power lustrated in Figs. 11-6 to 11-9 is shown in Fig. 11-10.
stroke. The downward push on the piston may total Study this picture and identify all the parts.
as much as 2000 pounds (1814 kg) in a small engine. Here is why the gear on the camshaft has to be
This powerful push is carried through the connecting twice as large as the gear on the crankshaft, as
rod to a crank on the engine crankshaft (Fig. 11-8). shown in Figs. 11-3 and 11-5: Each valve must open
The electric ignition system, which produces the once while the crankshaft is turning two times. This
spark at the spark plug, will be explained later. means that each valve is open for only one piston
Finally, the fourth stroke in the four-stroke cycle stroke. Since there are four piston strokes in a com-
occurs. This is the exhaust stroke. As the piston nears plete cycle, each valve is open only one-fourth of the
BDC on the power stroke, the exhaust valve opens. total running time.

VALVE

EXHAUST OR
INTAKE PORT

VALVE \, g
GUIDE ieee

SPRING —————-

SPRING
RETAINER
LOBE ON CAM

VALVE Se
LIFTER
CRANKSHAFT

TIMING MARK CAM TIMING MARKS

FIG. 11-4 As the camshaft is driven by the crankshaft, the FIG. 11-5 Further rotation of the crankshaft and camshaft
cam lobe moves up under the valve lifter, and this forces moves the lobe out from under the valve tappet, and this
the valve to move up off its seat. allows the spring to pull the valve down and reseat it.

73
 SPARK PLUG

INTAKE VALVE

PISTON

AIR-FUEL
MIXTURE CONNECTING ROD PUSH THROUGH
+ CONNECTING ROD
TO CRANK
CRANK

CRANKSHAFT

FIG. 11-6 The intake stroke of a four-cycle engine. The

intake valve has closed and the piston is moving down,
drawing the air-fuel mixture into the cylinder as shown. FIG. 11-8 Power stroke. The ignition system produces a
(Clinton Engines Corporation) spark at the spark plug that ignites the mixture. As it burns,
the high pressure created pushes the piston down. (Clinton
Engines Corporation)

O11-4 PISTON RINGS Two-cycle engines use one At the same time, some of the droplets hit the valves
or two piston rings on the piston (09-4), while the and valve tappets, permitting them to move up and
four-cycle engine uses three or more rings. The upper down easily on films of oil. The oil also covers the
rings—the compression rings—work to hold the bearings in the engine so they are adequately lubri-
pressures in the combustion chamber. Oil is mixed cated. Figure 11-3 shows the lubrication system on
with gasoline for the two-cycle engine, and this oil one small four-cycle vertical-crankshaft engine.
provides lubrication of the piston rings and piston. While the four-cycle engine is running, a lot of oil
In the small four-cycle engine, a different method of splashes on the cylinder wall—so much that the two
lubricating the cylinder wall, piston, and rings, is compression rings would pass too much of it. This oil
used. A supply of oil is kept in the bottom of the could then work up into the combustion chamber,
crankcase. This oil is splashed or pumped around so where it would be burned. The burned oil would
that droplets hit the cylinder wall and keep it oiled. leave carbon deposits that would soon clog the

EXHAUST

EXHAUST
GAS

FIG. 11-9 Exhaust stroke. The exhaust valve has opened

FIG. 11-7 Compression stroke. Both valves are closed, and and the piston is moving upward, forcing the burned gases
the piston is moving upward, compressing the mixture. from the cylinder, as shown by the arrows. (Clinton Engines
(Clinton Engines Corporation) Corporation)

74
 . ARM—GOVERNOR THROTTLE—USED ON TYPE B 16. PISTON—STANDARD
. ARM AND WEIGHT ASSEMBLY—GOVERNOR Wee PLATE—BAFFLE, CRANKCASE
. BASE—ENGINE 18. PLATE—NAME, CLINTON ENGINES
. BEARING—MAIN (1-BEARING PLATE, 1-BLOCK) 19. PLATE—BEARING
BEARING—SHAFT, GOVERNOR THROTTLE 20. RETAINER—VALVE SPRING
. BLOCK ASSEMBLY—CYLINDER 2i\e RING SET—STANDARD (3/16 OIL RING)
. BREATHER ASSEMBLY 22. ROD ASSEMBLY—CONNECTING
. CAM—BREAKER POINTS 23. SEAL—OIL (BEARING PLATE)
OMNOANRWN=
. CAMSHAFT 24. SEAL—OIL (CYLINDER BLOCK)
10. COLLAR ASEMBLY—GOVERNOR 20; SEAT—BREATHER
11. COVER—DUST, BREAKER POINTS 26. SPRING—BACKLASH, GOVERNOR
12. DEFLECTOR—AIR Pal SPRING—BREATHER HOLD DOWN
13. DISC-BREATHER 28. SPRING VALVE
14. DISTRIBUTOR—OIL AAS). TAPPET—VALVE
15. PIN—WRIST
FIG. 11-10 Exploded view of a typical single-cylinder four-
cycle air-cooled engine. Only the main parts are identified.
(Clinton Engines Corporation)

75
 COMPRESSION The reason for this is that the air-fuel mixture has
RINGS
inertia. It tends to keep on flowing after it once starts
through the carburetor and into the engine cylinder.
The momentum of the mixture then keeps it flowing
OIL-
into the cylinder even though the piston has started
CONTROL up on the compression stroke. This packs more air-
RING fuel mixture into the cylinder and results in a stronger
power stroke. Volumetric efficiency (explained in
Chap. 14) is improved.
For a somewhat similar reason, the exhaust valve
FIG. 11-11 A piston for a four-cycle engine. Note that it has opens before the piston reaches BDC on the power
three rings: two compression rings and one oil-control ring. stroke. As the piston nears BDC, most of the push on
the piston has ended. No power is lost by opening the
valves and spark plug, preventing them from working exhaust valve toward the end of the power stroke.
properly. The engine would begin to lose power. Soon This gives the exhaust gases additional time to start
it might stop working altogether. To prevent this, the leaving the cylinder so that exhaust is under way by
piston on four-cycle engines is equipped with a third the time the piston passes BDC and starts up on the
ring, called the oil-control ring, as shown in Fig. 11- exhaust stroke. The exhaust valve then stays open for
11. Its purpose is to scrape excess oil off the cylinder several degrees of crankshaft rotation after the piston
walls on every downstroke of the piston. The oil drops has passed TDC and the intake stroke has started.
back down into the crankcase instead of working its This makes good use of the momentum of the exhaust
way up into the combustion chamber. gases. They are moving rapidly toward the exhaust
port. Leaving the exhaust valve open for a few de-
©O11-5 ENGINE BEARINGS The various kinds of grees after the intake stroke starts gives the exhaust
bearings used in small engines are described in gases some additional time to leave the cylinder.
O 9-7. You will find both the sliding and rolling types This allows more air-fuel mixture to enter on the in-
of bearings in small four-cycle engines. We will de- take stroke so that a stronger power stroke results.
scribe the method of lubricating bearings and the Volumetric efficiency is improved.
other moving parts in the engine in Chap. 15. Actual timing of the valves varies with different
O11-6 FLYWHEELS Four-cycle engines require four-cycle engines. A typical example for a small
flywheels, which were described in O 10-4. Flywheels engine is shown in Fig. 11-12. The intake valve opens
keep the engine running more smoothly. In small 15 degrees of crankshaft rotation before TDC on the
engines, they also may carry the magnets that are exhaust stroke, and it stays open until 50 degrees of
part of the magneto ignition system and part of the
alternator that produces current to charge the battery. 15° 15° EXHAUST
We will discuss these devices in following chapters. INTAKE VALVE
VALVE ——+\ CLOSES
©l11-7 VALVE TIMING The valves open and close, OPENS \
not at TDC or at BDC, but sometime before or after the
piston reaches the upper or lower limit of travel.
There is a reason for this. The intake valve normally 3)
opens several degrees of crankshaft rotation before z A
A >
TDC on the exhaust stroke. That is before the exhaust % O
stroke is finished. This gives the valve enough time to ra RK
reach the fully open position before the intake stroke ” m

2)
begins. Then, when the intake stroke starts, the in- 4
take valve is already wide open and air-fuel mixture se
w7 EXHAUST
can start to enter the cylinder immediately. The in- INTAKE §y VALVE
take valve remains open for several degrees of VALVE OPENS
crankshaft rotation after the piston has passed BDC
CLOSES i
at the end of the intake stroke. This allows additional
time for the air-fuel mixture to continue to flow into 50°
the cylinder. The fact that the piston has already
passed BDC and is moving up on the compression
stroke while the intake valve is still open does not FIG. 11-12 Intake- and exhaust-valve timing in a typical
small engine. The complete cycle of events is shown as a
affect the movement of air-fuel mixture into the cylin-
720-degree spiral, which represents two complete crank-
der. Actually, air-fuel mixture is still flowing in as the shaft revolutions. The timing of valves differs for different
intake valve starts to close. engines.

76
crankshaft rotation after BDC on the compression the valve tappet, the valve tappet can come all the
stroke. The exhaust valve opens 50 degrees before way down. This allows the exhaust valve to close
BDC on the power stroke and stays open 15 degrees completely. Engine operation continues in a normal
after TDC on the intake stroke. This gives the two manner as long as the engine speed is maintained.
valves an overlap of 30 degrees at the end of the However, if the engine is stopped, then the springs
exhaust stroke and beginning of the compression will cause the flyweights to move into the starting
stroke. position, as shown to the left in Fig. 11-13, in readi-
ness for another starting cycle.
©O11-8 AUTOMATIC COMPRESSION RELEASE
Cranking an engine is sometimes difficult. To pull the O11-9 I-HEAD ENGINE The type of engine de-
engine through the compression stroke requires some scribed above and shown in Figs. 11-2 to 11-10 is
effort, either muscle power or starting-motor power. called an L-head engine. The cylinder and combus-
One way to reduce this effort is to partly release the tion chamber form the shape of an inverted L. Most
compression pressure during cranking. One method small four-cycle engines are of this type. They have
of doing this is shown in Fig. 11-13. The mechanism the valves located in the cylinder block. Some small
consists of a pair of flyweights on the camshaft drive four-cycle engines and almost all automotive engines
gear. When the engine is not running, the flyweights are of the I-head, or overhead-valve, type. In this type
are held in their inner position by springs, as shown of engine, the valves are located overhead, in the
to the left in Fig. 11-13. In this position, a tang on the cylinder head. Figure 11-14 shows a cutaway view of
end of one of the flyweights has moved out of a notch this type of engine. Figure 11-15 shows the essential
in the base circle of the exhaust cam, as shown to the parts required to operate the valves. The I-head en-
lower left. When the engine is cranked for starting, gine requires two more parts per valve than the L-
this tang prevents the exhaust valve from closing head engine: push rods and rocker arms. The rocker
completely. Every time the base circle of the cam arms are held in place on a shaft, or on ball studs.
comes around under the valve tappet of the exhaust With either arrangement, the rocker arms are free to
valve, it prevents the tappet from moving all the way
down. With the exhaust valve held partly open, some
of the compression pressure is relieved.
After the engine starts and engine speed increases,
centrifugal force acting on the two flyweights forces
them to move out into the running position, as shown
to the right in Fig. 11-13. This movement allows the
My
tang on the end of one of the flyweights to move into
the notch in the base circle of the cam, as shown to
the lower right in Fig. 11-13. When the base circle of Sty
a
7

the cam for the exhaust valve comes around under

EXHAUST VALVE EXHAUST VALVE

yes) |
HELD PARTLY OPEN CLOSED

FLY-
WEIGHTS

TANG OUT TANG IN i.

FLY-
WEIGHTS

CRA IPS
STARTING RUNNING
POSITION POSITION
FIG. 11-13 Operation of the automatic compression re- FIG. 11-14 Partial cutaway view of a four-cylinder in-line
lease. (Kohler Company) overhead-valve engine.

dl
 ROCKER ARM We described how the two-cycle engine works in
Chap. 9.
You might think that because the two-cycle engine
has twice as many power strokes as a four-cycle en-
gine (Fig. 11-16), it would produce twice as much
horsepower as a four-cycle engine of the same size,
running at the same speed. However, this is not true.
PISTON
In the two-cycle engine, when the intake and exhaust
a= =
ports have been cleared by the piston, there is always
iw ae some mixing of the fresh charge and the burned
gases. Not all the burned gases get out, and this
prevents a larger fresh charge from entering. There-
fore, the power stroke that follows is not as powerful
as it could be if all the burned gases were exhausted
and a full charge of air-fuel mixture entered. In the
four-cycle engine, nearly all the burned gases are
forced from the combustion chamber by the upward-
moving piston. A comparatively full charge of air-fuel
mixture can enter, because a complete piston stroke
is devoted to the intake of the mixture. This contrasts
CRANKSHAFT
with only part of a stroke on the two-cycle engine.
Therefore, the power stroke in the four-cycle engine
FIG. 11-15 Valve-operating mechanism for an I-head, or produces more power.
overhead-valve, engine.

O 11-11 THE CRANKSHAFT OPERATING POSITION

rock up and down. When the cam lobe moves around
We have discussed various classifications of small
under the valve lifter, the lifter is raised and this
engines: two-cycle and four-cycle, I-head and L-head,
pushes up on the push rod. The push rod causes the
air-cooled and water-cooled. Small two-cycle engines
rocker arm to rock so that the rocker arm pushes down
can be classified in another way. This is by the oper-
on the end of the valve stem. As a result, the valve is
ating position of the crankshaft. There are three basic
pushed down off the valve seat and the valve opens.
crankshaft positions:
This type of engine often is called a push-rod engine.
Most small engines are of the L-head type, because
1. Vertical position, as shown in Fig. 9-21
they are simpler in construction and easier to service.
However, there are some small engines with the 2. Horizontal position, as shown in Fig. 11-17
valves in the cylinder head.
3. Multiple positions, as required with a chain saw
(Fig. 11-18)
O11-10 A COMPARISON OF TWO-CYCLE AND
FOUR-CYCLE ENGINES It takes two revolutions of
the crankshaft to complete the four strokes in a four- ©1112 “HOW “TO. TELL" A TWO:CYCLE, FROMan
stroke-cycle engine. For the first half revolution, or for FOUR-CYCLE ENGINE The small-engine me-
180 degrees, the piston is moving down on the intake chanic can usually tell at a glance whether an air-
stroke. For the next half revolution, the piston is mov- cooled engine is of the two-cycle or four-cycle type.
ing up on the compression stroke. For the third half The four-cycle engine has an oil sump and an oil-
revolution of the crankshaft, the piston is moving filler plug. The two-cycle engine does not. The four-
down on the power stroke. For the fourth half revolu- cycle engine requires oil drains and refills periodic-
tion, the piston is moving up on the exhaust stroke. ally, just as automobiles do. In the two-cycle engine,
Figures 11-6 to 11-9 show these four strokes. the oil is added to the gasoline so that a mixture of
Most larger internal-combustion engines and prac- gasoline and oil enters the crankcase with the air.
tically all automotive engines are of the four-stroke- Another distinguishing feature is that in the four-
cycle type. Every fourth piston stroke in each cylinder cycle engine, the muffler is installed at the head end
is a power stroke. of the cylinder close to the exhaust-valve location.
In the two-stroke-cycle engine, a power stroke oc- You can see the muffler location in Fig. 11-17. The
curs every two piston strokes. Every downward muffler on the two-cycle engine is installed toward
movement of the piston is a power stroke. In effect, the middle of the cylinder, at the exhaust-port loca-
the intake and compression strokes are combined. tion. Notice the location of the muffler on the power-
Also, the power and exhaust strokes are combined. lawn-mower engine shown in Fig. 9-21.

78
 EXHAUST
PORT
ADMISSION OF
AIR-FUEL MIXTURE

INTAKE
PORT

TRANSFER
PORT DOWN STROKE

UP STROKE
COMPRESSION OF
AIR-FUEL MIXTURE
IN CRANKCASE
AIR-FUEL MIXTURE
COMPRESSION DISCHARGED
INTO CYLINDER
EXHAUST

TWO STROKES—ONE REVOLUTION

ADMISSION OF
AIR-FUEL MIXTURE co neseicn EXHAUST

INTAKE VALVE EXHAUST VALVE BOTH VALVES BOTH VALVES

Se
INTAKE VALVE
EXHAUST VALVE
OPEN J ICLOSED CLOSED CLOSED CLOSED
O

INTAKE
PORT

CYLINDER
PISTON
CONNECTING
ROD
STROKE
CRANKSHAFT

FOUR STROKES—TWO REVOLUTIONS

FIG. 11-16 Comparison of two-stroke-cycle and four-stroke-cycle en-

gines. The two-stroke-cycle engine is of the piston-port type. The
four-stroke-cycle engine is of the I-head type.

79
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
AIR
CLEANER ie Explain the basic differences between the two-
cycle and the four-cycle engine.

Explain how the valves in the four-cycle engine

are operated.

Why must the camshaft revolve only half as

fast as the crankshaft?

What are the four strokes in the four-cycle en-

gine? Explain what happens during each
stroke.

Why must the four-cycle engine have an extra

HORIZONTAL piston ring?
CRANKSHAFT PLUG
What is meant by valve timing? Describe the
timing of the valves in a typical engine.

Why does the intake valve stay open after the

piston passes BDC?

Explain the purpose of the automatic compres-

sion release and how it works.

Explain the differences between the L-head and

the I-head engine.

10. What are the three basic operating positions of

FIG. 11-17 Some small engines have a horizontal crank-
shaft such as this one used in a riding mower.
the crankshaft in small engines?

Le Explain the various ways you can tell a two-

cycle engine from a four-cycle engine.

SELF PROJECTS

Ie Locate a cylinder block with the head removed.

Take a pencil and a sheet of paper and sketch
the outline of the top of the block. Then draw a
big circle to represent the cylinder. Next, exam-
ine the holes in the blocks for threads. Threaded
holes are for the cylinder-head bolts. Note how
four or five bolt holes are spaced around the
cylinder so the gasket can be evenly compressed
to seal the combustion chamber when the bolts
are tightened. Then locate and mark on your
drawing the positions of any dowels that are
used to align the head during installation.

Go through this same procedure with several

different engines and add the pages to your
notebook. Be sure to note on each drawing the
make, model number, and year the engine was
made. Follow this procedure, and soon you will
be able to tell instantly what each hole is in any
FIG. 11-18 A chain saw must be used in many different engine block or head. And you will know many
positions. (Homelite Division of Textron, Inc.) important facts about the engines.

80
 12
Chapter
Small-Four-Cycle-
Engine Construction

012-1 CYLINDER BLOCK In the four-cycle en-

gine, the head and cylinder are always separate, as
shown in Fig. 12-1. If there is more than one cylinder
in the engine and if the cylinders are all in one piece,
After studying this chapter, you should be or casting, that part is called the cylinder block. For
able to: example, the engine shown partly disassembled in
Fig. 12-2 has two cylinders in one casting. This part is
1. Describe the different valve arrangements called the cylinder block. The two cylinders are side
used in four-cycle engines by side and parallel, or in a single row. When the
cylinders line up this way, the engine is called an
2. Explain why the camshaft turns at one-half in-line engine.
crankshaft speed The cylinder block shown in Fig. 12-3 is for a four-
cylinder in-line outboard engine. The four cylinders
3. Define ‘‘cylinder block” are lined up in a single row. In this engine, the valves
are installed overhead, or in the cylinder head, as
shown in Fig. 12-4. The lack of fins on the cylinder
block and head tells us that the engine is water-
cooled.
In some V-type engines, each cylinder is separate,
as shown in Fig. 12-5. In other engines, the two cylin-
ders on each bank are cast together. However, many
V-type engines use only one cylinder head for each
bank of cylinders. The engine shown in Fig. 12-5 has
overhead valves.
Figure 12-6 shows an opposed-piston two-cylinder
four-cycle engine. This also is called a flat, or pan-
cake, engine. Notice that the engine shown in
Fig. 12-6 is an L-head engine. It has the valves lo-
cated in the cylinder block.

©12-2 CRANKSHAFT In single-cylinder engines,

particularly high-speed engines, the crankshaft may
be a built-up part. Figure 10-9 shows a crankshaft of
this type in a disassembled view. Figure 12-7 shows
the crankshaft assembled. The two round plates form
the flywheel and counterweights for the crankshaft.
Multiple-cylinder engines also may use a built-up
crankshatt.
Many small engines use a built-up crankshaft of
the type just described. However, most small engines

81
 CYLINDER HEAD block as shown in Fig. 12-6. This type of engine also
is called a side-valve engine, because the valves are
along the side of the cylinder. The valve train for an
L-head engine is shown in Fig. 12-10.
The overhead-valve, or I-head, engine has addi-
tional parts to operate the valves, as described in
O11-9. These parts include the push rods, rocker
arms, and the supports for the rocker arms. The sup-
port often is a shaft on which the arms can rock, such
as shown in Fig. 12-5. Instead of a shaft, many en-
gines use ball joints on which the rocker arms mount
and pivot, as shown in Fig. 12-11.
The valves do not actually have to be up “over-
head” in the I-head engine. In some engines, the
cylinder may be horizontal or at an angle from the
vertical. Many small engines have their cylinders
inclined in this way. Figure 12-5 shows the arrange-
ment for a Wisconsin engine. Note that two separate
rocker-arm shafts are required, one on each head. In
each cylinder, the two push rods are parallel to each
other. In many engines the exhaust valve is smaller
than the intake valve. The intake valve usually is
larger, because the only pressure pushing the air-fuel
CRANKSHAFT mixture into the cylinder when the intake valve is
open is atmospheric pressure. But when the exhaust
valve is open, there is considerably greater pressure
on the exhaust gases. Therefore, a smaller exhaust
valve is satisfactory.
Engines with overhead valves using push rods are
ENGINE BASE often called push-rod engines. There is another type
of overhead-valve engine which does not use push
FIG. 12-1 Disassembled view of a one-cylinder four-cycle rods. The camshaft is mounted overhead also. Figure
engine. The head and cylinder block are separate parts. 12-4 shows an engine of this type.
(Clinton Engines Corporation) Figure 12-5 is a cutaway view of a four-cylinder
V-type push-rod engine. The general construction can
be seen from the illustration. The valve lifter is a
used in lawn mowers and similar equipment have a tappet which rides on the camshaft cam. The push
one-piece crankshaft such as shown in Fig. 12-8. rods are enclosed in hollow tubes. Oil is sent to the
Many high-speed engines of the type used in mo- cylinder head from the oil pump. The oil lubricates
torcycles have a built-up crankshaft. These engines the upper end of the push rod, the rocker-arm shafts,
are usually equipped with ball and roller-type bear- and the valve stems. The oil then flows down to the
ings for low friction and high engine performance oil sump at the bottom of the engine.
(see O 9-7),
Other multiple-cylinder engines use a single-piece ©O12-4 OVERHEAD CAMSHAFT ENGINES In
crankshaft, such as shown in Fig. 12-9. Here we show many high-performance motorcycle and outboard en-
the single-piece crankshaft for a small four-cylinder gines, the camshaft is mounted in bearings in the
in-line engine. The main bearings and main-bearing cylinder head (Fig. 12-4). This eliminates the need for
caps also are shown. This crankshaft is very similar push rods. Also, in some engines, the cams work
to the crankshaft used in the typical small automobile directly on the valve lifters or cam followers which
engine. Figure 12-5 is a cutaway view of a four- are positioned under the valve stems (Fig. 12-4). This
cylinder air-cooled engine using a one-piece crank- eliminates the need for rocker arms. With these parts
shaft such as shown in Fig. 12-9. eliminated, the engine is more flexible. The valves
respond more quickly. Higher engine speeds are pos-
©12-3 VALVE ARRANGEMENTS Small four-cycle sible because there are fewer parts to move. The
engines use various valve arrangements, including inertia of the valve train is reduced, and there is less
the L-head and the I-head, or overhead-valve, types. bending in the valve train.
The L-head engine has the valves in the cylinder Many modern automotive and motorcycle engines

82
 CYLINDER
HEAD

INTAKE
VALVE

EXHAUST
VALVE

CYLINDER
BLOCK
VALVE-
SEAT
INSERT
STUD
HEAD
BOLT
HOLE
COVER
GASKET

COVER
PLATE

: Ss

VALVE ROTATOR GE on
\\
SPRING SUPPORT PIN

RETAINER WASHER
LOCKS
FIG. 12-2 Disassembled view of a two-cylinder in-line
four-cycle engine. (Wisconsin Motor Corporation)

are of the overhead camshaft type. An engine with a up on the exhaust stroke, the burned gases are
single overhead camshaft in the head is called a pushed out of the cylinder.
single-overhead-camshaft (or SOHC) engine. Figure
12-4 shows an engine with a single overhead cam- O12-5 GEAR AND CHAIN DRIVES FOR CAM-
shaft. If the engine has two camshafts in the head, it SHAFTS Inmany small engines, gears are used to
is called a double-overhead-camshaft (DOHC) en- drive the camshaft, as shown in Figs. 12-1, 12-4, 12-5,
gine. Usually the “shaft” is dropped, and so the terms and elsewhere in the book. Overhead camshaft en-
become “single-overhead-cam engine” and “double- gines can use sprockets and chain or belt to drive the
overhead-cam engine.” camshaft. The end result is the same, however. The
To improve the “breathing” of the engine, some camshaft is driven at half the speed of the crankshaft.
engines have more than two valves for the cylinder. This is because the crankshaft gear or sprocket has
By “breathing” we mean this: When you breathe, your only half the number of teeth as the camshaft gear or
lungs draw in air and then push it out. The engine sprocket.
does something similar. When the piston moves There is one difference worth noting, however.
down on the intake stroke, the air-fuel mixture is With gears, the camshaft turns in the opposite direc-
drawn into the cylinder. Then, when the piston moves tion of the crankshaft. This is because two gears in

83
 ) qa
re ty el

ro,\\
Pl
49

a Ni. |y
|

\
4 Q i@
eS
(Sr ral

i
48

ren
CA

34

35

36
29
37
28
38
18
39

. gasket—cylinder block . cap—rear main bearing . cap—front main bearing . oil-pump assembly
. O ring—crankcase studs, main caps . seal—bearing and seal caps . cap—front seal . screw
. stud—cylinder . washer—bearing and seal caps . Spring—crankshaft gear . washer—flat
ring—piston pin retaining . screw—socket hd. . gear—drive, oil pump . gasket—oil pump
pin—piston . nut—hexhead, elastic stop . spacer—drive gear (oil pump) . tower shaft assembly
ring—piston—compression . washer—bearing cap . crankshaft . bushing—lower tower shaft
ring— piston—oil . connecting rod assembly . gear assembly —crankshaft . stud—crankcase to block
MRON
DWNP
. expander—oil ring . bushing . spacer—crankshaft gear . plug—Welch
. piston . screw . bearing—gear thrust . sleeve—dowel
. crankcase assembly . bearing—connecting rod (2 piece) . seal—oil (thrust bearing) . washer
. plug—pipe oil tubes . cap—center main bearing . O ring—bearing retainer . nut
. seal—oil . bearing—center main (2 piece) . retainer—thrust bearing
13. bearing—rear main (flywheel end) 26. bearing—front main . screw

FIG. 12-38 Crankshaft, cylinder block, and related parts for

a four-cylinder four-cycle outboard engine. (Homelite Divi-
S10. n of Textron, Inc.)

84
 ©

GB (r
y
.

cylinder-block assembly 16. screw

bushing—upper tower shaft 17. fuel-pump assembly
pin—dowel, camshaft bearing 18. gasket—fuel pump
guide—valve 19. line—fuel, pump to coupling nipple 30. key —distributor drive . locator—thrust washer
Welch plug 20. gasket—camshaft cover 31. O ring—distributor key . nut—hex, elastic stop
tower shaft 21. roto-cap—valve (exhaust only) 32. screw . washer—flat
valve exhaust 21A. spacer-valve (intake only) 33. cover—camshaft . gasket—cover stud
eSvalve— intake
OO 22. O ring—intake valve 34. camshaft . stud—camshaft cover
© line — water tell-tale 23. cap—O ring retainer (intake only) 35. pin—dowel 45, nut—hex, gear to camshaft
10. clamp 24. spring-valve 36. bearing assembly —center camshaft 46. lockwasher
TT: elbow — water line 25. retainer—valve spring (two pieces) 47. gear—camshatt
12. fitting—tfuel strainer 26. lock—valve spring retainer (halves) 37. bearing assembly —camshaft (tower 48. spacer—camshaft thrust
13. fuel strainer assembly 27. spacer—cam follower shaft end) 49. elbow — oil metering
14, line—fuel, pump to strainer 28. cam follower 38. pin 50. adjuster—tower shaft
15, nipple—pump outlet 29. bearing —camshaft (distributor end) 39. key — Woodruff Si: gear—upper tower shaft

FIG. 12-4 Partly disassembled view of engine showing fuel

pump, camshaft, valves, and related parts. (Homelite Divi-
sion of Textron, Inc.)

85
 CARBURETOR

THROTTLE-RETURN
ANTI-DIESELING SPRING
SOLENOID
: aNs
ef \ GOVERNOR
. > WW \ ADJUSTING SCREW
. ARAN
= EG NaN
FLYWHEEL la ‘|
AIRSHROUD = ¢f H S
Se! )ae
THROTTLE
LEVER
GOVERNOR

CAMSHAFT AQ
eR ee 1
ea
PLUNGER Grrr,
ACZZZIZTIT,
(pacer || ey
i FUEL PUMP

a iiae
Me
LAY An LA (mI Eanes
OIL SLINGER (=, legipeja Hel
El
MAIN BEARING \i “a
lf ‘mn ¢ AN\} —]

N
as CAMSHAFT
7 71
TLE LELLL SG
IDLER GEAR YSTTTIH Rie
at @ Ha
< e

MAIN BEARING
HAND CRANK

FAN-FLYWHEEL OIL PUMP

FIG. 12-5 An air-cooled V-4 type of four-cycle engine (left) in side
sectional view, and (right, next page) in end sectional view. (Teledyne
Wisconsin Motor)

mesh turn in opposite directions, as shown in be designed to move closer to the cylinder head on
Fig. 12-12. However, two sprockets driven by a chain the compression stroke.
or belts both turn in the same direction, as shown in
Fig. 12-13. This difference in rotation requires two REVIEW QUESTIONS
different camshaft arrangements. The cam lobes
must be located differently for the two types of drive. Ne What are the three types of valve trains?
Timing chains and belts usually have some form of 2. How many cams are there on the camshaft for a
tensioner. The tensioner is either a slide of some sort two-cylinder engine?
or a spring-loaded idler sprocket. The purpose of the
tensioner is to take up all looseness in the chain. This . What are three types of camshaft drives?
prevents erratic valve action and minimizes noise.
. How many times does the crankshaft turn while
©12-6 PISTONS Many piston heads have a com- the camshaft turns once?
plex shape. Look at Figs. 2-4 and 12-14. Notches or . Which is larger, the intake valve or the exhaust
recesses have been cut out of the piston head shown valve? Why?
in Fig. 12-14 to provide room for the valve heads. The
notches prevent the piston from striking the valves as . Which valve runs hotter, the intake valve or the
the piston approaches TDC. Therefore, the piston can exhaust valve?

86
PRE-CLEANER

OIL-BATH-AIR CLEANER EXHAUST MUFFLER

EXHAUST VALVE

TAPPET
ADJUSTING GASOLINE STRAINER

OIL FILLER AND

BREATHER CAP

VALVE HIGH=
ROTATOR TEMPERATURE
SAFETY SWITCH

SPARK PLUG

OIL
DIPSTICK

STARTING SOLENOID
3) L lo y Y)
= y XS
J 4 WA
Lu PC GJ
M y Y—
pee iors PIS IDLER SHAFT
ue 4 (Zire
LO LOCK-SCREW
STARTING MOTOR
\ SEN
OIL-PRESSURE-
RELIEF VALVE

OIL FILTER

CENTER
MAIN
OIL DRAIN PLUG BEARING

7. How is the ball-pivot rocker arm adjusted? the eccentric that operates the fuel pump. Take a
sheet of paper and, starting at the top, write down
8. How is the spring attached to the end of the
the make and model of engine from which the cam-
valve stem?
shaft came. Then start at the front of the camshaft
9. Explain the advantages of the overhead- and identify each cam. Many camshafts will start
camshaft engine. with the cam for cylinder number | exhaust valve.
So write down “1E” to start the column under the
10. What do SOHC and DOHC mean?
line where you wrote in the engine make and
model.
SELF PROJECT
You may be in for a surprise. For example, if you
The valve train is only as good as the camshaft that are checking the camshaft from a V-type engine,
operates it. So examine camshafts. Count the you may find that the second cam is for the exhaust
number of lobes. If there is one more than the en- valve for cylinder number 2. On some V-type en-
gine has valves, check the contours until you locate gines, the cams interlace like the fingers on your

87
 CLEANER

MUFFLER
OIL FILLER TUBE

Y L a y

F
i. i
o— Hl WanedSSss Hes
: H' / LL
i eee a ts

oy
LZ p

fa re
=

eo
<LeU bby,

EES
< JEN

woot
poe \
ae SSS - SSAA Sw [ames |

sa 2 | ga IL Jee |AEN
He
aaa
CYLINDER cae
NI
ma
Like

Ame,
ne. aan YL

CONNECTING |
ROD g

RUSS FIG. 12-8 One-piece crankshaft (top) for a one-cylinder

FIG. 12-7 An assembled built-up crankshaft for a single- engine and (bottom) for a two-cylinder engine. (Kohler Com-
cylinder four-cycle engine. (Honda Motor Company, Ltd.) pany)

88
 MAIN BEARING

THRUST BEARING SELF-LOCKING

ADJUSTING NUT

Ui, S neti ROCKER

MAIN BEARING SPRING
ARMPIVOT
RETAINER STUD

VALVE
SPRING

OIL SEAL
(INTAKE VALVE PUSH
ONLY) ROD

CAP BOLT MAIN-BEARING CAP

FIG. 12-9 A one-piece crankshaft for an in-line four- FIG. 12-11 Overhead-valve train for a small engine. (Onan
cylinder four-cycle engine. (The J. 1. Case Company) Corporation)

VALVE
CAMSHAFT

eee STARTER

vauve BEATING
VALVE SEAT CAMSHAFT

VALVE SPRING

Z VALVE-SPRING
WASHER

HORSESHOE
KEY
Hy) On TAPPET

VALVE SEAT

CAMSHAFT y Oe erin
setts GEAR KEY
SPRING
VALVE-
SPRING TAPPET yy,
WASHER
HORSESHOE
KEY OIL
PUMP

Qa sa
CAMSHAFT
BEARING
CLOSED END

FIG. 12-10 Complete valve train for a one-cylinder L-head

engine. (Cushman Motors Division of Outboard Marine Cor-
poration)

89
 CAMSHAFT
GEAR TOP COMPRESSION RING

SECOND COMPRESSION RING

OIL-CONTROL RING

PISTON

(@yatake PISTON-PIN LOCK

CAMSHAFT

VALVE RECESS

CRANKSHAFT FIG. 12-14 Set of rings for one piston in a four-cycle engine.
(Honda Motor Company, Ltd.)

two hands when you interlock your fingers. Con-

CRANKSHAFT tinue your examination until you have identified all
GEAR the cams and have completed the column. Prepare
additional cam sheets until you can look at an
engine and camshaft and identify all the cams. File
the cam sheets in your notebook.

FIG. 12-13 Ina sprocket-and-chain drive, the two sprockets

turn in the same direction.

90
Wankel Engines

O 13-1 WANKEL APPLICATIONS Most Wankel en-

gines have been used in automobiles. However, a
snowmobile has been built with a Wankel engine in
it. The installation is shown in Fig. 13-1. Figure 13-2
After studying this chapter, you should be shows in cutaway view a two-rotor Wankel engine
able to: installed as a stern-drive engine in a boat. Suzuki,
Yamaha, and Hercules, each a manufacturer of mo-
1. Explain what a Wankel engine is torcycles, have sold or shown models with Wankel
engines in them.
2. List the differences in construction between Toyo Kogyo calls the Wankel engine the Mazda
a Wankel engine and a piston engine rotary. The Wankel engine also is known as a rotary
combustion (RC) engine because of the way the com-
3. Describe the actions of the rotor as it re- bustion chambers rotate. Suzuki called their motorcy-
volves cle a rotary engine (RE) model.
There is a basic difference between the piston en-
4. Define “two-rotor Wankel engine” gine and the Wankel type of rotary engine. (There are
other types of rotary engines, such as the gas-turbine
engine.) In the piston engine, pistons move up and
down, or reciprocate, in the cylinder. In the Wankel
engine, a rotor spins in a fat figure-eight-shaped
cylinder. The rotor does not reciprocate. It rotates.

© 13-2 WANKEL-ENGINE CONSTRUCTION Fig-

ure 13-2 is a cutaway view of a two-rotor Wankel
engine, with an attached stern-drive unit. Since both
rotors work the same way, we will concentrate on the
actions of a single rotor.
The rotor is enclosed on its two sides by flat hous-
ings. The rotor housing in which the rotor turns is
shaped somewhat like a very fat figure eight, as
shown in Fig. 13-3. This shape is called an epitro-
choid curve. The rotor has three lobes, or apexes, as
shown in Fig. 13-4, and turns in the rotor housing. The
rotor is sealed on its two sides to the two flat side
housings. Figure 13-5 shows how the rotor fits into the
rotor housing. The seals on the tips of each lobe are
in contact with the inner face of the rotor housing. The
rotor rotates in an eccentric pattern in the housing, as
shown in Fig. 13-6. As the rotor turns, each of the
three rotor lobes follows the curve of the rotor hous-

SH
 EXHAUST PORT
EPITROCHOID
fi : CURVE O

Ne Fe aie SS

sss
5 0 Cas
eS) Ces
==; \
Yp
}
O
ene
O .
FIG. 13-1 A Wankel rotary-combustion engine mounted ina
snowmobile. (Outboard Marine Corporation)

COOLING FINS
FIG. 13-3 Rotor housing. (Yanmar Diesel Engine Company,
Ltd.)

SCHLENZIC

FIG. 13-2 A two-rotor Wankel engine com-

bined with a stern drive unit to power a
boat. (NSU)

92
 APEX-SEAL GROOVE
CORNER-SEAL
GROOVE
COMBUSTION SIDE-SEAL
CHAMBER GROOVES

OIL-SEAL
GROOVES
INTERNAL
GEAR

ROTOR
BEARING

FIG. 13-4 Rotor for Mazda Wankel engine. (Toyo Kogyo

Company, Lid.)

ing. In other words, each of the seals on the lobes fits

tightly against the inner face of the housing, provid-
ing a tight seal. This produces three separate cham-
bers sealed from one another. These chambers in-
crease and decrease in volume, as shown in Fig. 13-6.
This is like the volume in the cylinder of a reciprocat-
ing engine, increasing and decreasing as the piston
moves down and up.
The two sides of the rotor are enclosed and sealed
by two flat-faced side housings. The front housing FIG. 13-6 The rotor rotates eccentrically, and so the three
encloses one side of the rotor, and the rear housing apexes are always in sliding contact with the inner face of
encloses the other side. Figure 13-7 shows the front the rotor housing. (Toyo Kogyo Company, Ltd.)
housing. The rear housing is similar. Seals in the
sides of the rotor provide a good seal between the housings in Fig. 13-5 and 13-7. These holes are for
rotor and the housing. coolant circulation and are part of the engine cooling
If the engine has two rotors, an intermediate hous- system.
ing is provided between the rotors, as shown in
Fig. 13-2. Figure 13-8 shows how the side housings O 13-3 WANKEL-ENGINE OPERATION _ Figure 13-9
stack up in one-rotor and two-rotor Wankel engines. shows the complete series of actions that occur dur-
Notice the holes around the outer edges of all these ing one revolution of the rotor. There are four stages

STATIONARY-
GEAR BORE
INTAKE
EXHAUST PORT

BOLT
HOLES

COOLANT
HOLES
FIG. 13-7 Front side housing. Note the large holes around
the outer edge for coolant flow. Note the intake port to the
right of the stationary gear bore. The small round holes are
FIG. 13-5 How the rotor fits into the rotor housing. bolt holes. (Toyo Kogyo Company, Ltd.)

93
 ONE-ROTOR TWO-ROTOR and the housing continues to increase. See 3 in (c)
WANKEL ENGINE WANKEL ENGINE
and 4 in(d). When the rotor reaches the point shown
in (d), the trailing lobe passes the intake port. Now
the mixture is sealed between the two lobes of the
F rotor, as shown at 5 in (e).
Now let us follow the mixture as the rotor continues
to turn. Look at (f). Here the mixture, shown at 6 in/(f),
REAR HOUSING is starting to be compressed. The compression con-
INTERMEDIATE
tinues through 7 in (a). At 8 in (b), the mixture is
HOUSING nearing maximum compression. This is the same as
FRONT the piston approaching TDC on the compression
HOUSING HOUSING FRONT ROTOR HOUSING stroke.
ROTOR HOUSING
HOUSING Next combustion takes place. At 9 in (c), the spark
FIG. 13-8 How the side and rotor housing stack up in a plugs fire and the compressed mixture is ignited.
one-rotor and a two-rotor Wankel engine. (Toyo Kogyo Com- Now the hot gases push against the rotor and turn it
pany, Ltd.) farther around, as shown in 10 in(d). The hot gases
continue to expand, as shown at 11 in(e) and 12 in/(f).
in the action cycle. Let us start at (a) in the upper This is the same as the power stroke in the piston
center of Fig. 13-9. Here the rotor has moved around engine.
so that one of the rotor lobes has cleared the intake Note that tlie engine uses two spark plugs. This
port, as shown at number 1. As the rotor continues to gives more complete burning of the air-fuel mixture,
rotate (clockwise) in Fig. 13-9, the space between the thereby reducing exhaust emissions. The combustion
rotor and housing increases, as shown at 2 in(b). This chamber formed by the housings and rotor is long
produces a partial vacuum, which causes the air-fuel and narrow. The two plugs give more complete burn-
mixture to enter, as shown by the small arrow under ing of the air-fuel mixture. However, other Wankel
2. This is the same action as in the piston engine engines are operating satisfactorily with a single
when the piston moves down on the intake stroke. As spark plug.
the rotor moves further around, the space between it At 13 in (a), the leading lobe of the rotor is clearing

EXHAUST
PORT

(a)

W277 1-4 INTAKE nem 5-9 COMPRESSION ARCS} 10-12 POWER GE 13-18 EXHAUST
FIG. 13-9 Principle of Wankel-engine operation. Follow the.actions from
(a) to(f) and from numbers | to 18. This takes you through the complete
cycle of actions between two apexes of the rotor.

94
 ROTOR JOURNALS
MAIN JOURNAL
MAIN JOURNAL

FIG. 13-10 Eccentric shaft. (Toyo Kogyo Company, Ltd.)

the exhaust port in the housing. Now the burned FIG. 13-12 Stationary gear which is mounted in the side
housing. (Toyo Kogyo Company, Ltd.)
gases begin to exhaust from the space between the
rotor lobes. This exhaust continues through 14 in (b),
15 in(c), 16 in(d), 17 in(e), and 18 in(f). By that time, of a two-rotor engine. The shaft is supported by two
the leading rotor lobe is clearing the intake port, as main bearings. It has two rotor journals which are
shown at 1 in(a). Now the whole chain of events takes offset as shown. Figure 13-11 shows how a rotor fits
place again. on one of the eccentric rotor journals and how the
We have looked at the actions taking place be- push on the rotor makes the eccentric shaft rotate.
tween one pair of rotor lobes. But there are three The arrows show the high-pressure gas pushing
lobes and three chambers between the lobes. There- against the rotor. Most of the push is below the center
fore, there are three sets of actions going on at the of the eccentric shaft. This makes the shaft turn at the
same time in the engine. There are three power same time the rotor revolves. The offset rotor journals
thrusts for every rotor revolution. With a two-rotor on the eccentric shaft do the same job as the crank-
engine, there are six power thrusts for every revolu- pins on the crankshaft of a piston engine.
tion of the two rotors. A stationary gear meshes with the internal gear of
the rotor to control the rotation of the rotor. You can
013-4 GETTING THE POWER TO THE CRANK- see the internal gear in the rotor in Fig. 13-4. The
SHAFT Now let us see how the rotor transmits stationary gear is shown in Fig. 13-12. The stationary
power to the crankshaft, or, more accurately, to the gear is installed in the side housing. It contains the
eccentric shaft. Figure 13-10 shows the eccentric shaft bearing that supports one end of the eccentric shaft.
Figure 13-13 shows how the stationary gear keeps the
ECCENTRIC ROTOR JOURNAL rotor moving in the proper path. The gear ratio be-
tween the rotor gear and the stationary gear is 2:3.

STATIONARY

nus
GEAR
t IN ROTOR |

CENTER LINE
OF ECCENTRIC SHAFT
FIG. 13-18 How the rotor rotates eccentrically around the
FIG. 13-11 How the combustion pressure, acting off-center stationary gear. It follows an orbit that keeps all three apex
on the eccentric of the eccentric shaft, forces the shaft to seals in sliding contact with the rotor housing. (Toyo Kogyo
rotate. (Ioyo Kogyo Company, Ltd.) Company, Ltd.)

95
©O13-5 THE3:1 RATIO You might assume that the SECONDARY
rotor and the eccentric shaft rotate together at the STAGE
same speed. They do not. The eccentric shaft rotates
three times while the rotor is rotating only once. Fig-
ure 13-14 will help you understand it. Let us follow the
rotor during one power thrust. INTAKE
MANIFOLD
Start at (a) in the upper left corner in Fig. 13-14. The
lobe marked "X” is at the lower right. The center line REAR
SIDE
of maximum crank (journal) eccentricity is pointing to HOUSING
the right. Note that in (b) the rotor lobe X has moved REAR
only 30 degrees. At the same time, the center line and ROTOR HOUSING
the eccentric shaft have moved ahead of lobe X as it EXHAUST q
moves through (c), (d), (e), and (f). In (f), lobe X has MANIFOLD

moved only 90 degrees from its position at (a). But the

center line and the eccentric shaft have turned 270
degrees. When the lobe turns 30 degrees more, to the FRONT SIDE
position X in (a), it will have turned 120 degrees or HOUSING
INTERMEDIATE HOUSING
one-third of a complete revolution of 360 degrees. By
the time the rotor makes one complete revolution, the FRONT ROTOR HOUSING
eccentric shaft will have turned three times. There is FIG. 18-15 Location of the manifold and carburetor. (Toyo
a 1:3 ratio. Kogyo Company, Ltd.)

O13-6 FUEL SYSTEM Figure 13-15 shows the lo- The arrows in Fig. 13-16 indicate the paths the air
cation of the intake manifold and the carburetor on a and the air-fuel mixture take on their way to the en-
two-rotor rotary combustion (RC) engine. The carbu- gine. The primary stage of the carburetor feeds the
retor is a four-barrel unit, similar to the four-barrel two rotors through intake ports in the intermediate
carburetor used on automobile piston engines. The housing. The primary stage provides the air-fuel mix-
carburetor has four round channels, or barrels, ture for all operating conditions up to medium speed.
through which air-fuel mixture can flow to the en- For acceleration and full-power operation, the sec-
gine. We discuss carburetors and fuel systems in ondary stage comes into operation. In Fig. 13-15, note
Chaps. 17 and 18. that the secondary stage feeds the air-fuel mixture

CENTER LINE
CRANKSHAFT OF MAXIMUM
CENTER LINE CRANK ECCENTRICITY

FIG. 13-14 Sequence of actions in the engine. Note how the rotor, as it
moves from stage (a) to (f) and back to (a) again, causes the eccentric
shaft to rotate one full revolution, or 360 degrees, even though the rotor
has turned only 120 degrees. (Toyo Kogyo Company, Ltd.)

96
 SECONDARY STAGE PRIMARY STAGE 17). The Wankel engine also has the same ignition,
lubricating, fuel, and cooling systems as the piston
engine. Many of the components in these systems are
very similar, and they are serviced in the same way.
The Wankel engine itself, however, has fewer parts
than the piston engine, and it requires fewer service
operations. Figure 13-18 shows a comparison be-
tween a disassembled six-cylinder piston engine and
a two-rotor Wankel engine. The piston engine has 230
basic parts, of which 166 are moving parts. The one-
rotor Wankel engine has 70 basic parts, and only
three are moving parts. Also, the Wankel engine is
about half the size and weight of a conventional pis-
ton engine producing comparable horsepower.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
FRONT HOUSING REAR HOUSING

INTERMEDIATE
HOUSING
1. How many lobes, or apexes, does the Wankel
FIG. 13-16 Schematic view of the carburetor. Note how the rotor have?
two carburetor stages supply air-fuel mixture to the intake
2. How many chambers are formed by the rotor
ports in the three side housings. (Toyo Kogyo Company, Ltd.)
and the housing?
38. What does “RC” stand for?
through intake ports in the outer side housings. Fig-
ure 13-16 is a simplified schematic diagram showing 4, How many housings does the two-rotor Wankel
how the two stages of the carburetor work. have?
5. What are the names of the housings in a two-
© 13-7 COMPARING WANKEL ENGINE AND PISTON
rotor Wankel?
ENGINE The Wankel engine operates on the same
four-stroke-cycle as the piston engine: intake, com- 6. How many power thrusts are there for each
pression, power, and exhaust (as shown in Fig. 13- complete rotor revolution in a Wankel?

FIG. 13-17 The four strokes of the four-stroke cycle as used in the
Wankel engine (top) and in the piston engine (bottom). (Toyo Kogyo
Company, Ltd.)

=Wf
 7. How many times does the eccentric shaft turn
as the rotor makes one complete revolution?

8. How many spark plugs does a Mazda two-rotor

Wankel engine use?

9. Do all Wankel engines use the same number of

spark plugs per rotor?

10. How many barrels does the Mazda two-rotor

Wankel-engine carburetor have?

11. In the two-rotor engine, where are the intake

ports that are fed by the primary stage of the
carburetor?

12. In the two-rotor engine, where are the intake

ports that are fed by the secondary stage of the
carburetor?

SELF PROJECT

On a sheet of notebook paper, make two columns

listing the parts in the Wankel engine and possibly
comparable parts in the four-cycle piston engine.
Head one column “Wankel Engine,” and head the
other column “Piston Engine.” Start with “rotor”
under “Wankel Engine” and with “piston” under
“Piston Engine.” Then add “eccentric shaft” and
“crankshaft.” Also “rotor seals” and “piston rings.”
The purpose is to compare parts between the two
engines. Many of the parts cannot be compared.
For example, the piston engine has valves. The
Wankel does not. Preparing detailed lists like this
will help you understand the similarities and dif-
TWO-ROTOR WANKEL ENGINE
ferences between the two engines.
FIG. 13-18 Comparison between a disassembled six-
cylinder piston engine (top) and a disassembled two-rotor
Wankel engine (bottom). (Toyo Kogyo Company, Ltd.)

98
 Chapter
Engine Measurements

O14-1 FUNDAMENTAL MEASUREMENTS Before

we get to the actual dimensional and performance
measurements of engines, we should look at some
fundamentals, such as work, energy, power, torque,
After studying this chapter, you should be and horsepower. This preliminary discussion will
able to: give you the background information you need to
understand engine measurements.
1. Explain what “bore” and “‘stroke’’ mean
©O14-2 WORK Work is the moving of an object
2. Define “piston displacement” and explain against an opposing force. The object is moved by a
how it is calculated push, a pull, or a lift, as shown in Fig. 14-1. For
example, when a weight is lifted, it is moved upward
~ Describe compression ratio and how it is cal- against the pull of gravity. Work is done on the
culated weight. Also, when a coil spring is compressed, work
is done on the spring, as shown in Fig. 14-2.
. Define “horsepower, brake horsepower,”
aasaa
Work is measured in terms of distance and force. If
“torque, “energy,” “ power,’ and “engine a 5-pound weight is lifted off the ground 1 foot, the
amount of work done on the weight is 5 foot-pounds,
efficiency”
or 1 foot x 5 pounds. If the 5-pound weight is lifted 2
feet, the amount of work done is 10 foot-pounds. Dis-
. List the various types of friction
tance times force equals work.
In the metric system, work is measured in meter-
kilograms (mkg). Our example would be as follows:
Lifting a 5-kg weight [11 pound] 1 m [3.28 feet] re-
quires 5 mkg of work [36.08 foot-pound]. If the 5-kg
weight is lifted 2m, the amount of work done is
10 mkg [72.16 foot-pound].

O14-3 ENERGY ~~ Energy is the ability or capacity

to do work. When work is done on an object, energy is
stored in that object. Lift a 20-pound [9.072 kg] weight
4 feet [1.219 m] and you have stored energy in the
weight. The weight can do 80 _ foot-pounds
[11.056 mkg] of work. If a spring is compressed, en-
ergy is stored in it, and it can do work as shown in
Fig. 14-3.

©14-4 POWER Workcan be done slowly, or it can

be done rapidly. The rate at which work is done is
measured in terms of power. A machine that can do a

99
 FIG. 14-2 When a spring is compressed, work is done on
the spring and energy is stored in it.

PUSHING

FIG. 14-3° When the spring is released, it can do work on

another body. It can lift a weight against gravity, for in-
stance.

FIG. 14-4 Torque, or twisting effort, must be applied to

loosen and remove the top from a screw-top jar.

torque to the steering wheel when you steer a car

around a turn. The engine applies torque to the
wheels to make them rotate.
However, torque must not be confused with power.
Torque is turning effort which may or may not result
LIFTING in motion. Power is something else. It is the rate at
FIG. 14-1 Whena push, pull, or lift moves an object, work which work is being done, and this means that some-
is done on that object. thing must be moving.
Torque is measured in pound-feet, not to be con-
great deal of work in a short time is called a high- fused with foot-pounds of work. In the metric system,
powered machine. Power is the rate, or speed, at torque is measured in kilogram-meters (kgm). For
which work is done. example, suppose you push on a crank with a 20-
pound [9.072 kg] push, and the crank is 1/2 feet long.
O14-5 TORQUE Torque is a twisting, or turning, You would be applying 30 pound-feet [4.147 kgm] of
effort. You apply torque to the top of a screw-top jar torque to the crank, as shown in Fig. 14-5. Whether or
when you loosen it, as shown in Fig. 14-4. You apply not the crank was turning, you would be applying

100
 20-Ib [9 kg] PUSH 0.746 kW. Therefore, a 20-hp engine is equal to a
14.9-kW engine.

Problem: You have a heavy box loaded with sand

1%ft [457 mm] pee that you must drag across a level lot for 500 feet in 2
minutes. A pull of 2000 pounds is required to move the
box. What horsepower is required?
FIG. 14-5 Torque is measured in pound-feet. It is calculated
by multiplying the push by the crank offset, or the distance Solution: Substituting in the formula gives
of the push from the rotating shatt.

this torque. The torque is there as long as you con-

hp 2 ee orien
tinue to apply the 20-pound push to the crank handle.
A second formula for horsepower, used more often
©1446 HORSEPOWER A horsepower (hp) is the today, is
power of one horse, or a measure of the rate at which
a horse can work. A 10-hp engine, for example, can torque x rpm
do the work of 10 horses. ie 5252
A horsepower is 33,000 foot-pounds of work per
minute. Look at Fig. 14-6. In the illustration, the horse It is more commonly used because modern dyna-
walks 165 feet in 1 minute, lifting the 200-pound mometers, described later, measure engine perfor-
weight. The amount of work involved is 33,000 foot- mance in revolutions per minute (rpm), torque, and
pounds (165 feet x 200 pounds). The time is 1 minute. horsepower. The second formula is easier to work
If the horse did this work in 2 minutes, then it would with. Torque was defined earlier.
be only “half” working. It would be putting out only
1/2 hp. One formula for horsepower is O14-7 INERTIA Inertia is a property of all mate-
rial objects. It causes them to resist any change in
foot-pounds per minute _ Lea speed or direction of travel. A motionless object tends
we 33,000 ~ 33,000 x t to remain motionless. A moving object tends to keep
moving at the same speed and in the same direction.
where hp = horsepower Consider the lawn tractor shown in Fig. 14-7. When
L = length, in feet, through which W is ex- it is standing still, its inertia must be overcome by
erted applying power to make it move. To increase its
W = force in pounds, exerted through dis-
tance L
t = time, in minutes, required to move W
through L

In the metric system, power output from an engine

is often measured in kilowatts (kW). The power output
is the amount of electricity the engine could produce
if it were used to drive an electric generator. One
kilowatt is equal to 1.34 hp, and 1 hp is equal to

~<— 165 ft [50.3 m] /min

4

m]
/min
[50.3
ft
165
—

200 Ib [90.7 kg] FIG. 14-7 When a lawn tractor is standing still, its inertia
FIG. 14-6 One horse can do 33,000 foot-pounds of work per must be overcome by applying power to make it move.
minute. (International Harvester Company)

101
speed, more power must be applied. To decrease its ©O14-9 BUSHINGS AND BEARINGS In the engine,
speed, the brakes must be applied. The brakes must as in almost all machinery, the moving parts are
overcome the tractor's inertia to slow it down. lubricated with oil. Therefore, the surfaces that move
against each other are protected against dry friction.
©O14-8 FRICTION Friction is the resistance to mo- These surfaces are specially prepared materials. For
tion between two objects in contact with each other. If example, the cylinder walls against which the pis-
you put a book on a table and then pushed the book, tons and piston rings slide are of smooth gray iron or
you would find that it took a certain amount of push to other metal with good wearing qualities. The cylin-
move it. If you put a second book on top of the first der walls in some engines are chrome-plated to im-
book, you would have to push harder to move the two prove their resistance to wear. The piston rings are
books on the tabletop. Friction, or resistance to mo- also made of material that gives long life. Shafts are
tion, increases with the load. The higher the load, the supported by bushings or bearings (see 09-7). Three
greater the friction. There are three kinds of friction: types of bearing surfaces found in engines are shown
dry, greasy, and viscous (Fig. 14-8). in Fig. 14-9.

CRANKSHAFT ©14-10 ENGINE MECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS

We are now ready to discuss engine measurements.
First, we will look at the physical measurements: size
of the cylinder, distance the piston moves in the cy]l-
inder, volume the piston displaces as it moves from
BDC to TDC, and so on. Later, we will look into the
performance measurements.

©O14-11 BOREANDSTROKE The size of an engine

cylinder is given by its bore and stroke. The bore is
the diameter of the cylinder. The stroke is the dis-
FIG. 14-8 Shaft rotation causes layers of clinging oil to be
tance the piston travels from BDC (bottom dead cen-
dragged around with it. This oil moves from the wide clear-
ance A and is wedged into the narrow clearance B, thereby ter) to TDC (top dead center), as shown in Fig. 14-10.
supporting the shaft weight W on an oil film. The clear- The bore is always mentioned first. For example, ina
ances are exaggerated in the illustration. cylinder 3 by 21/2 inches, the diameter, or bore, is 3

JOURNAL GUIDE THRUST

FIG. 14-9 Three types of friction-bearing surfaces in an engine.

102
 MAXIMUM MINIMUM

FIG. 14-11 Single-chamber capacity of a Wankel engine.

© 14-13 COMPRESSION RATIO The compression

ratio of an engine is a measure of how much the
FIG. 14-10 Bore and stroke of an engine cylinder.
air-fuel mixture is compressed in an engine cylinder.
It is calculated by dividing the air volume in one
inches and the stroke is 21/2 inches. These measure- cylinder with the piston at BDC by the air volume
ments are used to figure the piston displacement. with the piston at TDC, as shown in Fig. 14-12. The air
Usually, the bore and stroke of a motorcycle engine volume with the piston at TDC is called the clearance
are given in the metric system in millimeters. A cyl- volume. It is the clearance that remains above the
inder that is 56 by 50” is a cylinder that has a 56-mm piston at TDC.
bore. Let us look at an example of compression-ratio
calculation: One cylinder of an engine has a volume
O14-12 PISTON DISPLACEMENT Piston dis- of 42.35 cubic inches [694 cc] at BDC, as shown in Fig.
placement is the volume that the piston displaces, or 14-12a. It has a clearance volume of 4.45 cubic inches
“sweeps out,” as it moves from BDC to TDC. The [73 cc], as shown in Fig. 14-12b. The compression
piston displacement of a cylinder 3 by 2 inches, for ratio is 42.35 divided by 4.45[694 + 73], or9.5:1[9.5: 1].
example, is the volume of a cylinder 3 inches in di- During the compression stroke, the air-fuel mixture is
ameter and 2 inches long. Piston displacement in one compressed from a volume of 42.35 cubic inches
cylinder of an engine is equal to [694 cc] to 4.45 cubic inches [73 cc], or to 1/9.5 of its
original volume.
Vea
xX D2 x L'= 0.7854 « 32 x 2
= (Lyre x S) x 2 ©O14-14 ENGINE PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENTS
14.14 cubic inches Let us now look at the measurements that can be
taken on an operating engine. There are several in-
where 7 = 3.1416, a constant used to find the area terrelated factors, including volumetric efficiency,
of a circle horsepower, friction horsepower, and torque.
D = diameter, or bore, of cylinder
L = length of stroke ©O14-15 VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY The amount
of air-fuel mixture taken into the cylinder on the in-
If the engine has four cylinders, the total displace-
take stroke is a measure of the engine’s volumetric
ment is 14.14 times 4, or 56.56 cubic inches.
In the metric system, displacement is given in
cubic centimeters (cc). Therefore, a 56.56-cubic-inch
displacement would be 927 cc in metric measure-
ments. And, since 1000 cc equals | liter (L), 927 cc is
0.927 1.
The Wankel engine does not have pistons, so you
cannot figure piston displacement on the Wankel. But
you can figure the displacement the rotor produces as
the volume in the combustion chamber goes from
maximum to minimum, as shown in Fig. 14-11. For
example, suppose the volume is reduced 490 cc as it
goes from maximum to minimum. This is the dis- PISTON AT BDC PISTON AT TDC
placement in one of the three chambers of the rotor. FIG. 14-12 Compression ratio is the volume in a cylinder
Instead of using the term “piston displacement,” this with the piston at BDC divided by its volume with the piston
figure is called single-chamber capacity. at TDC, or A divided by B.

103
 only about 80 percent (0.027 is 80 percent of 0.034).
Actually, 80 percent is a good volumetric efficiency
for an engine running at fairly high speed. The volu-
metric efficiency of some engines may drop to as low
as 50 percent at high speeds. This is another way of
saying that the cylinders are only “half-filled” at high
speeds.
Volumetric efficiency also can be increased by
making the intake ports and passages wider and as
FIG. 14-138 Smoothing the inside surfaces of the intake straight and as short as possible. Also, the smooth-
ports improves volumetric efficiency of an engine. ness of the inside surfaces of the intake ports is im-
portant. Rough surfaces which slow down the flow of
air-fuel mixture can be smoothed as shown in Fig.
efficiency. If the mixture were drawn into the cylinder 14-13. Another way to improve volumetric efficiency is
slowly, a full charge of air-fuel mixture could get in. to use more carburetors or use carburetors with larger
But the mixture must pass rapidly through narrow air passages, which improve engine breathing at
openings and bends in the carburetor and intake high speed. All these changes help produce more
passages. In addition, the mixture is heated from power by improving volumetric efficiency.
engine heat. Therefore, the mixture expands. The
rapid movement and heating reduce the amount of ©14-16 BRAKE HORSEPOWER The horsepower
mixture that can get into the cylinder. A full charge of (hp) output of engines is measured in terms of brake
air-fuel mixture cannot enter, because the time is too horsepower (bhp). The name comes from the braking
short and the air is heated. device that is used to hold engine speed down while
Volumetric efficiency is the ratio of the amount of torque or hp is measured, as shown in Fig. 14-14.
air-fuel mixture that actually enters the cylinder to When an engine is rated at 30 hp [22.38 kW], for ex-
the amount that could possibly enter. For example, a ample, it is really bhp that is meant. This is the
certain cylinder has an air volume, as shown in Fig. amount of power the engine has available to do work
14-12a, of 4.7 cubic inches [770 cc]. If the cylinder at the flywheel or crankshaft at a certain speed at
were allowed to completely “fill up,” it would take in wide-open throttle.
0.034 ounce [0.964 g] of air. However, suppose that the The usual way to rate an engine is with a dyna-
engine is running at a high speed, and so only 0.027 mometer. This device has a mechanism (an electric
ounce [0.765 g] of air can enter during each intake generator, water brake, or friction brake) which can
stroke. This means that the volumetric efficiency is put different loads on the engine. The dynamometer

BRAKE

TORQUE

FIG. 14-14 A small-engine dynamometer which can be

used to measure engine torque and brake horsepower.

104
measures the amount of hp the engine can develop
under various operating conditions.
Some dynamometers are used to test engines by
themselves. This type of dynamometer is known as
an engine dynamometer and is shown in Fig. 14-14.
The dynamometer used in the service shop checks the
engine in the car or in the frame of the motorcycle.
This type of unit is called a chassis dynamometer.
The drive wheels of the vehicle are placed on rollers. [kW]
HORSEPOWER
The engine drives the wheels, and the wheels drive TORQUE,
m]
[kg
lb-ft
the rollers. The rollers can be loaded, or braked,
varying amounts so that engine output can be
measured. 0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,0003,500 4,000

ENGINE rpm
014-17 INDICATED HORSEPOWER Indicated
FIG. 14-16 Torque-bhp-fhp curves of an engine.
horsepower (ihp) is the power that the engine devel-
ops inside the combustion chambers during the com-
bustion process. A special device is required to up one advantage of the short stroke oversquare en-
measure ihp. It measures the pressures in the engine gine. With a short stroke, the piston rings do not have
cylinders. The four small drawings in Fig. 14-15 show as far to move. Therefore, ring friction is lower. Fig-
the four piston strokes, and the curve shows the pres- ure 14-16 shows a curve of fhp for one engine operat-
sures in the cylinder during these four strokes. These ing under certain specified conditions.
pressures are used to figure ihp. Indicated horse-
power is above bhp, because some of the power de- ©14-19 RELATING bhp, ihp AND fhp We have
veloped in the engine cylinders is used up to over- learned that bhp is the power delivered, ihp is the
come friction. power developed in the engine, and fhp is the power
lost through friction. The relationship among the
O14-18 FRICTION HORSEPOWER (fhp) Friction three is
horsepower (fhp) is the power required to overcome
the friction of the moving parts in the engine. One of bhp = ihp — fhp
the major causes of friction loss (or fhp) is piston-ring
friction. Under some conditions, the friction of the The horsepower delivered by the engine (bhp) is
rings moving on the cylinder walls accounts for 75 equal to the horsepower developed (ihp) minus the
percent of all friction losses in the engine. This points power lost through friction (fhp).

800
[56.3]

600
[42.2]

400
[28.1]

200
[14.1]
[kg/em*]
PRESSURE,
psi ATMOSPHERIC IGNITI
PRESSURE

14.7
[1.1] 9 90° 180° 270° 360° 450° 540°
INTAKE COMPRESSION POWER EXHAUST

DEGREES OF CRANKSHAFT ROTATION AND PISTON STROKES

FIG. 14-15 Pressures in an engine cylinder during the four piston strokes. The
four strokes require two crankshaft revolutions (360 degrees each), a total of
720 degrees of rotation. This curve is for a particular engine operating at one
definite speed and:throttle opening. Changing the speed and throttle opening
would change the curve (particularly the power curve).

105
© 14-20 ENGINE TORQUE Torque is turning effort torque, bhp, and fhp for a car engine. Figure 14-17
(see O 14-5). When the piston is moving down on the compares the torque and bhp curves for a two-
power stroke, it applies torque to the engine crank- cylinder 24-hp engine.
shaft through the connecting rod. The harder the push Note that the curves in Figs. 14-16 and 14-17 are for
on the piston, the greater the torque applied. The two particular engines only. Different engines have
higher the combustion pressures, the greater the different torque, bhp, and fhp curves. Peaks may be
amount of torque. at higher or lower speeds, and the relationships may
The dynamometer is normally used to check engine not be as shown in the curves.
torque. Engine dynamometers frequently have di-
rect-reading torque meters. Chassis dynamometers 014-22 ENGINE EFFICIENCY The term “effi-
may have direct-reading hp meters. To find the hp of ciency” relates the effort exerted and the results ob-
an engine when the meter on the dynamometer indi- tained. For engines, efficiency is the relation be-
cates torque, use the formula discussed in © 14-6. tween the power delivered and the power that could
be obtained if the engine operated without any power
©O14-21 BRAKE HORSEPOWER VERSUS TORQUE loss. Engine efficiency can be computed in two ways:
The torque that an engine can develop changes with as mechanical efficiency and as thermal efficiency.
engine speed, as shown in Fig. 14-16. During inter-
mediate speeds, volumetric efficiency is high. There 1. Mechanical Efficiency. This is the relationship
is sufficient time for the cylinders to become fairly between bhp and ihp. It can be written as fol-
well “filled up.” This means that with a fairly full lows:
charge of air-fuel mixture, higher combustion pres-
sures will develop. With higher combustion pres- Mechanical efficiency = Sop
ihp
sures, the engine torque is higher.
At higher speed, volumetric efficiency drops off.
Example: At a certain speed, the bhp of an
There is not enough time for the cylinders to become
engine is 116 and its ihp is 135. Mechanical effi-
filled up with air-fuel mixture. Since there is less
ciency is bhp/ihp = 116/135 = 0.86, or 86 percent.
air-fuel mixture to burn, the combustion pressures do
This means that 86 percent of the power devel-
not go as high. There is less push on the pistons, and
oped in the cylinders is delivered by the engine.
engine torque is lower. Note in Fig. 14-16 how the
The remaining 14 percent, or 19 hp [14.17 kW], is
torque drops off as engine speed increases.
consumed as fhp.
The bhp curve of an engine is different from the
torque curve. In Fig. 14-16, the curves start at low 2. Thermal Efficiency. Thermal means “of or re-
speed and increase until a high engine speed is lated to heat.” The thermal efficiency of an en-
reached. Then, at still higher speeds, bhp drops off. gine is the relation between the power output
The drop-off of bhp is due to reduced torque at and the energy in the fuel burned to produce this
higher speed. Figure 14-16 compares the curves of output.

46 [6.38]
= 44 [6.08]
as
o
42 [5.80]
WwW
40 [5.53]
5& 24 [17.9] 38 [5.25]
2 22 [16.4]
OS 20 [14.9]
we 18 [13.4]
[kgm]
ib-ft
TORQUE,
& 16 [11.9]
jaa}
14 [10.4]

1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 3000 3200

ENGINE, rpm

FIG. 14-17 Brake horsepower and torque curves of an opposed-cylinder

two-cylinder engine rated at 24 hp [18 kW]. (Kohler Company)

106
 Some of the heat produced by combustion is 11. Explain what can be done to the valves and
carried away by the engine cooling system. intake passages to improve volumetric effi-
Some of it is lost in the exhaust gases, which are ciency.
hot when they leave the cylinder. These are heat
12. Will a one-barrel or a two-barrel carburetor
(thermal) losses that reduce the thermal effi-
give better volumetric efficiency? Why?
ciency of the engine. They do not add to the
power output of the engine. The remainder of the 13. What is brake horsepower? How is it measured
heat is used by the engine to develop power. in the shop?
Because a great deal of heat is lost during en-
14, What is compression ratio? How can it be in-
gine operation, thermal efficiencies may be as
creased in an engine?
low as 20 percent. They are seldom higher than
25 percent. 15. What is ihp?

REVIEW QUESTIONS 16. What is fhp? What is the major cause of fhp in
an engine?
1. Define “work.” In what terms is it measured?
17. What is the relationship among bhp, ihp,
2. Define “energy.” and fhp?
3. Define “power.” 18. What is mechanical efficiency?
4 . Define “horsepower.” In what terms is horse- 19. What is thermal efficiency?
power measured in the United States Custom-
20. What is inertia?
ary System? In the metric system?
An engine develops 20 pound-feet of torque at
DEL PROJECE
2000 rpm. What is the horsepower?
. What are the three kinds of friction? Define At the top of a sheet of notebook paper write down
each. "Finding Dynamometer Horsepower.” Then write
down the second formula for hp given in © 14-6.
. What are the bore and stroke of an engine? How
This formula calls for only torque and rpm. Now
are bore and stroke given in the metric system?
look up these two figures in manufacturers’ service
. What is piston displacement? In what terms is manuals. Then work out the hp ratings, using the
the piston displacement given in the metric formula. These are the ratings you would find if you
system? How many cubic inches displacement tested the engines on the dynamometer and the
does a 2-L engine have? engines were in good condition.
The hp ratings based on torque and rpm may be
What does the term “single-chamber displace-
different from the hp ratings the engine manufac-
ment” mean?
turers advertise. And the rpms may be differ-
10. Define “volumetric efficiency.” ent also.

107
 “7

ical od 7 - we

caineaie naor socal

7

dies = a
_ , ey pp gh aah
= . 7 :
a S 7 ~

a ) ha ea le a
mat i ik PS =
aE 4
~~
ey)

P aernh he

: erste
pipe ae
. shinee‘deer

:
—

— (
x ™
three
ENGINE SYSTEMS

Part 3 of the Small-Engine Mechanics describes

the construction, operation, and servicing of the
systems in a small engine which are needed to
make the engine run. These include fuel sys-
tems, lubricating systems, and cooling sys-
tems. Electrical systems are covered in Part
Four.
There are five chapters in Part Three. These
are as follows:

Chapter 15: Engine Lubrication

Chapter 16: Gasoline OIL DIPSTICK
Chapter 17: Fuel Systems for Small Engines
Chapter 18: Fuel-System Service
Chapter 19: Engine Cooling Systems

109
 15
Chapter
Engine Lubrication

015-1 TWO-CYCLE- AND FOUR-CYCLE-ENGINE

LUBRICATION In this chapter we look at the ways
in which two-cycle and four-cycle engines are lubri-
cated. In the two-cycle engine, the oil is mixed with
After studying this chapter, you should be the gasoline. The oil enters the engine along with the
able to: air-fuel mixture and lubricates the engine. In the
four-cycle engine, there is a supply of oil in the lower
1. Explain how a two-cycle engine is lubricated part of the crankcase. When the engine is running, oil
and how a four-cycle engine is lubricated from this reserve supply is either pumped or splashed
on all moving parts in the engine. In either type of
Describe how to prepare premix engine, the result is that the engine parts get the
lubrication they need so that minimum friction and
. List the purposes of lubricating oil in the wear result.
engine
O15-2 LUBRICATING THE ENGINE When a four-
. Explain how engine oil is rated as to viscos- cycle engine needs oil, the oil is poured into a pipe or
ity and service opening in the valve cover or on the side on the en-
gine, as shown in Fig. 15-1. From there the oil runs
. Discuss the difference between the require- down into the lower part of the engine which is called
the crankcase. The crankcase in the four-cycle engine
ments for oils used in two-cycle engines and
usually is the reservoir from which the engine lubri-
those for oils used in four-cycle engines
cating system sends oil to all moving engine parts.
However, in some four-cycle motorcycle engines, the
. Describe the components in the engine lubri-
oil reservoir is a separate oil tank. This arrangement
cating system and how each works is called a dry-sump lubricating system and is dis-
cussed in a later section.
In the two-cycle engine, adding oil to the crankcase
would not work. If the oil were kept in the crankcase
of a two-cycle engine, the incoming air-fuel mixture
(which passes through the crankcase) would pick up
some of the oil and carry it into the cylinder. There,
the oil would be burned. Soon all the oil would be
consumed, and the engine then would fail from lack
of oil.
Other lubricating procedures are used in two-cycle
engines. One method, called premixing, is to mix a
little lubricating oil with the gasoline (Fig. 15-2). Then
the oil enters the crankcase along with the air-fuel
mixture as a fine mist. Some of the oil mist is carried
to the engine cylinder, where most of it is burned. But

110
 THROTTLE GRIP

FIG. 15-1 When a four-cycle engine needs oil, the oil is

poured into an opening in the engine. (Briggs & Stratton
Corporation)

oA
part of the oil gets on the cylinder wall and engine Saray) CARBURETOR
bearings to provide adequate lubrication. The
amount of oil to be added to the gasoline varies with
2,

the engine. Some engines require only 1 or 2 fluid OIL LINE

is
ounces [30 or 60 cc] per gallon of gasoline. Other
engines require 1 quart [0.946 L] of oil to be mixed
with every 5 gallons [18.927 L] of gasoline. The in-
structions of the engine manufacturer should always
OIL SEAL
be followed when oil is mixed with gasoline for use in
a two-cycle engine. ;
A second method of lubricating a two-cycle engine
uses a separate oil tank. Figure 15-3 shows this sys-
tem, called the oil-injection system, on a one-cylinder CRANKSHAFT == OIL PUMP
two-cycle motorcycle engine. Oil from the tank is sent OIL LINE
by the pump to the nozzle in the intake port. There the FIG. 15-3 Lubrication system for a one-cylinder two-cycle
amount of oil needed by the engine sprays out into motorcycle engine. (Suzuki Motor Company, Ltd.)
the passing air-fuel mixture. On some engines, this is
all the lubrication that the engine receives. In opera-
tion, the system is little different from the mixing nozzle into the air-fuel mixture going into the engine.
achieved by the use of a premix, or a mixture of This provides lubrication of the piston, piston rings,
gasoline and oil, in the fuel tank. However, in Fig. piston pin, and cylinder wall. A second oil line sends
15-3, a second oil line from the pump also provides oil to the crankshaft to lubricate the main and con-
full-pressure lubrication to the crankshaft and bear- necting-rod big-end bearing. In the oil-injection sys-
ings. Here is how the system works: tem shown in Fig. 15-3, the amount of oil pumped to
Oil from the tank is sent to the engine moving parts the intake port and bearings changes with engine
by the oil pump. The oil flows through two oil lines. speed and throttle opening. As a result, the engine
One oil line sends the oil to the nozzle in the intake gets the right amount of oil it needs for every operat-
port in back of the carburetor. The oil sprays from the ing condition. We will describe these various lubri-
cating systems in detail later. First, let us find out
about the properties of lubricating oil.

©O15-3 PURPOSE OF LUBRICATING OIL We nor-

mally think of lubricating oil as a liquid that mini-
mizes friction and wear between moving parts in a
machine. However, the lubricating oil does several
other things in the engine. The lubricating oil must
perform these jobs:

GASOLINE 1. Lubricate moving parts to minimize wear

5 GALLONS
2. Lubricate moving parts to minimize power loss
from friction

FIG. 15-2 To lubricate most two-cycle engines, the lubricat- 3. Remove heat from engine parts by acting as a
ing oil is mixed with the gasoline. cooling agent

111
 4. Absorb shocks between bearings and other en- cushions, resisting penetration or “squeezing out,”
gine parts, thereby reducing engine noise and and must continue to interpose a film of oil between
extending engine life the adjacent metal surfaces. By absorbing and cush-
ioning the hammerlike effect of the suddenly imposed
5. Form a good seal between piston rings and cyl-
loads, the oil quiets the engine and reduces wear of
inder walls
parts.
6. Act as a cleaning agent
O15-7 FORMING A SEAL BETWEEN PISTON RINGS
O15-4 MINIMIZING WEAR AND POWER LOSS FROM AND CYLINDER WALLS Piston rings must form a
FRICTION Friction has been discussed in some gastight seal with the cylinder walls. The lubricating
detail in © 14-8. The type of friction in the engine is oil that is delivered to the cylinder wall helps the
normally viscous friction. It is the friction between piston rings accomplish this. The oil film on the cyl-
adjacent moving layers of oil. If the lubricating sys- inder walls compensates for microscopic irregulari-
tem does not function properly, sufficient oil will not ties in the fit between the rings and walls and fills in
be supplied to moving parts, and greasy or even dry any gaps through which gas might escape. The oil
friction will result between moving surfaces. This film also provides lubrication of the rings so that they
would cause, at least, considerable power loss, since can move easily in the ring grooves and on the cylin-
power would be used in overcoming these types of der walls.
friction. At most, major damage would occur to en-
gine parts as greasy or dry friction developed. Bear- O15-8 ENGINE OIL Before we explain the lubri-
ings would wear rapidly. The heat resulting from dry cating system, let us take a look at oil for four-cycle
or greasy friction would cause bearing disintegration engines. Oil is the liquid used in the lubricating sys-
and failure, and so connecting rods and other parts tem. For many years, the only oil used in engines was
would be broken. Also, insufficient lubrication of cyl- made from natural crude oil, which comes from oil
inder walls would cause rapid wear and scoring of wells drilled deep into the earth. Much of the engine
walls, rings, and pistons. A properly operating four- oil used today still comes from crude oil. This crude
cycle engine lubricating system supplies all moving oil was formed underground millions of years ago in
parts with sufficient oil so that only viscous friction is various parts of the world. It must be refined to make
obtained. In the two-cycle engine using a fuel-oil it usable. In the refining process, gasoline, kerosene,
mix, adding the proper amount of oil to the gasoline lubricating oil, and many other products are made.
assures adequate engine lubrication. In recent years, synthetic oils have come out of the
chemical laboratory. The manufacturers claim that
O15-5 REMOVING HEAT FROM ENGINE PARTS these have superior lubricating properties. Actually,
In the four-cycle engine, the oil is in rapid circulation there are three basic types of synthetic oils. The type
throughout the engine lubricating system. All bear- most widely used at present is produced from organic
ings and moving parts are bathed in streams of oil. In acids and alcohols (from plants of various types). A
addition to providing lubrication in the four-cycle second type is produced from coal and crude oil.
engine, the oil absorbs heat from engine parts and A third type is made from crude oil. Although tests
carries it back into the oil pan. The oil pan in turn have shown these synthetics to have certain superior
absorbs heat from the oil, transferring it to the sur- properties, no engine manufacturer has given them
rounding air. In this way the oil acts as a cooling unqualified approval yet.
agent. Not all oil is the same. There are several grades of
oil and several ratings. Oil made for engines con-
©O15-6 ABSORBING SHOCKS BETWEEN BEARINGS tains a number of additives (chemical compounds
AND OTHER ENGINE PARTS As the piston ap- that are added to the oil) that improve the perfor-
proaches the end of the compression stroke and the mance of the oil.
mixture in the cylinder is ignited, pressure in the
cylinder suddenly increases many times. A load of as 015-9 PROPERTIESOFOIL Asatisfactory engine
much as 2000 pounds [907 kg] is suddenly imposed on lubricating oil for four-cycle engines must have cer-
the top of the piston as combustion takes place. This tain characteristics, or properties. It must have
sudden increase in pressure causes the piston to proper viscosity and must resist oxidation, carbon
thrust down hard through the piston-pin bearing, formation, corrosion, rust, extreme pressure, and
connecting rod, and connecting-rod bearing. There is foaming. Also it must act as a good cleaning agent,
always some space, or clearance, between bearings must pour at low temperatures, and must have good
and journals. This space is filled with oil. When the viscosity at extremes of high and low temperature.
load suddenly increases as described above, the lay- Any mineral oil, by itself, does not have all these
ers of oil between bearings and journals must act as properties. Lubricating-oil manufacturers therefore

112
 put a number of additives into the oil during the oil for the engine. Figure 15-4 shows how outside
manufacturing process. An oil for severe service may temperature affects the viscosity of oil that an engine
have many or all of the following additives: needs. If you study the table, you will see that the
higher the outside temperature, the higher the vis-
1 . Viscosity improver cosity rating specified. The 5W-30 oil is good for
2. Pour-point depressants starting and operating in very low outside tempera-
tures. The 1OW-30 or 10W-40 oil will not thin out too
3. Inhibitors much as the temperature rises.
The service rating indicates the type of service for
4, Detergent dispersants
which the oil is best suited. For gasoline engines, the
5. Extreme-pressure compounds service ratings are SA, SB, SC, SD, and SE. Here is a
brief description of each of these ratings:
These are discussed in the following sections.
SA—Acceptable for engines operated under the
©15-10 OIL VISCOSITY AND SERVICE RATINGS mildest conditions
“Viscosity” refers to the ability of a liquid to flow. An
¢ SB—Acceptable for minimum-duty engines oper-
oil with high viscosity is very thick and flows slowly.
ated under mild conditions
An oil with low viscosity flows easily. Oil gets thicker
as it becomes colder. Therefore, starting an engine in ¢ SC—Meets requirements of gasoline engines in
cold weather is more difficult than starting it in warm 1964-1967 model passenger cars and some trucks
weather. The cold has increased the viscosity of the
¢ SD—Meets requirements of gasoline engines in
oil.
1968-1970 model passenger cars and some trucks
Oil viscosity is rated in two ways by the Society of
Automotive Engineers (SAE). It is rated for (1) winter ¢ SE—Meets requirements of gasoline engines in
driving and (2) summer driving. Winter-grade oils 1972 and later cars and certain 1971 model pas-
come in three grades: SAE SW, SAE 10W, and senger cars and trucks
SAE 20W. The “W” stands for winter grade. For other
than winter use, the grades are SAE 20, SAE 30, You will notice that this is an open-end series.
SAE 40, and SAE 50. The higher the number, the When the engine manufacturers and oil producers
higher the viscosity (the thicker the oil). All these see the need for other types of oil, they can bring out
grades are called single-viscosity oils. SF and SG service-rated oils.
Many oils have multiple-viscosity ratings. For ex- Diesel engines require different types of oil. They
ample, SAE 10W-30 has the same viscosity as are service-rated CA, CB, CC, and CD. CD is for
SAE 10W when it is cold and the same viscosity as diesel-engine operations under the most severe con-
SAE 30 when it is hot. ditions.
The engine manufacturer specifies the viscosity of
O15-11 OIL ADDITIVES Certain chemical com-
32° F pounds, called additives, are added to the oil. The
0° CELSIUS purpose of these additives is to give the oil certain
properties it does not have in its original refined
state. The refining process determines the viscosity
and other basic properties of the oil. The additives
give the oil other desirable properties. These addi-
tives include viscosity improver, pour-point depres-
sants, inhibitors, detergent dispersants, and ex-
treme-pressure compounds.

015-12 TWO-CYCLE ENGINE OIL Two-cycle en-

gines use a “total-loss” lubrication system. The oil is
not recovered as in four-cycle engines but is burned in
the combustion chamber. For this reason, the lubri-
cating oil used in two-cycle engines does not neces-
sarily require all the additives listed in previous sec-
°F —40—30—20—100 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100110120
tions. But the oil must be clean-burning and leave a
°C —40—35—29—23—18—12—7—15 10 16 21 27 32 38 43 49 minimum of ash and carbon. Special oils have been
FIG. 15-4 Oil viscosity recommendations for Onan four- developed for two-cycle and outboard engines. Out-
cycle air-cooled engines. (Onan Corporation) board engine manufacturers, for example, recom-

113
mend a BIA TC-W oil. BIA means Boating Industry
Association, and TC-W means Two-Cycle Water-
TECUMSEH PRODUCTS CO.
cooled. Outboard engine manufacturers caution LAUSON ENGINE DIV. GRAFTON, WIS., U.S.A.
against using automotive oils, which can produce LUBRICATION: BEFORE STARTING, FILL CRANK-
CASE TO TOP OF FILLER NECK OR TO FULL
ash and cause engine trouble. There also are special MARK WHEN DIPSTICK IS PROVIDED. BE SURE
ENGINE IS LEVEL. ABOVE 32° F. [0° C] USE S.A.E.
oils for small engines. Always use the oil recom- 30. BELOW 32° F. [0° C] USE S.A.E. 10W OR EQUAL.
USE CLASS “MS, SC, SD, OR SE’ OILONLY. CHANGE
mended by the engine manufacturer, and follow the OIL AFTER FIRST 2 OPERATING HRS. AND EVERY
25 OPERATING HRS. THEREAFTER, CHECK OIL
directions on the oil container. LEVEL EVERY 5 OPERATING HRS. SPARK PLUG
GAP .030”. BREAKER POINT CAP .020". 64-672

O15-18 SLUDGE FORMATION IN FOUR-CYCLE EN-

GINES Sludge is a thick creamy black substance
SERIAL
that often forms in the crankcase of four-cycle en- 150021 2265R
gines. It clogs oil screens and oil lines, preventing
normal circulation of lubricating oil to engine parts. FIG. 15-5 Decal with lubricating instructions on a four-
This can result in engine failure from oil starvation. cycle engine. (Tecumseh Products Company)
Water collects in the crankcase in two ways: First,
water is formed as a product of combustion. Second, There are two types of lubricating systems for
the crankcase ventilating system carries air, with four-cycle engines: the dry-sump and the wet-sump.
moisture in it, through the crankcase. If the engine We will now look at both of these systems.
parts are cold, the water condenses and drops into
the crankcase. There, the water is churned up with ©15-16 WET-SUMP LUBRICATING SYSTEM Auto-
the lubricating oil by the action of the crankshaft. The mobile engines and most small four-cycle engines
crankshaft acts much like a giant eggbeater and use the “wet-sump” system. The “sump” is the oil pan
whips the oil and water into the thick, black, mayon- or crankcase at the bottom of the engine. It is a “wet
naise-like “goo” known as sludge. The black color sump” because the engine oil is stored under the
comes from dirt and carbon. crankshaft as shown in Fig. 15-6. In many engines, an
015-14 OIL CHANGES FOR FOUR-CYCLE EN- oil pump sends oil from the oil pan up through the
GINES From the day that fresh oil is put into the engine oil lines to the moving engine parts. After
engine crankcase (four-cycle engines), the oil begins lubricating, cleaning, and cooling these parts, the oil
to lose effectiveness as an engine lubricant. This drops back down into the oil pan. The oil pump keeps
gradual loss of effectiveness is largely due to the the oil circulating continuously when the engine is
accumulation of various contaminating substances. operated. We will describe variations of this system
The oil should be changed at recommended inter- later.
vals. In automotive engines, this might be every two
months or 6000 miles [9656 kilometers (km)], which-
ever comes first. For small four-cycle engines, many
manufacturers recommend oil changes every 25
hours of operation. Engines in power mowers and
other such equipment often operate in unusually
dusty conditions. The oil must be changed frequently
to prevent heavy accumulations of dirt in the oil that
could cause rapid engine wear. Always follow the
engine manufacturer's recommendations printed on
the nameplate or listed on the lubricating-instruc-
tions decal. A typical decal is shown in Fig. 15-5. It is
attached to the engine or to the equipment in which
the engine is installed.

015-15 FOUR-CYCLE ENGINE LUBRICATING SYS-

TEMS The two-cycle engine uses a “total-loss”
lubricating system. The oil is not recovered and re-
used. When it goes into the engine, it is burned along
with the fuel. However, the four-cycle engine has a
reservoir of engine lubricating oil which recirculates
constantly through the engine. In some engines, the
oil pump continuously sends oil from the oil pan OIL DIPSTICK
through lines to all moving engine parts. The oil then FIG. 15-6 Sectional view of a four-cycle engine, showing
drops back down into the oil pan. level of oil in oil pan and location of dipstick.

114
015-17 DRY-SUMP LUBRICATING SYSTEM The
wet-sump lubricating system is not satisfactory for
engines that are moving over rough terrain and oper-
ating at various angles from the vertical. The oil
would, under these conditions, be splashing up all
over the lower part of the engine. When the engine was
tilted at an angle, the oil would be over on one side of
the sump. Under these circumstances, the oil-pump
intake would often be above the oil level in the sump.
The oil pump would not be taking in any oil. It would
not be sending oil to the upper part of the engine. As
a result, the engine would soon fail.
To prevent this problem, a dry-sump system is used
on engines that run over rough ground and are often
tilted at sharp angles to the vertical. Some four-cycle
motorcycle engines are equipped with dry-sump lu-
bricating systems.
The dry-sump system works like this: It uses a dou-
ble pump. As oil drops down from the engine into the
oil pan or crankcase, one of the pumps removes the
oil and sends it to an oil tank. From there, the second
pump sends the oil to the moving engine parts. With
this system, the second oil pump always has a tank
full of oil to work from. There is no danger that the oil
level will fall below the oil-pump intake. Therefore,
all moving engine parts are properly lubricated at all
times, regardless of the engine movement or tilt.

© 15-18 SMALL-FOUR-CYCLE-ENGINE LUBRICAT-

ING SYSTEM Small four-cycle engines use several
different methods of getting oil to the moving parts in
the engine. On engines that are either stationary or
are moving over fairly level terrain, the wet-sump
system is used. The simplest means of lubrication is
to splash the oil about so that all parts are drenched,
as shown in Fig. 15-7. The splashing is produced by a
dipper on the lower end of the connecting rod such as
those shown in Fig. 15-8. The oil in the crankcase is
splashed every time the dipper reaches into it on the
down stroke of the piston. Splash may also be accom- FIG. 15-7 Splash lubricating system on an L-head engine.
plished by the use of an oil slinger which is rotated The dipper on the connecting rod splashes oil, as shown by
by the camshaft gear, as shown in Fig. 15-9. the arrows, every time the piston passes through BDC.
A cam-operated barrel-type (also called a plunger-
type) pump is used in some small engines to provide a to the way that the crankcase for a two-cycle engine
pressure lubricating system. Three typical examples is sealed.
are shown in Figs. 15-10 to 15-12. A small gear-type When the piston is at BDC, pressure in the crank-
pump operated by the camshaft gear is sometimes case is highest. In this position, the bottom port in the
used on small vertical-shaft engines, as shown in camshaft aligns with the oil pickup passage in the
Pig losis: crankcase. The pressure above the oil forces it to fill
Figure 15-14 shows the lubricating system used on the hollow camshaft. As the camshaft continues turn-
a small multicylinder air-cooled engine. This engine ing, the bottom port is closed off, trapping the oil
uses spray nozzles to direct the oil to the moving under pressure in the hollow camshaft. Then the top
parts. port in the camshaft aligns with the main gallery in
Some vertical crankshaft four-cycle engines are the crankcase. As this occurs, the piston has reached
lubricated by a pressure system that uses pulsating TDC, and pressure in the crankcase is lowest.
crankcase pressures as an oil pump. Figure 11-3 The combined effect of the oil trapped under pres-
shows in cutaway view an engine with this type of sure in the hollow camshaft and of the lower pressure
lubricating system. The crankcase is sealed, similar in the crankcase causes some oil to flow out of the

115
 )
<j CARB SIDE CARB SIDE >
ASSEMBLY
1} marks

PLATE LOCK
PLATE DA ‘
DIPPER DIPPER

oe > CARB SIDE

FLAT

(c) CUTAWAY VIEW

FIG. 15-10 Barrel-type lubricating pump used on the
Lauson vertical-shaft engine.

LOCK
PLATE ASSEMBLY DIPPER
ASSEMBLY MARKS ock
MARKS LOC THRUST
PLATE
BEARING
DIPPER
SURFACE
FIG. 15-8 Different ways in which the dipper is mounted on
the connecting-rod cap.
CAMSHAFT
GEAR ECCENTRIC

CHAMFER

FIG. 15-11 The plunger-type oil pump is assembled on an

eccentric on the camshaft. (Tecumseh Products Company)

PRESSURE-
RELIEF [}
CYLINDER See PEINEER PORT Fe CRANKSHAFT
CRANKCASE MAIN-BEARING
FIG. 15-9 Oil slinger is rotated by the camshaft gear. PASSAGE OIL GROOVE
DRILLED
CRANKSHAFT
camshaft. The oil flows through the main gallery to PASSAGE
lubricate the top main bearing and then flows down
CRANKSHAFT
to fill the oil cup. From the oil cup, oil flows into the CONNECTING-
hollow crankpin and from there through another hole ROD JOURNAL
to the connecting-rod bearing.
One advantage to this type of lubricating system is
that it permits the engine to be operated at an angle.
The maximum angle possible changes with oil level
CRANKCASE
and position of the carburetor side of the engine (up
or down). Various types of these engines can operate OIL GROOVE
without harm at angles of 30 to 45°. DRILLED
BARREL-TYPE
CAMSHAFT
OIL PUMP
PASSAGE
015-19 OIL FILTERS In many four-cycle engines,
FIG. 15-12 Location of the barrel-type lubricating pump and
the oil from the oil pump must first pass through an the oil passages in the engine. (Tecumseh Products Com-
oil filter before it goes up to the engine. The oil filter pany)

116
 COMPRESSION NUT OUTLET NOZZLE made of pleated paper or fibrous material. The oil
passes through the filter, and the paper or fibers trap
the dirt particles.
Figure 15-15 shows an oil filter. The filter element is
housed in a replaceable can that is thrown away
when the element becomes clogged with dirt. In the
engine, the filter has a bypass relief valve, which
consists of a spring-loaded ball. If the filter element
becomes so clogged that all the oil needed by the
engine cannot pass through the filter, the increased
pressure from the oil causes the valve to open. This
allows oil from the pump to bypass the filter and go
directly to the engine. Figure 15-16 shows an oil filter
that has a replaceable element.
FIG. 15-13 Gear-driven oil pump. (Briggs & Stratton Corpo-
ration)
©15-20 OIL LEVEL INDICATORS A dipstick is
is the engine’s main protection against dirt. The filter used to check the level of the oil in the crankcase (Fig.
removes particles of carbon and dirt so they do not 15-17). To use the dipstick, pull it out, wipe it off, and
get into the engine and damage engine bearings and put it back in place. Then pull it out again so that you
other parts. The filter contains a filtering element can check the level of the oil shown on the dipstick.

NOTE:
CYLINDERS, RINGS, PISTONS, PINS, TAPPETS, VALVES, STANDARD LOCATION
CAMSHAFT, BEARINGS, ETC. ARE LUBRICATED BY OF OIL DIPSTICK
THE OIL SPRAY OR MIST THROWN OFF THE CONNECTING
RODS AND CRANKSHAFT
OIL FILLER AND
OIL STRAINER
SPLASH PLATES BREATHER CAP
PREVENT EXCESSIVE
OILING OF CYLINDERS
Z. aN
eS >= =]

IL SPRAY O NOZZLE s
OILS f
tL 44 O L—

fi SS
oe IN

Ul)
ry
wee

ili —_—

{AU
es OPTIONAL LOCATION
OF OIL DIPSTICK FILTER

OIL LINE TO
FULL AND LOW MARKS GOVERNOR
OIL HEADER TUBE ON OIL DIPSTICK
OIL DRAIN PLUG
OIL PUMP
OIL PRESSURE-RELIEF VALVE OIL RETURN FROM
STRAINER SCREEN
SET FOR 15 psi [1.05 kg/em?] PRESSURE FILTER INTO CRANKCASE

WITH ENGINE AT OPERATING TEMPERATURE, OIL PRESSURE IN HEADER WILL BE

APPROXIMATELY 5 psi [0.35 kg/em”]. AN OIL PRESSURE GAUGE IS NOT REQUIRED.

FIG. 15-14 Multiple-cylinder air-cooled engine lubricating

system. (Wisconsin Motor Corporation)

117
 STRAP
WRENCH

INSTALL REPLACEMENT FILTER

“FINGER TIGHT” ONLY

FIG. 15-15 Replaceable can type of oil filter. (Kohler Company)

FILTER
ELEMENT

FIG. 15-16 An oil filter using a re-

placeable filter element. (Kohler Com-
pany)
MODEL AND SERIAL
FUEL FILL CAP NUMBERS HERE
SPARK PLUG
FUEL TANK #%) MUFFLER

CHOKE

NOT
DO
FILL
ABOVE
FULL
MARK

CAUTION

4
¢
y 7) CARBURETOR
FIG. 15-17 Oil-fill plug and dipstick for a E J COVER
four-cycle engine. (Tecumseh Products js
Company) = IDIPSTICK OIL DRAIN PLUG

118
REVIEW QUESTIONS 9. Explain why wear of engine parts increases oil
consumption.
1. Name the six jobs that engine oil must do. 10. What are the two general types of four-cycle-
2. Explain how engine oil TeRONOE heat from the engine lubricating systeniss
engine. 11. Explain how the two-cycle engine is lubricated.
3. What is viscosity? 12. What is the purpose of the oil filter?
4. Does temperature influence oil viscosity? In opp PROJECT
what way?
Cans of engine oil have information on the proper-
5. Explain how sludge forms in the crankcase.
ties of and additives in the oil. Whenever you have
6. What are the five service ratings for gasoline- a chance, copy this information on sheets of paper
engine lubricating oils? to file in your notebook. Check the cans containing
oil of different viscosity numbers and service rat-
7. Is there any difference between the viscosity
ings. Build up as complete a file as you can. After
rating and the service rating of lubricating oil?
you have compiled a file on one brand of oil (Gulf,
8. What two main engine factors influence oil for example), work on getting a file for other brands
consumption? (Texaco, Shell, and so on).

119
 16
Chapter
Gasoline

©16-1 WHAT GASOLINE IS Gasoline is often re-

ferred to as “gas,” which is slang for the common
liquid fuel gasoline. The sort of gas you burn in a gas
stove or use to heat a house is usually a gas that is
After studying this chapter, you should be delivered through gas lines or pipes. There is a gas
able to: that is a gas (a vapor), and there is a “gas” that is
gasoline (a liquid).
ike Describe the composition of gasoline and the Gasoline is a hydrocarbon (HC) made up largely of
additives that go into it hydrogen and carbon compounds. These two ele-
ments unite readily with oxygen, a common element
. Explain what volatility is and how it affects which makes up about 20 percent of our air. When
engine operation hydrogen unites with oxygen, water (H,O) is formed.
When carbon unites with oxygen, carbon monoxide
. Discuss engine detonation and what is done (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO,) are formed. If all the
to prevent it gasoline burned completely in the engine, ali that
would come out would be water (H,O) and carbon
Explain why lead has been removed from dioxide (CO,). However, perfect combustion is not
achieved in the engine. So some CO and HC are
some gasolines
present in the exhaust gases. These two compounds,
plus a third compound, nitrogen oxides (NO,), are the
. Explain the relationship between compres-
major pollutants emitted by internal-combustion en-
sion ratio and detonation
gines.
The combustion of gasoline in the engine cylinder
produces heat and the high pressure that forces the
piston down. This is how the engine produces power.

©16-2 ORIGIN OF GASOLINE Gasoline, diesel

fuel oil, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), and many
other compounds are obtained from petroleum, or
crude oil. No one knows exactly how petroleum origi-
nated. It is found in “pools” under the ground. There
is evidence that it was formed over a period of many
millions of years from animal or vegetable sources.
The petroleum usually is under considerable pres-
sure. When a well is drilled down to a pool or reser-
voir, the petroleum gushes up out of the earth. How-
ever, in many wells, the natural pressure is not great
enough to force the crude oil out. With these wells,
pressure is applied from above the ground by artifi-
cial means to force the crude oil out.

120
 Petroleum is a very intricate mixture of many com- O16-5 COMPRESSION RATIO _ Before we discuss
pounds. The oil refinery separates the petroleum into the antiknock value of gasoline further, let us review
various substances. It alters many of the original the engine compression ratio. We discussed com-
compounds and forms new compounds in the refining pression ratio in an earlier chapter (O 14-13). Now let
process. From the refinery come many types and us relate it to engine detonation.
grades of lubricating oil, fuel oil of various types for The higher the compression ratio, the more the
diesel engines and heating, gasoline of many grades air-fuel mixture is “squeezed” on the compression
and types, kerosene, LPG, and so on. stroke. There is a higher initial pressure at the begin-
Gasoline is blended from a number of different ning of the power stroke. This means, in turn, that
basic hydrocarbons, each with its own set of charac- there is more pressure on the piston as combustion
teristics. By blending various basic fuels, a gasoline begins. This fact brings us to the basic advantage of
is obtained that provides satisfactory engine opera- higher compression ratios. With more pressure on the
tion under the many different operating conditions piston during the combustion stroke, more power re-
that the engine may meet. Factors that must be con- sults. Therefore, increasing the compression ratio
sidered in blending gasoline include volatility, anti- increases engine output. That is the reason why en-
knock value, and freedom from harmful chemicals gine designers and manufacturers are producing en-
and gum. These factors are discussed in detail in gines of higher and higher compression ratios. By
following sections. redesigning the engine to step up the compression
ratio, they get an engine with a higher horsepower
output without a comparable increase in size. In fact,
016-3 VOLATILITY Volatility refers to the ease
modern high-compression engines weigh much less
with which gasoline and other liquids vaporize. The
and are much more powerful than older engines.
volatility of a simple compound like water or alcohol
The increase of compression ratio has brought
is determined by increasing its temperature until it
about certain difficulties. A high-compression engine
boils, or vaporizes. A liquid that vaporizes at a rela-
has a greater tendency to detonate. It has been nec-
tively low temperature has a high volatility. If its
essary to find fuels that resist detonation for these
boiling point is high, it has a low volatility. A certain
high-compression engines. A great deal of research,
heavy oil, for example, has a low volatility. It does
both in the laboratory and in testing facilities, has
not boil until it reaches a temperature of over 600°F
been done to find these antiknock fuels.
[316°C]. Water is relatively volatile. It boils at 212°F
To understand why detonation occurs, it is first
[100°C]. Gasoline is still more volatile.
necessary to understand what happens to any gas
A highly volatile substance evaporates much faster
when it is compressed. When air is compressed to
at a low temperature than a substance with a low
one-fifteenth of its original volume, or the compres-
volatility. At room temperature, alcohol and gasoline
sion ratio is 15:1, the air temperature increases to
evaporate more rapidly than water.
about 1000°F [537.8°C]. The more a gas is com-
Gasoline is blended from different hydrocarbon
pressed, the higher its temperature rises. This tem-
compounds that have different volatilities, or boiling
perature rise is called heat of compression.
points. Some compounds of gasoline therefore evap-
orate more readily at low temperatures than others.
©16-6 CAUSE OF DETONATION During normal
This combination assures satisfactory operation
burning of fuel in the combustion chamber, the spark
under the various operating conditions that the en-
at the spark plug starts the burning process. A wall of
gine meets.
flame spreads out in all directions from the spark,
almost like a rubber balloon being blown up. The
©16-4 GASOLINE ANTIKNOCK CHARACTERIS- wall of flame travels rapidly outward through the
TICS During normal combustion in the engine compressed mixture in the combustion chamber until
cylinder, an even increase of pressure occurs. But if all the charge is burned, as shown in Fig. 16-1. The
the fuel burns too rapidly, or “explodes,” there is a speed with which the flame travels is called the rate
sudden and sharp pressure increase. This detona- of flame propagation. The movement of the flame
tion, or spark knock, may produce a rapping or ping- wall through the combustion chamber during normal
ing noise that sounds almost as though the piston combustion is shown in the top row of pictures in
head had been struck a hard hammer blow. Actually, Fig. 16-2. During combustion, the pressure increases
the sudden pressure increase does impose a sudden to several hundred psi. It may exceed 1000 psi
heavy load on the piston that is almost like a hammer [70.3 kg/cm®] in high-compression engines.
blow. This can damage the engine, wear moving Under certain conditions, the last part of the com-
parts rapidly, and even cause parts to break. Fur- pressed air-fuel mixture will explode before the flame
thermore, some of the energy in the gasoline is front reaches it, as shown at the bottom in Fig. 16-2.
wasted. The sudden pressure increase does not con- The unburned mixture, called end gas, is being sub-
tribute much to the production of power. jected to increasing pressure as the flame progresses

121
 POINT OF IGNITION
FIG. 16-1 Normal flame travel in the combustion chamber.
(1) Flame kernel consisting of combustion products; (2) flame
front area; (3) unburned mixture. (General Motors Corpora-
tion)

through the air-fuel mixture. This increases the tem-

perature of the end gas owing to heat of compression
FIG. 16-3 The appearance of a piston that has failed due to
and also to radiated heat from the combustion pro- ‘detonation. Note how the ring lands have been shattered
cess. If the temperature reaches the critical point, the and chipped away by the high-pressure shock wave. (TRW,
end gas will explode before the flame front arrives. Inc.)
The effect is almost the same as if the pistonhead had
been struck a heavy hammer blow. In fact, it sounds
as though this had happened. The sudden shock load mixture, at TDC, is more highly compressed and is at
due to detonation of the last part of the charge in- a higher initial temperature. With higher initial pres-
creases wear on bearings and other engine parts, ' sure and temperature, the temperature at which det-
and it may actually break engine parts if the shock is onation occurs is reached sooner. Therefore, high-
severe enough. Figure 16-3 shows a piston that has compression engines have a greater tendency to det-
been damaged by detonation. onate. However, special fuels have been developed
for use in such engines. These special fuels have a
© 16-7 COMPRESSION RATIO VERSUS DETONA- greater resistance to being set off by heat of compres-
TION Ascompression ratios of engines have gone sion. They are less apt to explode suddenly. The right
up, so has the tendency of the engines to detonate. fuel for an engine will depend for ignition upon the
The reason is that with higher compression ratios, the wall of flame traveling through the air-fuel mixture.

NORMAL COMBUSTION

-
ya “as DETONATION
FIG. 16-2 Normal combustion without detonation is shown in the top
row. The fuel charge burns smoothly from beginning to end, providing
an even, powerful thrust to the piston. Detonation is shown in the
bottom row. The last part of the fuel also explodes, or burns, instanta-
neously, producing detonation or spark knock. (General Motors Corpo-
ration)

122
O16-8 CONTROLLING ANTIKNOCK VALUES octane number (MON). Generally, the federal octane
There are several methods of testing fuels to deter- numbers that you find posted on gasoline pumps are
mine their tendency to detonate in engines. Some around 87 for unleaded regular gasoline, 90 for
fuels detonate rather easily. Others have a high re- leaded regular gasoline, and 95 for leaded premiums.
sistance to detonation, or a high antiknock rating.
The actual rating of a fuel for its antiknock value is ©O16-9 DETONATION VERSUS PREIGNITION Let
made in terms of octane number, referred to as ON. A us define these two terms. Detonation is a secondary
high-octane gasoline is highly resistant to detona- explosion that occurs after the spark at the spark-
tion, while a low-octane gasoline detonates rather plug gap. Preignition is ignition of the air-fuel mix-
easily. There is a fuel called iso-octane that is ex- ture prior to the occurrence of the spark at the spark-
tremely resistant to detonation. It is given an octane plug gap. Figure 16-4 shows a piston that has been
rating, or ON, of 100. Another fuel, called heptane, damaged by preignition.
detonates very easily. It is given an ON of zero. A We have discussed the type of spark knock that
mixture of half iso-octane and half heptane, by vol- results from detonation, or sudden explosion, of the
ume, would have a 50 ON. A mixture of 90 percent last part of the fuel charge in the cylinder. This type
iso-octane and 10 percent heptane would have an ON of noise is usually regular in character. It is most
of 90. noticeable when the engine is accelerated or is under
Actually, iso-octane and heptane are reference heavy load, as when climbing a hill. Under these
fuels, used only to rate unknown fuels. One rating conditions, the throttle is fully open, or nearly so. The
procedure makes use of a test engine built so that its engine is taking in a full air-fuel charge on every
compression ratio can be varied. A fuel to be rated is intake stroke. Volumetric efficiency is high. This
used to run the engine. The compression ratio is in- means that high compression pressures may be
creased until a certain intensity of detonation is ob- reached after the mixture is ignited.
tained. Then, reference fuels of varying proportions Preignition, surface ignition, and rumble are usu-
of iso-octane and heptane are used to run the engine. ally considered to be service problems. They result
The octane rating of the reference fuel is decreased, from inadequate servicing of the engine, such as the
by using smaller percentages of iso-octane, until the installation of the wrong spark plugs which run too
same intensity of detonation results as obtained with hot and the use of incorrect fuels and lubricating oils
the fuel to be rated. The fuel being rated is then given for the engine and the type of operation. With incor-
the same octane number as the reference fuel, since rect fuel or oil, engine deposits may occur which will
both produce the same amount of detonation. If the lead to surface ignition and rumble. Engine deposits
reference fuel has 88 percent iso-octane, for example, can also increase the compression ratio so that the
then it and the fuel being tested are considered to engine becomes more likely to detonate.
have the same 88 ON.
Actually, there are two testing procedures using © 16-10 CHEMICAL CONTROL OF DETONATION
the variable-compression-ratio engine. One method Certain chemicals added to gasoline tend to prevent
is called the research method. It is performed at com- detonation of the last part of the fuel charge, the end
paratively low speed and air-inlet temperatures. The
octane number of a gasoline tested by this method is
called the research octane number, or RON. The other
method is called the motor method. It is performed at
higher engine speed and air-inlet temperatures. The
octane number of a gasoline tested by this method is
called the motor octane number, or MON. Commer-
cial gasoline typically will have an octane number as
much as eight numbers lower by the motor method
than by the research method.
The two numbers are averaged to get the adver-
tised octane number of gasoline. This is the number
that you find posted on gasoline pumps in service
stations. For example, suppose a gasoline had an
RON of 98 and an MON of 90. The posted ON would
then be 94.
98
+ 90
9 = 94
FIG. 16-4 The appearance of a piston that has failed due to
The federal octane rating is actually the average of preignition. The excessive temperature has melted a hole
the research octane number (RON) and the motor through the pistonhead. (TRW, Inc.)

123
gas, during combustion. One theory is that the chem- QUENCH- \ !
AND-
icals increase the reaction time of the fuel. In other SQUISH
words, they increase the time that the air-fuel mixture AREA
remains stable. This increased time gives the flame
front time to reach the end gas before it explodes. The
result is that it enters into the normal combustion
process. One of the compounds most successful in
preventing detonation is tetraethyl lead, commonly
called ethyl or tel. A small amount added to gasoline
WEDGE HEMISPHERIC
raises the octane number of the gasoline.
FIG. 16-6 Wedge and hemispheric combustion chambers.
(General Motors Corporation)
O16-11 OTHER FACTORS AFFECTING DETONA-
TION The shape of the combustion chamber, in
addition to the compression ratio, has a great effect the squish area in a combustion chamber. As the
on the tendency of the engine to detonate. The com- piston nears TDC, the mixture is squished, or pushed,
bustion chamber of an I-head engine is bounded at out of the squish area. As it squirts out, it promotes
the top by the cylinder head, intake and exhaust turbulence and further mixing of the air-fuel mixture.
valves, and the spark plug. It is bounded at the bot-
tom by the pistonhead and top compression ring as 016-14 QUENCH Detonation results when the
shown in Fig. 16-5. There are two general shapes— end-gas temperature goes too high and the end gas
wedge and hemispheric—as shown in Fig. 16-6. The explodes before the flame front reaches it. However,
shape determines turbulence, squish, and quench. if some heat is extracted from the end gas, then its
These three factors affect detonation. temperature will not reach the detonation point. In
the arrangement shown in the left part of Fig. 16-6,
©O16-12 TURBULENCE When you stir your coffee, the squish area is also a quench area. The closeness
you impart turbulence to it so that the cream and of the cylinder head to the piston and the relative
sugar mix with the coffee. In a like manner, impart- coolness of these metal surfaces cause heat to be
ing turbulence to the air-fuel mixture entering the extracted from the end gas. Therefore, the tendency
combustion chamber assures more uniform mixing so for detonation to occur is quenched.
that the combustion will be more uniform. Turbulence
also reduces the time required for the flame front to
016-15 HEMISPHERIC COMBUSTION CHAMBER
sweep through the compressed mixture.
With the hemispheric combustion chamber, the spark
plug can be located near the center of the dome.
© 16-13 SQUISH Squish refers to the way in
Then, when combustion starts, the flame front has a
whith the piston, in some combustion chambers,
relatively short distance to travel. There are no dis-
squishes, or squeezes, a part of the air-fuel mixture at
tant pockets of end gas to detonate. The chamber has
the end of the compression stroke. Figure 16-6 shows
no squish or quench areas. However, there is rela-
tively little turbulence.
SURFACE AREA

© 16-16 WEDGE COMBUSTION CHAMBER With

the wedge combustion chamber, the spark plug is
located to one side. The flame front must travel a
greater distance to reach the end of the wedge. The
end of the wedge has a squish-and-quench area
which cools the end gas. This prevents detonation
and at the same time imparts turbulence to the
mixture.

©16-17 SMOG The shape of the combustion

chamber also influences the number of pollutants in
the exhaust gases. The relatively cool metal surfaces
of the cylinder head and piston top retard combus-
tion. Therefore, the layers of air-fuel mixture next to
these metal surfaces will not burn completely. The
wedge combustion chamber, with its larger surface
FIG. 16-5 Combustion surface area in the combustion area, produces more pollutants per power stroke than
chamber. The surface area is indicated by the dotted line. the hemispheric combustion chamber.

124
O 16-18 OPERATING FACTORS AFFECTING DETO- forth. The only variation was in the octane number of
NATION In any engine many operating factors the fuels used. Fuels were selected for each design as
affect the tendency to detonate. Many tests have been required to avaid detonation. It was found that design
made to establish the relationship between tempera- A required 96-octane fuel to run without detonating,
ture, humidity, ignition spark advance, engine de- whereas design J required only 88-octane fuel. There
posits, and detonation tendency. Test results are usu- is a difference of 8 mechanical octanes between de-
ally given in terms of the octane-number increase sign A and design J.
necessary to eliminate detonation.
For example, a hot engine detonates more easily ©16-20 GASOLINE ADDITIVES In addition to the
than a cold engine. To get exact data on this, an antiknock compounds and their related lead-com-
engine is operated cold on the lowest-octane fuel it pound-vaporizing substances which are put into gas-
can use without detonating. The difference between oline to raise its octane rating, many other additives
the octane numbers is an indication of the increased are used. Major additives include the following:
octane requirements as the engine warms up. For
example, one test showed that increasing the tem- 1. Oxidation inhibitors to help prevent the forma-
perature of the coolant in a liquid-cooled engine from tion of gum while the gasoline is in storage.
100 to 190°F [87.8 to 87.8°C] increased the octane
2. Metal deactivators to protect the gasoline from
requirements by 22 numbers, from 70 to 92 in this
the harmful effects of certain metals picked up in
engine. Therefore, as an air-cooled engine gets hot,
the refining process or in the engine fuel system.
its octane requirements go up.
3. Antirust agents to protect the engine fuel sys-
O16-19 CHEMICAL VERSUS MECHANICAL OC- tem.
TANE Octane numbers can be increased by add-
4, Anti-icers to combat carburetor icing and fuel-
ing a chemical such as tel (tetraethyl lead). Octane
line freeze.
requirements of the engine can be changed by
changes in engine design and by changes in operat- 5. Detergents to keep the carburetor clean.
ing conditions. The previous sections discussed sev-
6. Dye for identification.
eral operating conditions that increase or lower oc-
tane requirements. Increasing compression ratio
© 16-21 GASOLINE FOR SMALL ENGINES In the
increases octane needs. Mechanical octane, or oc-
past, many small-engine manufacturers recom-
tane need, of an engine can also be altered by
mended the use of a gasoline with at least a 90 RON.
changes in piston and combustion-chamber shape.
Today, in these engines, a gasoline with a pump
Figure 16-7 shows a series of combustion-chamber
sticker rating of 85 octane or higher may be used.
shapes which were tested during design work on an
Some manufacturers of four-cycle small engines
engine. All these were run under identical conditions
now allow the use of unleaded gasoline in their en-
of speed, power output, compression ratio, and so
gines. However, the unleaded gasoline must have a
pump sticker octane rating of 85 or higher, or a re-

iy
search octane rating of 90 or higher. In addition to
causing less air pollution from the exhaust gas, the

ie im Les
A

unleaded fuel greatly reduces deposits on the spark

plugs and in the combustion chamber.
r , : O85
Always use the gasoline specified by the engine
Cc G manufacturer for use in the engine. Failure to do so
2 lipo may cause premature rapid wear of the engine parts.
For example, engines designed to use unleaded gas-

or NO
Fa Ne ie 4 oline may have coated valves and hardened valve
seats. An older engine, without these features built
in, may have rapid wear of the valves and valve seats

Sis if it is operated on unleaded gasoline.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. With perfect combustion, what two compounds

OCTANE NUMBER
would be formed when gasoline burns?
FIG. 16-7 Octane tree showing the relationship between |
combustion-chamber design and octane requirements. Two 2. Name three pollutants emitted from engines.
views (end and side) of the combustion chamber are shown
for each design except for designs F and G. (Buick Motor 3. What is volatility? Why is it important in gaso-
Division of General Motors Corporation) line?

125
 . What does the term “antiknock value” mean? 15. What are the two basic combustion-chamber
shapes?
. What is heat of compression?
16. Name six gasoline additives.
. Explain the cause of detonation produced by
heat of compression.
. What effect does increasing the compression pene PROJECT
ratio have on detonation? Why?
. Describe one method of measuring the anti- Find out how gasoline is made. Go to your local
knock value of a gasoline. library and look in an encyclopedia for information
on oil and gasoline. Make notes on how engineers
. What does octane number mean?
prospect (look for) oil in the earth. Prospectors drill
10. What is the difference between detonation and many wells into the earth in their search for oil.
preignition? Most of these are dry wells. They contain no oil. But
when prospectors do find oil, a whole series of
11. What effect does lead have on valves and valve
events sets in. The oil must be controlled as it
seats?
comes from the well. It must be transported to re-
12. Why has lead been removed from gasoline? fineries. The refineries put the crude oil through a
series of processes. Out of the refining processes
13. What is quench?
come many different products ranging from grease
14. What is squish? and other lubricants to fuel oil and gasoline.

126
Fuel Systems for
Small Engines

ae eee
017-1 INTRODUCTION TO FUEL SYSTEMS
The air-fuel mixture must have the proper propor-
tions of air and gasoline for good engine operation. If
the mixture does not have enough gasoline vapor
After studying this chapter, you should be (mixture too lean) or if the mixture has too much gas-
able to: oline vapor (mixture too rich), the engine will not run
properly. Also, to start a cold engine, the mixture
1. List the types of fuel systems used on small must be enriched. It must have a higher proportion of
engines gasoline vapor in it.
In this chapter, we look at the various fuel systems
. List the parts of the fuel system and the pur- used in small engines. A variety of fuel systems and
pose and operation of each carburetors are used in small engines, because small
engines are used in so many different ways. Some
. Describe the construction of a basic carbu- small engines, such as those used in lawn mowers,
are designed to run at one speed in an upright posi-
retor
tion. Other small engines, such as those used in
chain saws, are designed to be used in many differ-
_Explain why a governor is needed and how
ent positions.
each type of governor operates
017-2 TYPICAL SMALL-ENGINE FUEL SYSTEMS
The fuel system for a small engine (Fig. 17-1) includes
a fuel tank, fuel filter, carburetor, air cleaner, and (on
some engines) a fuel pump. Three general types of
fuel systems are used on small engines. These are as
follows:

1. The gravity-feed fuel system

2. The suction-feed fuel system
3. The pressure-feed fuel system

The two most commonly used fuel systems on small

engines are the gravity-feed system and the suction-
feed system. These are shown in Fig. 17-2. Other
small engines use a pressure-feed system, such as
shown in Fig. 17-3. This type of fuel system requires
the use of a fuel pump.
Now, let us take a look at the parts of a typical
gravity-feed fuel system used on a two-cycle engine
in a power lawn mower. This type of fuel system is

127
 FUEL TANK
FUEE FIETER
FUEL SHUT-OFF VALVE
CHOKE VALVE

THROTTLE VALVE SES

AIR FILTER

FLOAT BOWL
REED VALVE

FIG. 17-1 Fuel system for two-cycle engine. (Lawn Boy

Division of Outboard Marine Corporation) O17-8 FUEL TANK The fuel tank shown in Fig.
17-4 is made of sheet metal or plastic. It has a filler
cap which is removed to add gasoline. The filler cap
shown in Figs. 17-1 and 17-2. A similar system is has a small hole in it for air to enter the tank as
shown in Fig. 17-4. Later we will discuss the other gasoline is used. A fuel strainer, or fuel filter, at the
types of fuel systems used on small engines. The tank outlet (Fig. 17-4) filters out any dirt that might
engine with which this gravity-feed fuel system is have entered the tank. This prevents the dirt from
used is described and illustrated in Chap. 9. entering the carburetor, where it could clog fuel pas-
In a gravity-feed fuel system, gasoline flows down sages and stop the engine.
by gravity from the fuel tank through a fuel filter.
From the filter, the gasoline flows through a fuel line O17-4 AIR CLEANER The engine shown in Fig.
to the carburetor. When the engine is running, air 17-1 uses a metal-mesh air cleaner. The mesh is
passes through the air cleaner on the way to the packed into the filter case and moistened with oil. It
carburetor. In the carburetor, the air picks up a traps particles of dirt that enter with the air. Over a
charge of gasoline. Then the air-fuel mixture enters period of time, the filter can become so loaded with
the engine. This action already has been discussed in dirt that it restricts the flow of air. This prevents nor-
Chap. 9. mal operation of the engine. Before this happens, the
The carburetor itself is shown in Figs. 17-1, 17-2, filter should be removed and washed in clean sol-
and 17-4. Essential parts of a typical carburetor in- vent. Then the filter should be reoiled and reinstalled
clude the air cleaner, float bowl, choke valve, throttle on the carburetor.
valve, and (on some carburetors) the fuel nozzle with Various other types of air cleaner are shown in Fig.
adjustment needle. In later sections of this chapter, 17-5. In the widely used oiled-foam type, the lip of the
the operation and construction of small-engine car- foam must extend over the edge of the air-cleaner
buretors are discussed in detail. body when the cover is in place. There the lip forms a

128
 FILLER AIR
FUEL
TANK

OIL-BATH
AIR
CLEANER
CHOKE
Ne THROTTLE

IR CARBURETOR
SHUT-OFF
VALVE

FUEL AIR-FUEL
FILTER MIXTURE
EXHAUST
OUTLET THROTTLE-SPEED
TO ENGINE
SCREW

CARBURETOR FUEL
TA NK
FUEL PIPE BALL-CHECK
FUEL
NEEDLE VALVE
LINE VALVE
NEEDLE
VALVE CHOKE

FIG. 17-2 Two types of small-engine fuel systems: (left) a

gravity-feed system and (right) a suction-feed system. These or in the fuel line between the fuel tank and the car-
fuel systems are used on single-cylinder four-cycle engines. buretor. In Fig. 17-3, the fuel system shown has a fuel
(Briggs & Stratton Corporation) filter in the bottom of the fuel tank. In Fig. 17-4, a fuel
filter is installed ahead of the fuel pump, in the fuel
seal around the outside of the air cleaner so no air line from the fuel tank. Regardless of its position, the
can enter the carburetor without first passing through fuel filter has the job of filtering out any dirt particles
the oiled foam. or grit in the gasoline.
Some engines use an oil-bath air cleaner (Fig. 17-5).
Others use a dry element. In the oil-bath air cleaner,
©O17-6 FLOATBOWL _ The purpose of the float sys-
there is a reservoir containing oil past which the
tem is to prevent the delivery of too much gasoline to
incoming air must flow. As the air does this, it picks
the carburetor. Without the float system, all the fuel
up particles of oil and carries them up into the filter
in the fuel tank would run down into the carburetor.
mesh. This tends to wash off dirt particles, which
The float system is made up of a small bowl, a float of
drain back into the oil reservoir with the oil. On these
metal or cork, and a needle valve that is operated by
filters, the oil must be changed whenever the wire
the float. Figure 17-6 is a simplified drawing of a float
mesh is washed.
system. When gasoline from the fuel tank enters the
On7-5— FUEL FILIER A fuel filter, or strainer, usu- float bowl, the float is raised. As the float moves
ally is installed on an engine. The filter is mounted at upward, it lifts the needle valve into the inlet hole
the outlet of the fuel tank, in the carburetor fuel inlet, (called the valve seat).
FILLER CAP
AIR
FUEL LINE
TO CARBURETOR

GROOVEIN
FROM FUEL TANK CRANKSHAFT
FUEL FILTER
FIG. 17-3 Pressure-feed fuel system for a small engine. The
engine has been partly cut away in the illustration so the
position of the pump lever on the groove in the crankshaft FIG. 17-4 Engine with a gravity-feed fuel system. (Briggs &
eccentric can be seen. Stratton Corporation)

129
 OILED-FOAM WIRE-
FILTER ELEMENT MESH
ELEMENT
ASSEMBLE ONE
OF THESE
LOW POINTS
TOWARDS
NARROW EDGE
OF ELEMENT
ELEMENT

ASSEMBLE ELEMENT
SO LIP EXTENDS OVER
EDGE OF AIR CLEANER
BODY
LIP WILL FORM (6) OIL-BATH AIR CLEANER
PROTECTIVE SEAL
WHEN COVER IS
ASSEMBLED

(a) OILED-FOAM AIR CLEANER UPPER

@0-— WING NUT
DRY-TYPE FILTER ELEMENT
QW WING NUT

FOAM
SLEEVE

LOWER
WING NUT
eras —o0 CUP
9000000000054
000000009999
NDAD ADADaD
0S DRY-TYPE
Q0G
oc
lo
FILTER FOAM
o,S0867
CP ELEMENT SLEEVE

(c) DRY-ELEMENT AIR CLEANER (d) HEAVY-DUTY AIR CLEANER

FIG. 17-5 Various types of small-engine air cleaners.
(Briggs & Stratton Corporation)
that allows gasoline to enter at the same rate that the
carburetor withdraws it. This keeps the level of gaso-
line in the float bow] at the same height.
When the gasoline is at the proper height in the Not all carburetors for small engines have a float
bowl, the needle valve is pressing tightly against its bowl. For example, a chain saw must be operated in
seat so that no more gasoline can enter. When the many different positions, and a float bowl does not
carburetor withdraws gasoline to operate the engine, permit this. Therefore, chain saws and certain other
then the gasoline level in the float bowl falls, the small-engine-powered equipment use a type of car-
float and needle drop down, and more gasoline can buretor that does not have a float bowl. In general,
enter. In operation, the needle valve holds a position however, the basic parts and systems are the same in
all carburetors.

NEEDLE VALVE 017-7 THE BASIC CARBURETOR The carburetor

has three basic parts besides the float system. These
are the air horn, the fuel nozzle, and a throttle valve
(Fig. 17-7). The throttle valve is a round plate fastened
to a shaft. When the shaft is turned, the throttle valve
is tilted more or less in the air horn. The throttle valve
can be tilted to allow air to flow through freely or be
turned to block the passage of air. This is the basic
control of engine speed and power. Turning the throt-
tle valve allows more or less air-fuel mixture to enter
the engine so the engine can produce more or less
power.
GASOLINE The air horn has a restriction, or venturi, at the
FIG. 17-6 Simplified drawing of a float bowl. point where the nozzle enters it (Fig. 17-7). The pur-

130
 AIR | VENTURI THROTTLE speed and are about the same distance apart. But if
HORN VALVE
AIR-FUEL all the molecules are to get through the venturi, they
MIXTURE must begin to move faster as the air enters the ven-

qa turi. As the first molecule enters the venturi, it speeds

up, momentarily leaving the second molecule be-
hind. The second molecule then enters the venturi
and also speeds up. But the first molecule, in effect,
has a headstart and the second molecule cannot
catch up. Therefore, in the venturi, the molecules of
air are farther apart.
FUEL Where molecules are relatively far apart, there is a
NOZZLE partial vacuum, or low-pressure area. In the carbu-
THROTTLE
retor venturi, this vacuum is located around the end
SHAFT of the fuel nozzle. Then air pressure on the fuel in the
FLOAT float bowl pushes fuel up the tube and out the fuel
BOWL nozzle (Fig. 17-8). The fuel sprays into the passing air,
mixing with it to form the air-fuel mixture that the
GASOLINE
engine needs to operate.
FIG. 17-7 If the air horn is turned to a horizontal position,
the carburetor will work just as well. The more air that passes through the air horn, the
higher the vacuum at the venturi and the greater the
amount of fuel that feeds from the fuel nozzle. There-
pose of the venturi is to create a partial vacuum or fore, the proper proportions of air and fuel are main-
low-pressure area when air is passing through the air tained throughout the full range of throttle positions.
horn. When the throttle is partly opened, only a small
The following is a simplified explanation of how amount of air flows through and only a small amount
the venturi creates a vacuum. As air moves into the of fuel feeds from the fuel nozzle. But when the throt-
air horn, all the air molecules are moving at the same tle is wide open, a large amount of air flows through
the venturi and a large amount of fuel feeds from the
fuel nozzle.
melee

©17-8 CARBURETOR ACTION The carburetor

mixes air and gasoline to provide the combustible
=e
air-fuel mixture the engine requires to run. This is
—r> i —
shown in Fig. 17-7. As air passes through the carbu-
retor on its way to the engine, gasoline is fed into it
LOW-PRESSURE AREA
by a system we will describe later. The gasoline is
fed into the passing air as a fine spray. This causes
the gasoline to evaporate very quickly, producing the
FUEL NOZZLE
required combustible mixture of air and gasoline
vapor.
Whenever a liquid is sprayed, it is turned into a
great many tiny droplets. The effect is called atomi-
zation, because the liquid is broken up into small
droplets. However, the liquid is not actually broken
up into atoms as the name implies. Each droplet is
exposed to air on all sides, and so it evaporates, or
turns to vapor, very quickly. One fluid ounce [80 cc] of
gasoline, broken up into fine droplets by spraying,
GASOLINE
will actually expose several square feet of surface
area to the air. Therefore, vaporization, or evapora-
tion, takes place almost instantly.
The carburetor shown in Fig. 17-7 is a horizontal
carburetor. The air horn lies in the horizontal posi-
FIG. 17-8 (Top) The venturi produces a vacuum, or low- tion. This is the type of carburetor used on many
pressure area, when air flows through it. (Bottom) A nozzle small engines and motorcycles. However, the air
leading up from the float bowl will pass gasoline upward
into the air stream as atmospheric pressure pushes it up
horn can be turned to a vertical position and the
toward the vacuum. (Lawn Boy Division Outboard Marine carburetor will work just as well. This type of carbu-
Corporation) retor is used on almost all automobile engines.

131
 REED THROTTLE
VALVE VALVE
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FLOAT BOWL
CHOKE VALVE AIR FILTER
FIG. 17-9 Sectional view of a carburetor for a two-cycle
engine used on a lawn mower. (Lawn Boy Division of Out- FIG. 17-11 The choke valve is located between the air filter
board Marine Corporation) and the venturi.

©17-9 ADJUSTING THE AIR-FUEL MIXTURE On duces a partial vacuum in the air horn when the
some carburetors, the richness of the air-fuel mixture engine is cranked and the piston pulls air from the air
can be varied by turning an adjustment knob or screw horn. This partial vacuum, added to the vacuum
to raise or lower the adjustment needle (Fig. 17-9). If caused by the venturi, results in a greater vacuum at
the adjustment needle is lifted away from its seat, the the fuel nozzle. More fuel feeds from the fuel nozzle,
fuel passage around the needle tip is enlarged and and the resulting mixture is enriched. After the en-
more fuel can flow. This means that there will be gine starts, the choke valve must be opened to pre-
more fuel and that the air-fuel mixture will be richer. vent delivery of an excessively rich mixture to the
But if the adjustment knob or screw is turned to move running engine. :
the needle tip toward its seat, then the passage is
smaller. Less fuel can flow (Fig. 17-10). Now the air- O17-11 PRIMER Many small-engine carburetors
fuel mixture will be leaner. have a primer instead of a choke valve. One type is
shown in Fig. 17-12. The primer, when operated, sup-
©17-10 CHOKEVALVE Thechoke valve is located plies extra fuel to the carburetor discharge holes. The
between the air filter and the carburetor venturi (Fig. type shown in Fig. 17-12 works this way: When you
17-11). The purpose of the choke is to help start the press down on the primer bulb, you shut off the vent
engine. During starting, especially when the engine hole and force air into the float bowl. This forces fuel
is cold, only part of the gasoline will evaporate to up through the fuel discharge hole. The primer is also
form a combustible mixture. This means that the car- called a tickler.
buretor nozzle must deliver more gasoline to the air Another primer which is actually a small pump is
passing through. The choke valve has this job. The shown in Fig. 17-13. This primer has a cup-shaped
choke valve is a round plate, like the throttle valve. disk on the bottom of a spring-loaded rod. When the
When the choke valve is closed, it partially blocks the plunger is pushed down, fuel passes around the edge
air horn so that less air can get through. This pro- of the disk, as shown in Fig. 17-18b. Then, when the
plunger is released, the spring pulls it up. This lifts
ADJUSTING ADJUSTING fuel upward into the carburetor, as shown in Fig.
NEEDLE NEEDLE 17-13c. The fuel pours out into the carburetor air horn.

VENT HOLE
PRIMER BULB
oO

THROTTLE
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5 DO
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TK

ENLARGED RESTRICTED
PASSAGE PASSAGE

(a) (b)
FIG. 17-10 (a) Carburetor adjustment needle and seat pressed down, it pushes air into the carburetor float bowl,
showing enlarged passage allowing more fuel to flow. (b) causing the float bowl to discharge fuel into the airstream
Restricted passage allowing less fuel to flow. through the carburetor.

132
 choke valve is closed, a high vacuum develops dur-
ing cranking so that more fuel feeds into the engine.
The mixture becomes very rich for easy starting.
CARBURETOR ~ When the throttle is opened and the engine is run-
ning, as shown in Fig. 17-14, fuel feeds past the nee-
dle valve and upward through the nozzle so that the
passing air is charged with fuel. During idle, with the
throttle closed, the relatively high vacuum above the
FUEL throttle plate causes fuel to feed on upward through
CHAMBER
(b) the nozzle and into the opening back of the idle valve.
From there, the fuel discharges into the air passing
above the throttle plate.

PRIMER 017-13 SUCTION-FEED FUEL SYSTEM In the

(a) suction-feed system (also called the suction-lift sys-
tem), the fuel tank is below the carburetor. Fuel feeds
TO upward directly from the fuel tank to the carburetor
CARBURETOR discharge holes. No separate float bowl is needed.
THROAT Figure 17-15 illustrates how this carburetor works.
(c) Figure 17-16 is a cutaway view of an actual suction-
FIG. 17-13 Primer for a small engine. When the plunger is feed carburetor. The fuel pipe from the fuel tank is
pushed down as at(b), fuel passes by the cup-shaped disk. connected to the two discharge holes below the point
Then, when the plunger is released as at (c), the spring where the needle valve is located. In operation, the
raises the disk and lifts fuel up into the carburetor. partial vacuum produced by the passage of air
through the air horn causes atmospheric pressure to
When the engine is cranked, the air passing through push fuel upward from the fuel tank and out through
will be enriched for easier starting. the discharge holes. The throttle plate (in Fig. 17-15)
has a notch cut out of it at the top. This is for idle
O17-12 GRAVITY-FEED FUEL SYSTEM In the operation. When the throttle plate is closed, the only
gravity-feed fuel system, shown in Figs. 17-1, 17-2, passage for the ingoing air is through this notch. The
and 17-4, the fuel tank is located above the carbu- passing air produces a sufficient vacuum close to the
retor. The fuel feeds down to the carburetor float bow] idle discharge hole to cause fuel to flow. This ensures
by gravity. Figure 17-14 shows a sectional view of a that the idle mixture contains sufficient fuel.
carburetor used with this type of system. Fuel flows Some models of suction-feed carburetors have a
downward by gravity from the fuel tank to the float ball check in the fuel pipe, as shown in Fig. 17-16.
bowl when the fuel level is low in the float bowl. The purpose of the ball-check valve is to prevent fuel
The carburetor works just about the same as the in the pipe from flowing back down into the fuel tank
carburetors used in automobiles. However, the when the engine stops. This improves subsequent
small-engine carburetor is simpler in basic design starting, because the fuel pipe is already filled.
and does not have an accelerator pump, a power Therefore, it begins to feed fuel just as soon as the
system, and so on. The type shown in Figs. 17-4 and engine crankshaft is spun.
17-14 has a choke valve in the air horn. When the The choke used in the carburetor shown in Figs.

THROTTLE VALVE

FROM NEEDLE
FUEL AIR VALVE
INLET CLEANER HIGH-SPEED
DISCHARGE
FLOAT- HOLE
NEEDLE SEAT IDLE
DISCHARGE
FLOAT SOME
NEEDLE
NOZZLE

PACKING THROTTLE
NUT PLATE

NEEDLE CHOKE
at aVALVE
rls
VALVE
FIG. 17-14 Sectional view of a carburetor for a small en-
gine. (Briggs & Stratton Corporation) FIG. 17-15 Schematic view of a suction-type carburetor.

133
 GU, VALVE

iAT UA CLOSED
| ok
LL NY VALVE (a2) ENGINE CHOKED
FOR STARTING

FUEL BALL-
TANK CHECK VALVE
CONTROL
VALVE
THROTTLE OPEN
OPEN
(6) ENGINE RUNNING

CONTROL
VALVE
CLOSED
THROTTLE
CLOSED
(c) ENGINE STOPPED
FIG. 17-16 Cutaway view of a suction-type carburetor. Note
the round slide-type carburetor choke to the lower left. FIG. 17-18 For starting, the control valve is closed and so
(Briggs & Stratton Corporation) the engine is choked. When the engine starts, the control
valve is turned to the running position, and this leaves the
control valve out of the way so that air and fuel can feed
into the engine. To stop the engine, the control valve is
17-15 and 17-16 is the slide type. It can be slid into the
turned to the closed position, so that the fuel passage from
air horn to restrict air flow and thereby increase the the fuel tank is closed off.
vacuum at the discharge holes. This produces addi-
tional fuel feed during cranking so that an ade-
quately rich mixture is delivered to the engine. shape of a half cylinder set in a hollow cylinder, as
Figure 17-15 illustrates a suction-type carburetor shown in Fig. 17-18. The valve can be rotated into the
that has a flat slide-type choke. The carburetor in Fig. three positions to provide for engine control. When
17-16 has a round slide-type choke. the control valve is positioned as shown in Fig. 17-
18a, the air flow through the carburetor is choked off.
©17-14 SUCTION-FEED CARBURETOR WITH SIN- Therefore, a high vacuum will develop on the intake
GLE CONTROL One model of suction-feed carbu- stroke as the engine is cranked. This high vacuum
retor uses a single control valve which provides for will cause a heavy flow of fuel from the tank so the
choking, running, and stopping the engine. A carbu- engine receives a rich mixture for starting.
retor of this type is shown in Fig. 17-17 with the three After the engine has started, the control valve is
positions of the valve indicated. The valve is in the turned to the position shown in Fig. 17-18b. Now it is
up out of the way, and normal engine operation re-
sults. Then, when the engine is shut off, the control
valve is turned to the position shown in Fig. 17-18c. In
this position, the fuel pipe from the fuel tank is
blocked off and no fuel can reach the carburetor.

CONTROL 017-15 SUCTION-FEED CARBURETOR WITH DIA-

= VALVE PHRAGM The suction-lift, or suction-feed, carbu-
retor described in the previous section works satis-
factorily for the smaller engines of 2 to 3 horsepower.
HIGH-SPEED (RUN) It does not work well for larger engines. The reason is
POSITIONING NOTCH ALIGNED
SPRING WITH POSITIONING that the vacuum will not provide sufficient fuel when
SPRING the tank is nearly empty. It is easier for the vacuum to
FIG. 17-17 Exterior view of a suction-feed carburetor with a lift fuel up to the carburetor when the tank is full. But
single control for starting, running, and stopping. when the fuel tank is nearly empty, the fuel must be

134
 TO ENGINE

INLET VALVE
CLOSED

OUTLET
VALVE OPEN
MAIN
TANK AUXILIARY
FIG. 17-19 Exterior view of a suction-feed carburetor with a EUBE
diaphragm. (Briggs & Stratton Corporation) TANK
FIG. 17-21 Schematic sectional view of a diaphragm-type
suction-feed carburetor, showing the actions when the pis-
raised considerably farther. Therefore, less fuel will ton is moving up.
be fed into the air passing through the carburetor. To
provide for a more nearly even fuel feed, many suc-
a result, the pressure can push fuel from the pump
tion-feed carburetors for larger engines have an aux-
chamber upward and into the auxiliary tank. This
iliary fuel tank or reservoir. It is very similar to the
action keeps the auxiliary tank filled so that ade-
float bow] in carburetors previously described.
quate fuel can be fed in a uniform manner into the
Figure 17-19 shows a carburetor of this type with
carburetor. The fuel flow is unaffected by the level of
the fuel tanks removed. There are two separate fuel
fuel in the main fuel tank.
pipes: one from the main fuel tank and one from the
The intake stroke of the piston produces the vac-
auxiliary tank. The arrangement is shown schemat-
uum that causes the pump to work. This description
ically in Fig. 17-20. Just above the main fuel tank
fits the four-cycle engine. On two-cycle engines, the
there is a fuel pump that is operated by engine vac-
vacuum is developed when the piston is moving up
uum. When the piston is moving down on the intake
on the compression stroke. The vacuum is produced
stroke, the vacuum pulls air from the small chamber
in the crankcase, and the air-fuel mixture from the
in which the pump spring is located. The pump dia-
carburetor feeds into the crankcase past the reed
phragm is pulled upward. This produces a vacuum
valve. This vacuum operates the diaphragm of the
under the diaphragm. Atmospheric pressure on the
pump. The principle of operation is the same as for
fuel in the main fuel tank then forces fuel up through
the four-cycle engine.
the fuel pipe, as shown by the arrow in Fig. 17-20. The
inlet valve is opened by the vacuum, and at the same
©17-16 DIAPHRAGM CARBURETOR This carbu-
time the outlet valve is closed by the vacuum. Fuel
retor is required for engines that are operated at vari-
flows into the pump chamber. Now, when the intake
ous angles. The carburetors discussed previously
stroke is completed, vacuum is lost in the carburetor.
would not work with a chain saw, which is held at
The spring can then push the pump diaphragm down.
different angles when it is used. These other carbu-
The pressure from the spring closes the inlet valve
retors depend for their operation on a float bow] in the
and opens the outlet valve, as shown in Fig. 17-21. As
carburetor or on a fuel tank under the carburetor. The
float-bowl type of carburetor has a means of keeping
INLET OUTLET SUCTION the float bow] filled with fuel to the proper level at all
VALVE VALVE FROM
OPEN CLOSED CYLINDER
times. The tank type of carburetor, which uses suc-
tion to lift the fuel to the carburetor, must have the
fuel tank under the carburetor. If either of these en-
gines were held at an angle, the fuel would run out
and the engine would either be starved for fuel or be
fed so much fuel it would flood and die.
AUXILIARY Some other type of carburetor must be used with
FUEL TANK
engines that operate at various angles and in differ-
ent positions. The diaphragm carburetor is the solu-
tion. It will provide uniform fuel feed to the engine
Main DIAPHRAGM regardless of the working position of the engine. A
TANK DIAPHRAGM diaphragm carburetor is shown in simplified view in
PUMP CHAMBER Fig. 17-22. When the piston moves down in a four-
FIG. 17-20 Schematic sectional view showing the actions cycle engine during the intake stroke, or when it
taking place in the diaphragm-type suction-feed carburetor moves up in the two-cycle engine, a partial vacuum is
when the piston is moving down. produced in the carburetor air horn. This causes fuel

135
 FUEL CARBURETOR carburetor regardless of the relative positions of fuel
RESERVOIR AIR HORN
tank and float bowl. Fuel pumps are used on all
automobiles. The purpose of the fuel pump is to with-
draw fuel from the fuel tank and pump it into the
FUEL carburetor float bowl. This keeps the float bow] filled
VALVE to the proper level at all times.
OPEN
The system using a fuel pump is called a pres-
PIVOT
sure-feed system. A system of this type is shown in
Fig. 17-3. Acam, or an eccentric, on the engine crank-
ATMOSPHERIC SPRING
shaft forces a pump lever to move up and down. This
PRESSURE DIAPHRAGM
action produces the pumping action in the pump. In
larger engines, such as those used in automobiles,
the pump lever is actuated by an eccentric on the
PULL engine camshaft, instead of the crankshaft. However,
VALVE
CLOSED
the principle of operation is the same.
Figure 17-24 shows schematically how the fuel
BUBE
pump works. When the pump lever is pushed down
TO FUEL TANK by the lobe on the cam, it lifts the diaphragm against
\ the pressure of the diaphragm spring. This produces
FIG. 17-22 Schematic view of a diaphragm carburetor. (Top) a vacuum in the pump chamber which lifts both the
Actions when piston is moving down on intake stroke (four- inlet and the outlet valves. The upward movement of
cycle engine). (Bottom) Actions when piston is moving up. the outlet valve closes it. The upward movement of
the inlet valve opens it so that the vacuum will allow
fuel from the fuel tank to flow into the pump chamber.
to discharge from the fuel reservoir into the carbu-
This is shown by the arrow in the top illustration of
retor air horn. The partial vacuum also causes the
Fig. 17-24.
diaphragm to move up against spring tension. Then,
When the lobe of the cam moves out from under the
when the vacuum is lost (when the piston stroke
pump lever, the diaphragm spring pushes down on
ends), the spring pushes the diaphragm down. This
the diaphragm. This creates pressure in the pump
creates a partial vacuum in the fuel reservoir. Atmo-
chamber (Fig. 17-24, bottom). The pressure pushes
spheric pressure then pushes fuel from the fuel tank
down on both valves, causing the inlet valve to close
into the reservoir to replenish the fuel withdrawn
and the outlet valve to open. The pressure then
during the piston intake stroke. The action continues
pushes fuel from the pump chamber into the carbu-
as long as the engine operates, providing the fuel
needed to keep the engine running. Figure 17-23
shows a diaphragm carburetor.
PUMP LEVER DIAPHRAGM SPRING
COMPRESSED
©17-17 PRESSURE-FEED FUEL SYSTEM On en-
gines where the fuel tank must be mounted on a level
with or below the carburetor, a gravity-feed system
will not work. A suction-feed system is often not sat-
isfactory, because it works only for small engines. A
fuel pump will deliver fuel to the float bowl of the
OUTLET
FUEL FROM FUEL TANK een
FUEL-PUMP
BODY CAP

Ss DIAPHRAGM
. SPRING
Pee RELEASED

ae DIAPHRAGM
A
VALVE FUEL TO
CLOSED at = CARBURETOR
DISCHARGE OUTLET
VALVE NN VALVE
PUMP DIAPHRAGM PUMP CHAMBER OPEN
FUEL-PUMP COVER FIG. 17-24 (Top) Action in the fuel pump when the pump
FIG. 17-23 Partial disassembled view of a diaphragm car- lever is pushed down by the cam lobe on the eccentric.
buretor showing the details of the pump diaphragm. (Briggs (Bottom) Action in the fuel pump when the lobe has moved
& Stratton Corporation) out from under the pump lever.

136
retor float bowl. The action is continuous as long as THROTTLE OPEN J)THROTTLE AIR
the engine runs. When the float bowl in the carbu- 4 VANE
retor becomes sufficiently filled, the float rises and
lifts the needle valve up into the seat. This shuts off
any further delivery of fuel. We have already de-
scribed how this works and showed a simplified float
system in Fig. 17-6. When this float system refuses to
take any further fuel, the diaphragm remains in its
upper position, shown in Fig. 17-24 (top), even though
the pump lever releases it and the spring pressure is
trying to push it down.

O17-18 GOVERNORS Where the load on the en-

gine varies but a steady speed is required, such as on
a lawn mower, an engine governor is needed to pre-
vent the engine from bogging down under heavy
load. Basically, what the governor does is control the
opening of the carburetor throttle valve. When the
load is light, the engine starts to speed up. As this
happens, the governor causes the throttle valve to
move toward the closed position. This counterbal-
ances the speedup tendency so that the engine speed
remains constant. Likewise, if the load increases, as,
for example, when the mower meets some high FIG. 17-25 Details of an air-vane type governor. (a) When
weeds or tough grass, then the engine tends to slow the engine is not running, the spring holds the throttle open.
(b) When the engine is running, air from the blades on the
down. When this happens, the governor causes the
rotating flywheel causes the vane to move, thereby partly
throttle valve to open so that more air-fuel mixture closing the throttle.
enters the engine. The engine will then develop more
power to handle the heavier load without slowing
down. You wait for a few seconds to allow the engine to
There are two general types of governor: the air- warm up. The engine is running without load and
vane type and the centrifugal type. The air-vane type tends to speed up. As it speeds up beyond the preset
works on the flow of air from the blades on the fly- 3000 rpm, the air vane moves enough to partly close
wheel. The centrifugal type is operated by a centrifu- the throttle, preventing overspeeding. Now, with the
gal device which is actuated by engine speed. engine warmed up, you start across the lawn. You hit
a heavy patch of grass, and this puts an extra load on
017-19 AIR-VANE GOVERNOR The air vane is the engine. The engine speed starts to drop. Now the
located under the flywheel shroud close to the fly- air vane has less air blowing against it, and it is
wheel, as shown in Fig. 17-25. This places the air pulled back by the spring tension. This movement
vane in the path of the air coming off the flywheel allows the throttle to open farther, feeding more air-
blades. The air vane is connected by linkage to the fuel mixture to the engine. The engine responds by
throttle valve, as shown in Fig. 17-25. When the air producing more power to handle the heavier load.
vane is moved, the throttle valve will open or close.
There also is a spring in the linkage, which tends to ©O17-20 CENTRIFUGAL GOVERNOR The centrif-
pull the throttle into the opened position. When the ugal governor has a lever that is linked to the throttle
engine is stopped, the throttle valve is open. through an arm and a rod (Fig. 17-26). Figure 17-27
When the engine is running, a flow of air from the shows how the governor works. As engine speed in-
flywheel blows against the air vane, pushing it to- creases, the two flyweights move out and push
ward the right (in Fig. 17-25). As the air vane moves, against the spool. This motion is carried to the arm so
the linkage tends to close the throttle. The faster the that the rod pulls down on the throttle lever and tends
engine rotates, the stronger the air blast from the to close the throttle. When the engine is started, the
flywheel grows and the farther the air vane moves. operator opens the throttle to get the engine speed
Therefore, the engine cannot overspeed, because the desired. This puts a certain tension on the control
air-vane governor will close the throttle sufficiently to spring, and the throttle is opened through the pull of
prevent it. the spring on the governor arm. This gives the engine
To take a typical example, suppose you are using a the preset speed that the operator wants. Now, if the
power lawn mower. You start the engine and set the engine tends to speed up, the governor arm is turned,
throttle to run at 3000 revolutions per minute (rpm). as shown to the right in Fig. 17-27. This tends to close

137
 THROTTLE
CONTROL TO
INCREASE
SPEED

THROTTLE
OPEN

CONTROL
SPRING

THROTTLE ©
CLOSING

/ ARM / FLYBALL
ehe a =

FLYWEIGHTS (b) CRANKCASE FIG. 17-28 Details of the centrifugal governor using fly-
FIG. 17-26 Details of a centrifugal governor. (a) When the balls.
engine is not running, the spring holds the throttle open and
also holds the spool at the “in” position so that the fly-
weights are retracted. (b) When the engine runs, the fly- throttle, then causes the throttle to partly close. This
weights move out, and this causes the throttle to partly prevents overspeeding of the engine.
close. Most small engines should be operated in the
high-speed range. At high speed, the engine has the
the throttle to prevent overspeeding. If the engine capacity to adjust to a wide range of power demands.
tends to slow down because of a heavy load, the If the throttle setting is high enough, the engine is
flyweights move inward to allow the throttle to open ready to start pulling hard the instant the governor
wider. This allows the engine to produce more power. calls for more power. If the throttle setting is too low,
Therefore, the engine maintains the speed at which there is not enough tension on the control spring to
the operator has set the throttle. allow the engine to start putting out full power
Instead of flyweights in the governor, some gover- quickly.
nors have flyballs (Fig. 17-28). The flyballs are lo-
NOTE: The governor should never be adjusted to
cated under a curved plate. As engine speed in-
allow the engine to run above rated speed. Even
creases, the flyballs tend to move outward. This
though the engine might temporarily operate at the
causes them to press against the angled part of the
excessive speed and temporarily handle excessively
plate, raising the plate. As the plate is raised, it also
heavy loads, it would quickly wear out. Never oper-
raises the spool. The spool, which is linked to the
ate an engine having an air-vane governor with the
engine shroud removed. With the shroud off, the air
flow from the flywheel is not directed against the air
vane. As a result, there is no governor control. The
engine could greatly overspeed and tear itself to
pieces.

A typical centrifugal governor used on a lawn-

mower engine is shown in Fig. 17-29. In this governor,
the lower collar is fastened to the crankshaft. The
upper collar is attached to the lower by a pair of
pivoted links. A spring holds the two collars apart.
When the engine runs, the pivoted links move out
owing to centrifugal force. This action moves the
upper collar down toward the lower, partly com-
pressing the spring. The faster the engine runs, the
OIL SLINGER ! | greater the centrifugal force on the pivoted links be-
FIG. 17-27 Details of the centrifugal governor using fly- comes and the farther down the upper collar moves
weights. by further compressing the spring. The upper collar is

138
 THROTTLE VALVE

WN \Soe
= WG

FIG. 17-31 Cutaway view of a small-engine muffler, which

ey, Mae TO
—THROTTLE threads into the exhaust-port opening.
VALVE

UPPER COLLAR
\:
va \a
aN PIVOTED LINKS
‘GeySPRING
ZS
pass before being discharged into the air (Fig. 17-31).
LOWER These passages and chambers muffle the exhaust
COLLAR
(| noise, quieting the engine.
FIG. 17-29 Sectional view of lower part of the engine,
showing details of the governor and the linkage to the
throttle valve. (Lawn Boy Division of Outboard Marine Cor-
poration) REVIEW QUESTIONS

connected by linkage to the carburetor throttle valve.

As the upper collar moves up or down, it opens or 1. What are the three types of small-engine fuel
closes the throttle valve. If the engine slows down, for systems?
example, because of heavy loads, then the collar 2. What are the parts in the small-engine fuel
starts to move up. This causes the throttle valve to systems?
open and supply additional air-fuel mixture to the
engine so it can produce added power. If the engine 3. Explain how a gravity-feed fuel system works.
starts to speed up, the collar moves down to cause the > . Name the main parts of a typical small-engine
throttle valve to partly close and reduce the amount of carburetor.
air-fuel mixture to the engine. This governor action is
shown in Fig. 17-30. . What is the purpose of the fuel tank?
There are other types of governors. Some are . What is the purpose of the air cleaner?
mounted at the upper end of the crankshaft, above
the magneto. However, all governors work in a simi- . Why is a fuel filter needed?
lar manner. . What is carburetion?

O17-21 EXHAUST SYSTEM After the air-fuel mix- ao

mM
DO
AN. What is vaporization?
ture has been burned in the engine cylinder, the 10. What is atomization?
burned exhaust gases are forced out of the cylinder
and into the exhaust port. From there they pass 11. What are the three basic parts of the simple
through the muffler and into the open air. Figure 11-17 carburetor?
shows the muffler in place on a small engine. 12. Describe the venturi effect.
The muffler provides a series of passages and
chambers through which the exhaust gases must 13. What forces the fuel up out of the fuel nozzle
and into the air passing through the carburetor
air horn?

INCREASE 14. Describe the operation of the carburetor float

SPEED system.

15. Describe the operation of the carburetor fuel

system.

16. How is the air-fuel mixture adjusted on some

carburetors?
17. What is the purpose of the choke?
18. What is the difference between a primer and a
FIG. 17-30 As the engine speed increases, the pivoted links choke?
fly out, causing the control arm to move the throttle valve
toward a closed position. (Lawn Boy Division of Outboard 19. What is the difference between a gravity-feed
Marine Corporation) fuel system and a suction-feed fuel system?

139
 20. What is a common application for a diaphragm DEL PROJECT
carburetor?
Examine as many different carburetors as you can.
21. Which type of fuel system has a fuel pump? When you examine each carburetor, take a sepa-
rate sheet of paper to write down the facts about it.
22. What is a governor?
At the top of the sheet, write the make and model of
23. Why is a governor needed? engine from which the carburetor came, and also
the model and type of carburetor.
24. Name two types of governors.
Note the location of the venturi, main nozzle or
29. What part on the engine has the job of reducing nozzles, throttle plate or plates, and so on. Identify
exhaust noise? all the openings in the air horn.

140
Fuel-System Service

©18-1 AIR-CLEANER SERVICE Carburetor air

cleaners for small engines can be classified as oil-
bath, oiled-foam, and dry-element. These are shown
in Fig. 17-5. In the oil-bath cleaner, shown in Fig. 17-
After studying this chapter, you should be 5b, there is an oil cup in the bottom of the cleaner.
able to: Incoming air passes over the oil in the oil cup and
picks up a fine mist of oil, which is carried up to the
1. List the safety cautions to be followed when metal-mesh filter element. Dust particles are trapped
servicing fuel systems by the oily surfaces, and the oil washes them down
into the oil cup. In the oiled-foam cleaner, shown in
. Demonstrate how to service each type of air Fig. 17-5a, the filter element consists of a polyure-
cleaner thane-foam pad, soaked in oil. The air must pass
through the foam, and dirt particles are trapped by
. Demonstrate how to service each type of fuel the oily surfaces as they pass.
The dry-element cleaner, shown in Fig. 17-5c, has a
filter
paper-type or fiber filter element through which the
air must pass. The paper is of a very special type with
. Explain what could happen if the crankcase
extremely small pores, or openings, through which
breather is not serviced regularly
the air can pass. These tiny holes will not permit dust
particles to pass, so dust is trapped on the surface of
. Demonstrate how to adjust a carburetor
the filter element.
Regardless of the type of air cleaner, the usual
Describe the procedures to adjust each type
recommendation is that air cleaners be serviced after
of governor every 25 hours of service. If the engine is operated
under extremely dirty or dusty conditions, then the air
cleaner should be serviced more often—as many as
two or three times a day! The procedures for cleaning
all three types of air cleaners follow.

Oil-Bath Air Cleaner To remove an oil-bath air

cleaner, disconnect the spark-plug wire to make sure
the engine will not start. The air cleaner will be se-
cured either by a bail wire, by screw threads on the
filter element itself, or by a wing nut. The air cleaner
can be removed by taking off the bail wire or wing
nut, or by unscrewing the filter element as shown in
Fig. 18-1. If there is any chance that dirt or dust might
fall into the carburetor, cover the opening with a
clean cloth or plastic film.
After the air-cleaner parts have been removed,

14]
 ELEMENT

Sama,
BROKE. Sere. GASKET

FIG. 18-1 Removing oil-bath air cleaner for cleaning and

replacement of the oil. (Briggs & Stratton Corporation)
(6) DRY INA CLEAN CLOTH

separate them and pour out the old oil. Clean the oil
cup, filter, and cap with solvent and a brush, as
shown in Fig. 18-2. Be sure to remove any caked dirt
in the bottom of the oil cup. Refill the cup to the
oil-level mark with the oil specified—usually SAE
30—shown in Fig. 18-1.
Examine the condition of the air-cleaner gasket. If
the gasket is damaged, it should be replaced. Then
reinstall the oil cup and filter element.
Vi
(c) COAT WITH CLEAN OIL
Oiled-Foam AirCleaner These are held in place by a
snap-on cover, a wing nut, or a screw. A typical
oiled-foam air cleaner is shown in Fig. 17-5a. The
steps in servicing an oiled-foam filter are shown in
Fig. 18-3. To service this type of air cleaner, remove it
from the engine. Then wash the filter element in de-
tergent and water. Squeeze the foam repeatedly with
your hands, as shown in Fig. 18-3, to get out all the
old oil and dirt.

(7) LET EXCESS OIL DRIP OFF

FIG. 18-3 Steps in servicing an oiled-foam filter element.
(Briggs & Stratton Corporation)

Wrap the foam in a clean cloth, and squeeze the

foam until it is dry. This is shown in Fig. 18-3b. Coat
the foam with fresh clean SAE 30 engine oil. Finally,
squeeze the foam between your hands and let the
excess oil drip off. Failure to do this may cause the
excess oil to choke the engine, and it may fail to start.
SOLVENT The metal-mesh element is cleaned by washing in
solvent, as shown in Fig. 18-2. It is dried by blowing
compressed air through it or swishing it in the air
several times, as shown in Fig. 18-4. It should be
FIG. 18-2 Cleaning oil-bath oil cleaner in solvent. dipped in engine oil to recoil it.

142
 METAL-MESH FIBER FILTER
FILTER ELEMENT

(ee eee

COMPRESSED DIRT
COMPRESSED AIR METAL-MESH AIR PARTICLES
FILTER ELEMENT
FIG. 18-6 Using compressed air to clean the fiber-type filter
FIG. 18-4 Cleaning and drying the metal-mesh filter ele- element. Note that the compressed air is blown from inside
ment.
out, or in the direction opposite to the air flow during air-
cleaner operation.

Reinstall the filter element and air cleaner- 018-2 FUEL-FILTER SERVICE There are three
assembly. Some polyurethane elements have a general types of fuel filters, or fuel strainers. One
coarse filter on the outside and a fine filter on the type has a separate detachable sediment bow! that
inside. When installing this type, make sure that the usually is made of glass. This type of fuel filter is
coarse side faces out. shown in Fig. 18-7. A second type of fuel filter is a
strainer. It attaches to the end of a flexible hose
Dry-Element Air Cleaner Remove the filter-element which is inserted inside the fuel tank, as shown in
cover if it is a separate part. Some air cleaners of this Fig. 18-9. This is the type of fuel strainer used on
type are made in one piece without a separate cover. engines that must operate in any position, such as
Cover the carburetor intake with a cloth or plastic chain saws. Regardless of the position of the fuel
film. The paper filter element can be cleaned by tap- tank, the weighted strainer will fall to the low part of
ping it lightly on a flat surface, as shown in Fig. 18-5. the tank, where the fuel is. The end of the hose al-
Do not wash a dry filter, unless the manufacturer's ways will be covered by fuel.
instructions specify doing so. Wetting the paper will To clean the sediment-bowl type of fuel strainer,
clog the paper pores and ruin the element. If the dust shown in Fig. 18-7, close the shut-off valve which is
does not drop off easily, or if the element is damaged, used with the gravity-feed fuel system. This will pre-
throw it out and install a new element. Even one pin vent fuel from flowing out of the fuel tank while the
hole in the paper element can let in enough dust to bowl is off. Loosen the thumb nut on the wire bail,
wear out the engine prematurely. and swing the wire bail to one side. Remove the bowl
If the element is fiber or moss, clean it by blowing
compressed air through from the inside, as shown in
Fig. 18-6. Wash it in soap and water. Do not use an
oily solvent, because it could clog the element and
prevent air from passing through.
On any type of air cleaner, be sure that its mount- THUMB NUT
ing gasket is in good condition and provides a tight
seal between the air cleaner and the carburetor in-
take. A leaking seal will allow unfiltered air to enter
the engine. This means that dirt will get into the
engine.
sree Sy
PAPER —— OM PUMP
FILTER SS

ELEMENT
GASKET

| | FILTER BOWL

ii ay)
FIG. 18-7 Sediment-bowl type of fuel filter with the filter
FIG. 18-5 Tapping the paper filter to knock dirt loose. bowl removed.

143
 tank fitting on which the strainer is mounted. Clean
the strainer in solvent, and dry it with compressed
RUE
air. With the type which is permanently mounted in
TANK
the fuel tank, remove the fuel tank from the engine.
Wash out the tank with solvent several times to clean
GASOLINE
the tank and strainer.
To clean a weighted strainer, shown in Fig. 18-9,
fish the strainer out of the tank with a bent wire.
EUEE
Remove the strainer from the end of the weighted
STRAINER hose. Clean the strainer in solvent. Then dry it with
compressed air.
FUEL LINE TO
CARBURETOR
©18-3 CRANKCASE BREATHER SERVICE Four-
cycle engines must have some way of allowing
FUEL SHUT- blow-by gases to escape from the crankcase. Blow-by
OFF VALVE
is the seepage of compression and combustion gases
FIG. 18-8 Fuel strainer of type mounted inside the fuel from the combustion chamber past the piston and
tank.
rings. This blow-by can build up pressure in the
crankcase if it has no way to escape. Also, blow-by
can cause damage to the engine. The blow-by gases
with a twisting motion. Twisting the bowl reduces the
can cause corrosion of engine parts and shorten en-
chances of breaking the cork gasket. Remove the
gine life.
gasket and the strainer screen. The screen usually is
Various types of crankcase breathers are used on
held in place by the clamping action between the
four-cycle engines to allow the blow-by gases to es-
bowl and gasket. On some, the screen is held in place
cape. One type is shown in Fig. 18-10. It consists of a
by a retainer clip. Wash the screen and dry it. Wash
mesh-type filter element and a reed valve. The reed
out the sediment bowl and make sure it is clean.
valve is a flexible metal plate which rests against
Open the shut-off valve and allow about a cupful of
one or more openings in the crankcase. Figure 18-11
gasoline to drain out into a container. This will re-
shows the reed-valve type of crankcase breather in
move any dirt in the line between the tank and filter.
disassembled view.
If the fuel flows out very slowly, the air vent in the
When the piston moves down on either the power or
fuel-tank cap may be clogged. Remove it to see if the
intake stroke, pressure is created in the crankcase.
fuel flows more freely. If it does, then clean the cap
This pressure pushes the reed valve open so that the
vents by soaking the cap in solvent.
blow-by gases are forced out of the crankcase, as
Install the filter screen, gasket, and sediment bowl.
shown to the left in Fig. 18-10. Then, when the piston
Use a new gasket if needed. If a new gasket is not
moves up, either on the exhaust or the compression
available, turn the old gasket over upon reinstalla-
stroke, a vacuum is produced in the crankcase. This
tion to get a better seal. Before tightening the thumb
permits atmospheric pressure to push fresh air into
nut, open the shut-off valve to fill the sediment bowl.
the crankcase. Actually, the reed valve is designed so
This eliminates any air that might otherwise cause
that it will cause a slight vacuum to be retained in the
an air lock in the line.
crankcase. This vacuum helps prevent oil leakage
The fuel-tank-mounted strainer, shown in Fig. 18-8,
through the oil seals and gaskets. To achieve this, the
may or may not be removable from the fuel tank. If it
reed valve either has a small hole in it or does not
is, remove it by unscrewing the fuel shut-off valve or
close quite completely. Either arrangement restricts
the air entering the crankcase. This causes a slight
vacuum to remain at the end of the exhaust or com-
pression stroke.
Leakage through an oil seal on some four-cycle
engines is a good indication of a clogged crankcase
breather. If the crankcase breather becomes clogged,
excessive pressure will build up in the crankcase.
This will cause oil leaks and may cause the oil seals
to rupture.
Other types of crankcase breathers include a ball-
FIG. 18-9 Types of fuel strainer attached to flexible hose check type and a floating-disk type, shown in
inside the fuel tank. (Left) Flexible hose partly pulled from
fuel tank so strainer can be removed for cleaning. (Right)
Fig. 18-12. These. breathers are opened by pressure in
Tank partly cut away so hose and strainer can be seen in the crankcase and partly closed by gravity and by
tank. atmospheric pressure.

144
 CRANKCASE
BREATHER

VALVE OPEN

SPRING-TYPE
VALVE AND
il
K/| |

BLOWBY FILTER

BLOWBY
GASES OUT

FIG. 18-10 Crankcase breather for a small four-cycle engine. (Left)

When the piston is moving down, pressure in the crankcase forces the
reed valve to open so blow-by gases are forced out of the crankcase.
(Right) When the piston moves up, the partial vacuum created in the
crankcase causes the reed valve to close.

GASKET

REED

BAFFLE

GASKET

LOCKWASHER
| SN FILTER
NUT ye
pare OS “ScOVER (VALVE)
STUD
FIG. 18-11 Disassembled view of a crankcase breather for a COVER
small four-cycle engine.

The filter element in the floating disk type (Fig. 18- FILTER ELEMENT
12) is either metal mesh, fiber, or polyurethane. To
clean the crankcase-breather filter, remove the nut,
screw, or other fasteners which hold it in position. Be FLOATING DISK
sure to note the proper relationships of the various VY THREADED
parts as you remove them. Figure 18-11 shows one |g OPENING
arrangement. The filter element can be cleaned in CRANKCASE
solvent and dried. Reassemble the parts in their orig- FIG. 18-12 Floating-disk type of crankcase breather for a
inal positions. small four-cycle engine.

145
 Some crankcase breathers have oil-drain holes in eee as od
them to allow any oil trying to exit from the crankcase
to drain back into the crankcase. On these breathers, PUMP COVER
install the drain hole toward the base of the engine to
permit drainage. If the breather is installed upside
down, it could cause oil to be pumped out through the MARK ee un GASKET
breather.
a ©+——— PUMP VALVE
O18-4 FUEL-TANK SERVICE Fuel tanks come ina
variety of sizes and shapes. Figure 17-2 shows two of ae 2 A“ OF
@x a
VALVE SPRING
the different types. They require very little service. VALVE re
The tanks all have a vent of some sort to admit air ae VALVE-PLATE SCREW
VALVE
when fuel is taken out. Generally, the vent is in the RETAINER
fuel cap. Sometimes the vent will get plugged. This DIAPHRAGM
Bee
prevents air from entering, and so fuel cannot flow
out. The result is that the engine starves for fuel and MOUNTING
stops running. GASKET
Some fuel tanks have a cap-and-gauge combina-
DIAPHRAGM ___»
tion. The fuel gauge is made of a float on a twisted SPRING
blade fastened to the indicating needle. The float
moves down as the fuel tank loses fuel. This twists PUMP
the blade so that the indicating needle moves to indi- VALVE
cate the lowered fuel level in the tank.
MATCH MARK
If the fuel tank is damaged in any way, it should be
replaced with a new tank. The tank normally has a FIG. 18-138 Disassembled view of a fuel pump for a small
engine. (Kohler Company)
bracket which attaches to the engine by screws as
shown in Fig. 17-2. Disconnecting the fuel line and
removing the screws permits removal of the tank.
sembly, you can match the marks and not reverse the
cover as it goes on the body.
O18-5 FUEL-PUMP SERVICE Most fuel pumps
(Fig. 17-3) are serviced by complete replacement.
They are relatively cheap. It may cost more in labor to ©18-6 CARBURETOR SERVICE The carburetor
repair an old pump than to buy a new one. You can has the job of mixing air and gasoline vapor in the
check a fuel pump to see if it works by disconnecting proper ratio to provide good engine operation. If the
the spark-plug wire and the fuel line at the carbu- carburetor is properly adjusted to give this correct
retor. Then crank the engine while holding a small air-fuel ratio, it is not likely to go too far out of adjust-
container under the fuel line to catch any fuel that ment in normal operation. However, screws can
appears. If fuel flows out strongly and in regular loosen and throw the adjustment off. In addition, fuel
squirts, the fuel pump is working properly. If fuel flow lines and jets in the carburetor can clog. This can
is weak or erratic, there is something wrong with the mean a partial disassembly of the carburetor for
fuel pump and it should be replaced. cleaning, which then means a carburetor adjustment.
To remove the old pump, disconnect the fuel lines Carburetor servicing is divided into two parts: (1)
and take out the screws holding the fuel pump on the adjustments and (2) removal and rebuilding.
engine. Lift the fuel pump off, observing the position To adjust the carburetor correctly, there are certain
of the rocker arm (above or below the eccentric). In- preliminary steps you should take.
stall the new pump, making sure the rocker arm goes
on the correct side of the eccentric. Then attach the 1. Fill the fuel tank full except on engines with
fuel lines and tighten the attaching screws. Fig- suction-feed carburetors, which you should fill
ure 17-3 shows the installation of a fuel pump on an only half full. Then, when you adjust the suc-
engine. The pump lever fits into an eccentric groove tion-feed carburetor, you will be working with
on the crankshaft. The part of the lever that rides in an average air-fuel ratio. If you started with a
the groove should be greased when the pump is in- full fuel tank on the suction-feed carburetor, you
stalled. would adjust correctly for a full tank. Then, as
Some manufacturers supply fuel-pump repair in- the tank emptied, the mixture would tend to lean
formation and repair kits. As an example, Fig. 18-13 out and might become too lean when the tank is
shows a disassembled fuel pump. Before disassem- nearly empty. With a nearly empty tank, the fuel
bling this fuel pump, mark the pump cover and pump must be lifted farther. Less fuel would flow into
body with a file as shown in Fig. 18-13. Then on reas- the passing airstream in the carburetor.

146
 2. Be sure the throttle and governor linkages are manufacture and is determined by the size of the
free and move easily. discharge port in the carburetor.
To make the initial adjustments of a carburetor,
3. On four-cycle engines, check the oil level in the
turn the adjustment screws in until the needles bot-
crankcase. Add oil, if necessary.
tom. Then back them off about one turn. This gives an
4. Clean the fuel strainer or filter, and the air approximate adjustment that should enable you to
cleaner, as explained in © 18-2. start the engine and run it until it warms up. Then the
final adjustments can be made in accordance with
5. Make sure the fuel-tank cap vent is open. If the
the manufacturer's specifications. We will describe
- vent is clogged, it will prevent normal flow from
several specific procedures later.
the tank to the carburetor.
Never tighten the adjusting screws more than fin-
6. Check the ignition and spark plugs. ger tight. Excessive tightening can cause the needle
to jam down into the seat so tightly that both the
O18-7 CARBURETOR ADJUSTMENTS A great va- needle and seat are damaged.
riety of carburetors have been used on small engines. If adjustment cannot be made to give good engine
Figure 17-14 is a sectional view of one type. In this operation, then either the carburetor should be re-
and several following sections, we will describe how placed with a new one or it should be rebuilt. There
to adjust carburetors. are carburetor repair kits available which contain all
Usually, the carburetor has three adjustment necessary new parts. These kits also include the in-
screws: one to set the idle speed, one to set the idle structions and specifications for rebuilding the car-
mixture, and one to set the high-speed load mixture. buretor.
These are shown in Fig. 18-16. You may have difficulty Always install new gaskets when repairing a car-
deciding which is the idle-mixture adjustment screw buretor. The old gaskets may be hardened and may
and which is the high-speed-load adjustment screw. not provide a good seal. Leakage of fuel or air can
Two examples are shown in Fig. 18-14. Usually, the occur when old gaskets are reused.
idle-mixture adjustment screw is closest to the en-
gine, but this is not always true. If you have any 018-8 CHOKE ADJUSTMENT Most chokes in car-
doubts, you can check as follows: Start the engine buretors for small engines are directly controlled by
and operate it at idle speed. Then turn the screw you manually operating them. Chokes of this type are
think might be the idle-mixture screw clockwise, or in shown in Figs. 17-2 (right) and 17-16. Other chokes are
toward the closed position. If the engine slows down controlled by linkage that connects a remote control
or stops, you know you have found the idle-mixture lever with the choke lever. A typical example of this
screw. If the engine speed changes little or not at all, type of choke control is shown in Fig. 18-15. This type
increase engine speed to about three-fourths throttle. of choke occasionally may get out of adjustment.
Now, if you get a difference in speed as you turn the To adjust the choke, remove the air cleaner so you
screw one way or the other, you have located the can see the action of the choke valve. Move the con-
high-speed screw. trol lever to the choke position (Fig. 18-15). Now look
Many carburetors do not have an idle-mixture ad- at the choke valve in the carburetor. The choke valve
justment. For these, the idle mixture is preset during should be closed. If it is not, adjust the control] link-

THROTTLE IDLE-SPEED
TO ENGINE STOP LEVER SCREW IDLE-SPEED

TO ENGINE

IDLE-MIXTURE
SCREW
HIGH-SPEED IDLE-MIXTURE
SCREW SCREW

HIGH-SPEED
SCREW
FIG. 18-14 Locations of adjustment screws on two types of
small-engine carburetors.

147
 !DLE-SPEED
SCREW

CABLE it

an ee
= ADJUSTING
SCREW

CHOKE
CONTROL LEVER
POSITION
FIG. 18-15 Adjustable, manually operated choke. (Briggs &
Stratton Corporation) HIGH-SPEED
SCREW
FIG. 18-16 The three adjustment screws on a typical carbu-
age or cable. Loosen the adjusting screw and place retor for a small engine. (Briggs & Stratton Corporation)
the control lever in the choke position. Next, check
that the choke valve is fully closed. Tighten the ad-
justing screw. Now move the control lever to the fully the air-fuel mixture has leaned out so much that the
open position. Make sure that the choke valve also engine power is reduced. Now slowly turn the adjust-
moves to the fully open position. ment screw out until the engine slows down or the
Some carburetors have an automatic choke that exhaust begins to turn black. At this position, the
uses a thermostatic spring or an electric solenoid to needle is passing too much gasoline and so the mix-
control the choke valve. On this type of choke, refer to ture is too rich. Not all the gasoline burns, and this
the engine manufacturer's service manual for the turns the exhaust black. Next, slowly turn the adjust-
adjustment procedure. The thermostatic-spring type ment screw in until the engine runs smoothly and at
of automatic choke can be checked by noting the full speed.
choke position with the engine cold (it should be Make adjustments of about one-eighth turn at a
partly to fully closed) and then with the engine hot (it time. Then wait a few seconds between turns for the
should be wide open). If the choke does not work this engine to adjust to the changed air-fuel mixture.
way, then the thermostat is faulty or adjustment is
required. If the engine uses an electric starter and ©18-10 IDLE-MIXTURE ADJUSTMENT This ad-
solenoid, operate the starter and note whether or not justment affects the mixture richness when the en-
the solenoid is actuated. If it is not, then the solenoid gine is idling. Many carburetors do not have this
is faulty or the starter switch or wiring circuit is de- adjustment, because the idle-mixture port is usually
fective. fixed. If the carburetor does have the adjustment as
shown in Fig. 18-16, it is made with the engine run-
018-9 HIGH-SPEED LOAD ADJUSTMENT The ning and warmed up. First, turn the idle-speed screw,
high-speed screw in two different carburetors is with the engine idling, to get the lowest engine speed
shown in Fig. 18-14. The high-speed load adjustment possible without stalling. Next, turn the idle-mixture
affects the air-fuel mixture ratio when the engine is screw in until the engine begins to slow down or roll.
operating at rated speed and under full load. The This means that the mixture is too lean to support
engine must be warmed up to normal operating tem- normal engine operation. Now turn the idle mixture
perature, and the engine should be under ful! load screw back out slowly until the engine idles
when this adjustment is made. If you cannot load the smoothly. Recheck the high-speed load adjustment to
engine to make the adjustment, then make the ad- make sure it is still correct. Then operate the throttle
justment without load. But after the adjustment be several times from idle to full speed to make sure the
sure to check the engine operation under normal full engine will go from idle to full speed and back again
load. Use an rpm indicator, called a tachometer, to without hesitation. Finally, adjust the idle speed as
get an accurate reading of engine speed during the explained in the following section.
adjustment. The operation and use of the tachometer
are discussed in later chapters. O18-11 IDLE-SPEED ADJUSTMENT This adjust-
With the engine operating at full speed, turn the ment shown in Fig. 18-16 is controlled by a stop screw
high-speed screw (shown in Fig. 18-16) in slowly until which can be turned in or out to charge the idle
the engine begins to slow down. When this happens, speed. Its basic purpose is to prevent the throttle

148
valve from closing completely and causing the en- 3200 RPM 2800 RPM
gine to stall. Small engines usually idle at fairly high
speeds, from 1200 to 3000 rpm. Always check the
manufacturer's service manual to determine the
specified speed before attempting to set the idle
speed. Most specifications call for setting the idle
speed at about one-half full speed. If the engine is
idled too slowly, spark plugs, pistons, and exhaust
ports on two-cycle engines will soon foul up from FREE LENGTH FREE LENGTH
0.750 INCH [19.1 mm] 0.750 INCH [19.1 mm]
carbon, due to only partly burned gasoline.
+ 0.015 INCH [0.38 mm] + 0.015 INCH [0.38 mm]
Idle speed should be set with the engine warmed 21 GAUGE 23 GAUGE
up. Therefore, the other settings discussed above
FIG. 18-18 On some engines, the governor spring must be
should be made first. Then a tachometer should be changed to change governed engine speed. (Lawn Boy Divi-
used to measure the speed while the idle-speed sion of Outboard Marine Corporation)
screw is turned to obtain the specified speed.

O18-12 FLOAT ADJUSTMENT The float should be governor speed by stretching a spring. This will not
adjusted so that the proper level of gasoline will be work, because you may weaken the spring and it will
maintained in the float bowl. Normally, this adjust- probably go back to its original set after a while.
ment will not change. However, if the carburetor re- Figure 18-19 shows various methods of adjusting
quires repair, then this adjustment should be governors of different designs. One of the most im-
checked. The procedure of checking the float level on portant things to remember when adjusting a gover-
one model of carburetor is shown in Fig. 18-17. The nor is not to increase engine speed above its speci-
float should be parallel to the body mounting surface fied maximum rpm. Excessive engine speed greatly
with the body gasket in place and the needle valve shortens engine life. If you cannot find the design of
and float installed. Bend the tang on the float, if governor linkage you are working on in Fig. 18-19,
necessary, to bring the float to parallel. refer to the service manual covering the engine on
which the governor is mounted.
© 18-13 GOVERNOR SERVICE There are two gen- From the standpoint of governor service, you will
eral types of governors: the air-vane type and the find three basic types: the air-vane type, the exter-
centrifugal type. The air-vane type works on a blast nally mounted centrifugal type, and the internally
of air from the blades on the engine flywheel. The mounted centrifugal type.
centrifugal type is operated by a centrifugal device
which is actuated by engine speed.
If the engine is not governed at the correct speed, Air-Vane Governor Figure 18-20 shows an air-vane
the governor should be adjusted. On some engines, governor. There is little in the way of service this
this can be done by bending the link between the governor requires. To gain access to the governor,
throttle and the governor or making some similar remove the engine shroud. Make sure the air vane is
linkage adjustment. On others, the spring can be not bent and that it is free to move when air blows
changed to change the engine speed. An example is Onvit:
shown in Fig. 18-18. Do not attempt to adjust the

Externally Mounted Centrifugal Governor Servicing

this type of governor, mounted under the flywheel, as
shown in the upper left in Fig. 18-19, requires removal
of the flywheel. If you must take the governor apart,
be sure to notice how the parts fit together so that you
will have no trouble reinstalling the governor.

Internally Mounted Centrifugal Governor If the gov-

ernor is mounted inside the engine crankcase, as
shown in Fig. 18-21, disassemble the engine to gain
access to the governor. These governors sometimes
GASKET are more complicated in design. Be especially careful
FIG. 18-17 Checking the float level on one model carbu- to note the relationship of all parts before disassem-
retor. (Briggs & Stratton Corporation) bling the governor.

149
 GOVERNOR-
LEVER BRACKET

tim GOVERNOR
ADJUSTMENT
HIGH-SPEED
IMIT
ADJUSTMENT
SCREW
LOCKNUT

Naa)
re DECREASE |
ats

FLYWEIGHT
COLLAR

INCREASE
| SPEED

L
ASSEMBLY

FIG. 18-19 Methods of adjusting governor on different en-

gines. The nine methods shown here include most adjust-
ment methods.

CRANKSHAFT

THROTTLE THROTTLE
OPEN me CLOSING

AIR FLOW
FROM
FLYWHEEL

VANES ON GEAR
FLYWHEEL

ENGINE STOPPED ENGINE RUNNING

FIG. 18-20 Operation of an air-vane governor. (Briggs & FIG. 18-21 Location of an internally mounted governor on
Stratton Corporation) one engine.

150
REVIEW QUESTIONS 10. What are the three carburetor adjustments?

1s What, in the fuel system, could cause failure to in Describe a typical idle-speed adjustment.
start when the engine cranks normally? 12. Describe how to make the high-speed load ad-
. If the trouble is overchoking so the engine is justment.
flooded, what can you do to start the engine?
. Why should you not crank the engine with the
air cleaner off? DEE PROJECT
. What can cause excessive fuel consumption?
. How do you tell that the air-fuel mixture is too
rich? There are instruction sheets in carburetor overhaul
kits. These kits tell you, step by step, how to over-
. Name four cautions to observe in fuel-system
haul the carburetors for which the kits were de-
work.
signed. They have pictures showing the various
. Explain how to clean the paper filter element. steps in the procedure. You should be able to get
several of these from local shops that handle car-
-. How often should you clean the oil-bath air
buretor work. Also, your school shop may have
cleaner?
copies of these instruction sheets. Study the in-
. Which is the more common method of servicing struction sheets. Make a collection of them if you
defective fuel pumps: by disassembly and re- can. Tape them to sheets of paper and file them in
pair or by replacement? your notebook.

151
Engine Cooling
Systems

©19-1 PURPOSE OF COOLING SYSTEM In this

part of the chapter we discuss the construction and
operation of engine cooling systems. The cooling sys-
tem is an integral part of the engine, and the opera-
After studying this chapter, you should be tion of one depends on the operation of the other. The
able to: cooling system will not operate unless the engine is
running. The engine will not operate for very long if
1. Describe the purpose of the engine cooling the cooling system is inoperative.
system The purpose of the cooling system is to keep the
engine at its most efficient operating temperature at
2. List the types of cooling systems and de- all engine speeds and under all operating conditions.
scribe the operation of each During the combustion of the air-fuel mixture in the
engine cylinders, temperatures as high as 6000°F
3. Explain how to service the cooling system on [3316°C] may be reached by the burning gases. Some
an air-cooled engine of this heat is absorbed by the cylinder walls, cylin-
der head, and pistons. They, in turn, must be pro-
4, Explain how the water pump and thermostat vided with some means of cooling so that their tem-
peratures will not reach excessive values that melt
work in a liquid-cooling system
them. Cylinder-wall temperature must not increase
beyond about 400 to 500°F [204 to 260°C]. Tempera-
5. Explain the purpose of pressurizing the liq-
tures higher than this will cause the lubricating-oil
uid-cooling system and how it is done
film to break down and lose its lubricating properties.
However, it is desirable to operate the engine at tem-
peratures as close to the limits imposed by oil prop-
erties as possible. Removing too much heat through
the cylinder walls and head would lower engine
thermal efficiency. Cooling systems are designed to
remove 30 to 35 percent of the heat produced in the
combustion chambers by the burning of the air-fuel
mixture.
Two general types of cooling systems are used:
air-cooling and liquid-cooling. Most automotive en-
gines employ liquid cooling. Most small engines for
power equipment such as lawn mowers, motorcycles,
and other similar applications are air-cooled.

O19-2 AIR-COOLED ENGINES Almost all small

single-cylinder engines, both two-cycle and four-
cycle, are air-cooled. No radiator, water jackets,
water pump, or liquid coolant is used. This means

152
 most motorcycle engines. This system is shown in
Fig. 19-1. The second type of air-cooling is the
forced-draft system, used on most other small en-
gines. This system is shown in Fig. 19-2. We will
discuss these two systems in detail later.
The purpose of any engine cooling system is to
remove excess heat from the engine to prevent the
engine from overheating and damaging itself. To bet-
ter understand cooling systems and how they work,
let us briefly review a few important facts about heat.

©19-8 HEAT Ifsomeone asked you to define heat,

you might say that it is something that keeps a person
warm, that raises the temperature, or that makes
water boil or iron melt. Heat produces all these ef-
fects. But scientists look at heat in a different way.
They say that heat is simply an indication of the rapid
motion of the atoms and molecules of a substance.
Heat is a form of energy. As a form of energy, heat
FIG. 19-1 Open, or open-draft, type of air-cooling system has the ability to do work. It is released by the burn-
used on most motorcycle engines. (Husqvarna)
ing of any fuel. In an engine, heat energy is converted
to mechanical energy. But in the combustion process,
that the air-cooled engine is very economical to man- more heat is created by the burning fuel than is con-
ufacture and easier to maintain. Instead of the rela- verted into mechanical energy. It is the necessity to
tively complicated liquid-cooling system, the cylinder remove this unused or excess heat that requires en-
simply has fins all around to cool it, as shown in Fig. gines to have a cooling system. We will discuss this
19-1. These fins are actually part of the head and further later. Let us meanwhile continue talking
cylinder. They greatly increase the outer metal sur- about heat and some of its more important character-
face area of the engine from which heat can escape istics.
into the surrounding air. Temperature is the name given to the measurement
There are two types of air-cooling systems. The of heat intensity, or how hot something is. If we touch
simpler is the open, or open-draft, system, used on an object that is warmer than our body temperature,
we usually say the object is hot. When the tempera-
INTAKE COOL AIR IN ture of the object is cooler than our body temperature,
AIR we say the object is cold. When an engine is at room
SCREEN

ake POINT \ 100

OF WATER

50

NORMAL BODY
TEMPERATURE

NORMAL ROOM
TEMPERATURE

FREEZING POINT P
OF WATER

-17.7

-40
HOT AIR OUT aC
FIG. 19-2 Forced-draft type of air-cooling system used on FIG. 19-3 Thermometers comparing Fahrenheit and Cel-
most small engines. (Briggs & Stratton Corporation) sius (also called centigrade) readings.

153
temperature or has not run for at least several hours, CYLINDER-HEAD FINS
we say the engine is cold. If the engine has run re-
cently, perhaps within the last two hours, we say the
engine is warm, or warmed up. HOT AIR
We state the temperature of an object as so many
degrees and read it on a thermometer or temperature
gauge such as those shown in Fig. 19-3. In this coun-
try, in past years temperature was measured on the
Fahrenheit scale, which has water freezing at 32°F
and boiling at 212°F. Now, with the metric system CYLINDER FINS
coming into use, temperature measurements are FIG. 19-5 Circulation of air around the fins of an air-cooled
made using the Celsius scale, formerly called the engine. This is an example of heat transfer by convection.
centigrade scale. On the Celsius scale, water freezes
at 0°C and boils at 100°C.

019-4 AIR-COOLING THEENGINE The job of the example, air is a gas which is a very poor conductor
cooling system is to remove excess heat from the of heat. However, both air and liquid are used to
engine. To do this, heat must travel from the burning provide the second method of cooling that we will
combustion gases through the cylinder to the fins. discuss: convection cooling.
The movement of heat from one place to another is There is a difference between conduction and con-
called heat transfer. vection. In conduction, heat passes through a solid
There are three ways that heat can travel from one object that does not move. In convection cooling, a
place to another. These three methods of heat trans- liquid or gas moves from one place to another, carry-
fer are conduction, convection, and radiation. Now let ing the heat with it. This is the basis forthe design of
us take a brief look at each of these. engine cooling systems. Hot air or hot liquid rises.
Conduction is the transfer of heat through a solid Cooler air or liquid moves in to take its place.
object. Here is a simple experiment that demon- Earlier we mentioned that there are two types of
strates conduction: Hold one end of a small metal rod air-cooling systems: the open-draft system, shown in
in a flame. In only a few seconds the cooler end you Fig. 19-1, and the forced-draft system, shown in
are holding begins to get hot. This is because the Figs. 19-2 and 19-5. Both of these types are methods of
closely packed molecules in the rod are set in rapid convection cooling. When the air rises from the fins
motion by the flame. Heat travels through the solid simply because the air gets hot, the system is known
rod from molecule to molecule by conduction. Exactly as an open-draft or natural-convection system. When
the same thing happens in the air-cooled engine. a fan is used to force cool air over the hot fins, as
Heat travels, by conduction, from the cylinder walls shown in Figs. 19-2 and 19-5, this is the forced-draft or
through the cylinder to the cooling fins, as shown in forced-convection system.
Fig. 19-4.
Liquids and gas do not conduct heat very well. For ©O19-5 LIQUID COOLING In the automobile en-
gine, a water pump forces the liquid coolant through
the engine water jackets as shown in Fig. 19-6. There
3600° F the coolant picks up heat and carries it to the radia-
[1982.2° C] COOLING
COMBUSTION FINS tor. The automobile radiator cools by convection, not
TEMPERATURE by radiation. Air pulled through the radiator by the
engine fan at low speed, and pushed through at
higher speed, picks up heat from the radiator. The
1200° F passing dirstream carries the heat outside the engine
[648.9° C]
COOLING compartment. This is another example of cooling by
SYSTEM convection. Convection is cooling by moving the air
or liquid carrying the heat from one place to another.
350° F
We will discuss liquid-cooling systems in detail later.
(176:7aC]

200° F ©19-6 RADIATION _ A third method of heat trans-

a [93.3° C] fer is called radiation. Perhaps the radiation of heat
can best be described as the heat you feel from sun-
CYLINDER 100° F
WALL B7sec) light or from hot coals in a fireplace across the room.
FIG. 19-4 Heat-travel path from combustion gases to the Radiation provides no significant amount of heat
lower cooling fins. This is an example of heat transfer by transfer from either air-cooled or liquid-cooled en-
conduction. gines, so we will discuss it no further.

154
 are metal sheets shaped to fit around the cylinder in
such a way that they force the air from the fan to flow
between the fins. Shrouds are held in place by
screws, which can be taken out so the shroud parts
can be lifted off.

©O19-8 ARRANGEMENTS OF FINS Various ar-

rangements of the cooling fins have been used. The
fins are always so placed that the cooling air passes
between them. As you look at the pictures in the book
and examine actual air-cooled engines, note the size
and arrangement of the fins. With open-draft en-
gines, such as used on motorcycles, the fins are usu-
ally rather long (Fig. 19-1). They are arranged so that
the forward motion of the motorcycle will allow air to
flow between them. Also in engines using forced
draft that have a fan or blower, fins are arranged so
the draft of air flows between them (Fig. 19-5).

019-9 SERVICING AIR-COOLED-ENGINE COOLING

COOLANT PUMP SYSTEMS The engine does not always get the
IN
FIG. 19-6 Automobile engine cooling system. Wavy arrows maintenance it should, with the result that its life is
show path of air, solid arrows show path of liquid coolant. shortened. One of the most important services is to
This is an example of heat transfer by convection. clean the engine and its engine components such as
the shroud, intake-air screen, fan, and most impor-
tant, the fins. It is dirt, more than anything else, that
019-7. AIR-COOLED ENGINE CONSTRUCTION In is the enemy of long engine life.
an air-cooled engine, each cylinder is semi-indepen- Fins on the head and cylinder provide large surface
dent, with its own cooling system of fins all around to areas from which heat can be dissipated. The heat
cool it. A typical one-cylinder air-cooled engine is flows from the inside of the cylinder, through the
shown in Fig. 19-2. The fins are actually part of the cylinder metal, to the fins, which transfer it to the
head and cylinder. Their purpose is to greatly in- outside air, as shown in Fig. 19-4. If these fins become
crease the outside metal surfaces of these parts. This, dirty or covered with oil or grass clippings, the heat
in turn, greatly increases the area from which heat cannot get through. The accumulations act as a blan-
can escape into the surrounding air. ket to hold heat in the engine. As a result, the engine
To assist in this heat escape, many engines have becomes overheated. The oil film on the engine parts
shrouds and a cooling fan, which some manufactur- becomes less effective or actually fails. The result is
ers call a blower. The cooling fan is usually part of that engine parts wear rapidly and engine life is
the flywheel, as shown in Figs. 19-5 and 19-7. Shrouds shortened. Therefore, it is essential for long engine
life to clean the engine before each use if doing so is
required.
AIR Another purpose of periodically cleaning the en-
parece CYLINDER gine is to check for loose nuts or bolts and loose,
ee BAFFLE broken, cracked, or otherwise damaged parts. One
way to clean the engine is to use a stiff brush and
CYLINDER- water. A wet brush will get into all the crevices where
HEAD BAFFLE dirt can accumulate and clean away most of the grass
clippings and other trash that can cause trouble. For
a complete cleaning job, use a degreasing compound
as explained later.
BLOWER
SHROUD

CAUTION: Do not clean a hot engine. Wait until it is

cool. If you throw water on a hot engine, you can
crack the cylinder. Also, many degreasing com-
pounds are flammable: they could burst into flames
when sprayed on a hot engine.
FIG. 19-7 Small engine with the shrouds removed.

155
019-10 SERVICING COOLING SYSTEM PARTS CAUTION: Do not clean a hot engine. Allow it to cool
Cooling system parts to be cleaned include the first. Cold water or other liquid on the hot engine can
shrouds, fan, and fins. Many small engines have fans cause the head or cylinder to crack. Some cleaning
and shrouds to direct the flow of air around the en- solutions are flammable; they could burst into flames
gine cylinder as shown in Fig. 19-2. The shroud will if sprayed on a hot engine. Also, make sure that there
have to be removed before the engine can be cleaned. is adequate ventilation. Some fumes from cleaning
Figure 19-7 shows one shroud arrangement. Shrouds solutions are unhealthy to breathe.
are held in place by screws. These screws can be
taken out to allow the shroud parts to be lifted
off. 019-11 LIQUID-COOLING SYSTEMS There are
On a few engines it will be necessary to remove two methods of cooling an engine: One method,
certain other parts before the shroud can be removed. which we have just studied, is air cooling. The sec-
These parts might include the air cleaner, muffler, ond method is liquid, or water, cooling. Most multi-
spark-plug wire, governor spring, or some other cylinder engines, particularly those used in automo-
minor part. biles and some motorcycles, and some small engines
Never operate the engine with the shroud and baf- are of the liquid-cooled type.
fles removed! The shroud is there to force cooling air In liquid-cooled engines, a liquid is circulated
over the engine. When the shroud is off, the engine around the cylinders and head, through passages
will overheat if operated. In addition, engines which called water jackets, to absorb excess heat from the
have dir-vane governors that operate on air flow will cylinder and combustion chamber walls. The liquid
not function properly with the shroud off. The possi- is water mixed with an antifreeze solution, which is
ble result is that the engine can overspeed and prob- usually the chemical ethylene glycol. This mixture is
ably ruin itself. called coolant. The antifreeze lowers the freeze point
If the shroud is bent or damaged, it should be of the liquid mixture, raises the boiling point, and
straightened repaired, or replaced. A defective helps prevent corrosion of the metal water-jacket sur-
shroud can cause engine overheating. A defective faces. A widely used mixture for coolant is half water
shroud also might interfere with the fan or other mov- and half antifreeze.
ing parts. As the coolant circulates, it picks up heat from the
If the shroud is dirty and has accumulations of engine and carries this heat to the radiator. The radi-
grass clippings or other trash, scrape it clean with a ator then cools the coolant by the process of convec-
putty knife or similar tool. Use a stiff-bristled brush tion. The radiator transfers the heat from its fins to
and solvent if needed. Clean the air-intake screen the air passing between them. The coolant, water
with a brush and solvent, if necessary, to get rid of all jackets, radiator size, and other details of the cooling
accumulations of trash that could prevent normal air system are designed so as to maintain the cylinder
flow through it. walls, head, pistons, and other working parts at effi-
The fins on the cylinder and cylinder head should cient, but not excessive, temperature. Two types of
be clean to permit maximum heat transfer from the liquid-cooling systems are used. These are the natu-
engine to the surrounding air. Three substances for ral-circulation, or thermosiphon, system and the
cleaning the cylinder and head can be used: a forced-circulation system.
degreaser, a solvent, and live steam. As a first step,
use a wooden stick to scrape away all the accumu- ©O19-12 THERMOSIPHON COOLING Thermo-
lated trash, dirt, and grease. Do not use a metal tool, siphon, or natural-circulation, cooling is not a widely
because this will scratch the cylinder and head and used system. However, you may find some engines
encourage accumulations of dirt. Then use the mate- that are cooled by this type of system. Thermosiphon
rial you have on hand to finish the cleaning job. cooling depends upon the expansion of heated cool-
Degreasing compound comes in pressure spray cans ant for the motive power that causes the coolant to
or in larger containers. To use live steam, you need a circulate.
steam cleaner. This is available in many shops. Figure 19-8 shows the basic thermosiphon-cooling
While cleaning the cylinder and head, check for oil system. The coolant around the cylinders is heated.
leaks, which usually show up as a heavy accumula- Consequently, the coolant expands so that the weight
tion of dirt. Check also for cracks or other damage. of a given volume is decreased. Since the heated
Then apply the cleaning agent on the areas to be coolant is lighter, it rises and is displaced by the
cleaned. The degreaser in the pressure can is the cooler and heavier coolant from the radiator. The
easiest to use. Other types of solvent can be applied heated coolant enters the top of the radiator and be-
with a bristle brush. After about five minutes, flush gins to lose heat to the air passing through the radia-
off the solution with a stream of water from a hose. If tor. As the coolant cools, it contracts and becomes
you have used solvent, use a solution of soapy water heavier. It then sinks to the bottom of the radiator,
brushed on and then flushed off. continuing to lose heat as it does so.

156
 © 19-13 FORCED CIRCULATION In the forced-cir-
culation system, a water pump is used to assure
continued and rapid circulation of the cooling liquid.
Figure 19-9 shows a cooling system on a four-cylinder
pancake engine. The water pump, driven by the en-
gine, keeps the coolant in continuous circulation
while the engine is running. Figure 19-9 shows where
the water pump is mounted on this engine. The cool-
ant enters the water pump from the bottom of the
radiator, where it is pressurized and forced up
through spaces in the cylinders and heads. These
spaces are called water jackets. In Fig. 19-10 the ar-
rows point to the water jackets, or coolant passages,
in the cylinder block and head of an engine. Figure
RADIATOR DRAIN VALVE 19-11 shows the water jackets in a single cylinder of a
FIG. 19-8 Simplified diagram of the thermosiphon type of four-cycle engine.
liquid-cooling system. (A) Cylinders, (B) water jackets, (C)
return hose, (D) upper hose, (E) radiator, and (F) upper tank.
©19-14 WATER PUMP Water pumps are of the
impeller type. They are mounted at the front end of
The pressure that it exerts through the return line to the engine between it and the radiator. See Figs. 19-6
the cylinders causes the warmer coolant around the and 19-9. A disassembled water pump is shown in
cylinders to rise. This provides constant circulation of Fig. 19-12. The pump consists of a housing, with a
the liquid between the cylinders and the radiator. coolant inlet and outlet, and an impeller. The impel-
The hotter the engine, the more rapidly the coolant ler is a flat plate mounted on the pump shaft with a
circulates. The system tends to maintain fairly con- series of flat or curved blades, or valves. When the
stant cylinder-wall temperatures. impeller rotates, the coolant between the blades is
The disadvantage of thermosiphon cooling is that thrown outward by centrifugal force and is forced
circulation is seriously reduced by an accumulation through the pump outlet and into the cylinder block.
of scale or foreign matter in the passages and lines. The pump inlet is connected by a hose to the bottom
This, in turn, causes overheating of the engine. of the radiator. Coolant from the radiator is drawn

FAN ON AT THERMOSTAT
98° TO 102°C GAUGE SENSOR
[208.4 TO 215.6° F] AND FAN SWITCH

NO FLOW THROUGH
RADIATOR UNTIL
THERMOSTAT BEGINS
TO OPEN (80° TO 84°C)
[176 TO 183.2° F]
BYPASS FLOW UNTIL
WATER PUMP THERMOSTAT OPENS

FIG. 19-9 A liquid-cooled four-cylinder motorcycle engine. The arrows

show the flow of coolant through the cooling system. (Honda Motor
Company, Ltd.)

157
 CYLINDER-HEAD
CYLINDER-BLOCK WATER JACKET |
WATER JACKET

CYLINDER-BLOCK
WATER JACKET

CYLINDER-HEAD
WATER JACKETS

i
hh
eli,
ee ox COOLANT
PASSAGE
TRANSFER
i

FIG. 19-11 Water jackets in the head and cylinder block of a

CY LINDER-BLOCK
WATER JACKETS
four-cycle engine.

provide a flow of air through the radiator to improve

engine cooling. The fan usually has from two to six
blades which, in rotating, pull air through the radia-
CY LINDER-HEAD WATER PASSAGES WATER tor. Some engines are equipped with a fan shroud
BOLT HOLE TO CYLINDER HEAD JACKET that improves fan performance. The shroud increases
the efficiency of the fan, since it assures that all air
pulled back by the fan must first pass through the
radiator.

©O19-16 RADIATOR The radiator holds a large

volume of coolant in close contact with a large vol-
ume of air so that heat will transfer from the coolant
to the air. The radiator core is divided into two sepa-
rate and intricate compartments. Coolant passes
through one, and air passes through the other. The
actions in one type of radiator are shown in Fig. 19-13.
CYLINDER BORE CORE CLEAN-OUT
HOLES
There are several types of radiator construction. The
tube-and-fin type of radiator shown in Fig. 19-13 con-
FIG. 19-10 Water jackets, or coolant passages in a cylinder
block and head. sists of a series of tubes extending from the top to the
bottom of the radiator, or from the upper to the lower
tank. Fins are placed around the tubes to improve
into the pump to replace the coolant forced through heat transfer. Air passes around the outside of the
the outlet. tubes, between the fins, absorbing heat from the
The impeller shaft is supported on one or more coolant in passing.
bearings. A seal prevents coolant from leaking out Some liquid-cooling systems have a separate ex-
around the bearing. The type of water pump shown in pansion tank, or reserve tank, as shown in Fig. 19-14.
Fig. 19-12 is driven by a belt to the drive pulley, which The expansion tank is partly filled with coolant and is
is attached to the front end of the engine crankshaft. connected to the radiator filler neck. The coolant in
The water pump on the engine shown in Fig. 19-9 is the engine expands as the engine heats up. This
mounted on the same shaft as the engine oil pump sends some of the coolant into the expansion tank
and is driven by an enclosed chain. instead of leaking it out on the ground. When the
engine approaches operating temperature, a valve in
© 19-15 ENGINE FAN On some engines the en- the radiator cap closes, sealing the cooling system.
gine fan mounts on the water-pump shaft and is The pressure in the cooling system increases and
driven by the same belt that drives the water pump. prevents boiling. This allows the cooling system to
This is shown in Fig. 19-6. The purpose of the fan is to operate at a higher temperature so it is more efficient.

158
 GASKET
PUMP BODY

SHAFT AND
BEARING

HUB

IMPELLER

©O19-17 THERMOSTAT A thermostat is located in

the passage between the cylinder head and the upper
HOT radiator tank. Figure 19-6 shows the thermostat loca-
COOLANT tion in the engine. The thermostat contains a temper-
coo. !N TOP TANK ature-sensitive wax pellet connected to a valve.
AIR When the engine is hot, the wax pellet expands,
IN
opening the valve to allow coolant to pass freely into
the radiator. But when the engine is cold, the wax
pellet contracts, closing the valve. This closes the
cooling return line to the radiator. Then the coolant in
the engine water jackets cannot leave. Therefore, the
coolant and the engine both heat up very rapidly.
This is desirable, because the engine should heat up
as rapidly as possible after starting. When an engine
is operated cold, the lubricating oil flows slowly so
HOT AIR OUT that moving parts may not be fully lubricated. This
COOLANT
OUT promotes excessive wear. Also, water condensation,
FIG. 19-13 Circulation of air and coolant through a tube- described in an earlier chapter, takes place and
and-fin radiator. (Union Carbide Corporation) water drips down into the crankcase. All this is mini-
mized by the action of the thermostat.

RADIATOR CAP RADIATOR

CORE
OVERFLOW S
TUBE

EXPANSION
TANK

SIDE
TANK

FIG. 19-14 A liquid-cooling system with an expansion

tank connected to the radiator.

159
O19-18 PRESSURIZED COOLING SYSTEM Many
OVERFLOW
liquid-cooled engines today have pressurized cooling TUBE
systems. Water boils at about 212°F [100°C] at sea
level. If the pressure on water is increased, it will not
boil until a higher temperature is reached. Without
pressurizing, the cooling system must be designed to
prevent water from reaching 212°F [100°C]. But if the
system is pressurized, water temperature can safely
go up to almost 250°F [121°C] without boiling. This
higher temperature allows the cooling system to op- VACUUM VALVE PRESSURE VALVE

erate more efficiently. Each added 1 pound per FIG. 19-16 Cutaway view of a radiator pressure cap, show-
square inch (psi) [0.07 kg/cm?] increases the boiling ing the pressure valve and the vacuum valve.
point of water about 3'/4°F [1.8°C]. Figure 19-15 shows
the relationship between pressure and the boiling
. Give two examples of air-cooled engines.
point of water.
To pressurize a liquid-cooling system, a pressure . What are water jackets? What are they for?
cap is used on the radiator. A pressure cap is shown
. What is the purpose of the water pump?
in Fig. 19-16. The pressure cap contains two spring-
loaded valves. One, called the pressure valve, opens What is the coolant made of?
if the pressure gets too high to allow the excessive
. What is the purpose of the engine fan?
pressure to escape. The other, the vacuum valve,
operates when the engine cools off. When this hap- . What is the purpose of the expansion tank?
pens, a partial vacuum can form in the cooling sys-
&
EF
oO
DO
nN. What is the purpose
ono of the thermostat? How
tem. The vacuum valve prevents this by opening to
does it work?
admit air from the outside. If a high vacuum formed,
it might cause the radiator to partly collapse, pushed 10. How many valves does the radiator pressure
in by atmospheric pressure. cap have? How do they work?
Most liquid-cooled engines and some air-cooled
11. What is the basic purpose of antifreeze?
engines are equipped with a temperature gauge or
indicator light to tell the operator how hot the engine
DELP IPROJEC KS
is getting. An abnormal heat rise is a warning to the
operator that something is wrong, and the engine 1. Whenever you see a liquid-cooled engine, note
must be stopped before serious damage results. whether or not the cooling system has an expan-
sion tank. If it does, make a quick sketch show-
REVIEW QUESTIONS ing its location and how it is connected.
1. What is the purpose of the engine cooling 2. Examine a cooling-system thermostat. Note the
system? location of the wax pellet which is used in most
modern thermostats to close or open the thermo-
2. What are the two types of engine cooling sys-
static valve.
tems?

15,000 _
[4,572] @ 8.5
12.500 ~ [591 AUTO ROAD
= [3,810] 3 9.2 MT EVANS
@i10,c00 ~ 163!
i“ [3,048] i TIOGA PASS
o 7.500 2 YOSEMITE PARK
[2,286] 11.0
aaa
F 5,000 wW
a [76] YELLOW STON E
Yee
< 2,500 £ DENVER
[762] 2 ce DETROIT
214.7 DEATH
@ [101]] VALLEY
FIG. 19-15 Relationship between pressure and
185 195 205 215 225 235 245 boiling point of water, showing how pressure
[85] [90.6] [96.1] [101.7] [107.2] [112.8] [118.3] [123.9] caps of various capacities can increase the boil-
BOILING POINT OF WATER,°F [°C] ing point.

160
four
ELECTRICITY AND
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Part Four of Small-Engine Mechanics discusses ARMATURE (Raise or lower

to adjust air gap)
electricity. It explains how the components of air gap (Armature
the small-engine electrical system work and to core) 0.020 INCH [0.51 mm]
ARMATURE STOP
how they are serviced. There are nine chapters (Bend to adjust
point opening)
in Part 4. They are as follows:

oe \
|
POINT OPENING
6

|
!
/ 0.020 INCH [0.51 mm]

(Sai
Chapter 20: Basic Electricity
SSde
Chapter 21: Batteries
Chapter 22: Battery Service
Chapter 23: Starting Systems for Small En-
gines CLOSING VOLTAGE
Chapter 24: Servicing Small-Engine Starters ADJUSTING SCREW

Chapter 25: Ignition Systems

Chapter 26: Ignition-System Service
Chapter 27: Charging Systems
Chapter 28: Servicing Small-Engine Charging
Systems

161
coo ee
Basic Electricity

020-1 ELECTRICITY AND SMALL ENGINES A

basic job for electricity in small engines is to produce
the electric sparks that ignite the compressed air-fuel
mixture in the cylinder. The ignition system supplies
After studying this chapter, you should be these sparks, as we explain in a later chapter. When
able to: the air-fuel mixture is ignited, it burns to produce the
pressure that moves the piston. When the piston
1. Discuss electricity, electric current, and volt- moves, the engine produces power.
age in terms of electron flow Many small engines also have electric starters.
These are small electric motors that spin the engine
2. Explain why insulation is needed crankshaft to start the engine. Most of these electric
starting motors are powered by storage batteries. A
3. Describe how magnets and electromagnets few are operated by house current (115 volts). We
work and what lines of force are describe batteries, starting motors, and ignition sys-
tems in later chapters. Some small-engine applica-
4. Explain how diodes and transistors work tions, such as garden tractors and motorcycles, are
equipped with lights and horn in addition to electric
5. Draw a schematic diagram of a simple series starters and batteries.
circuit and of a simple parallel circuit, using
© 20-2 WHAT ELECTRICITY IS We described
the signs and symbols of electricity
atoms in Chap. 8 and said that atoms had a center, or
nucleus, and electrons spinning around this center.
6. Explain the difference between a fuse and a
When electrons break free from their atoms, they form
circuit breaker
electricity. Electrons have negative charges. When
electrons move from one place to another, there is a
flow, or current of electricity.
For example, electrons flow easily through a con-
ductor such as a copper wire, as shown in Fig. 20-1. It
takes a fantastic number of electrons in motion to
produce an electric current strong enough to do any
work. The reason is that electrons are so very small.
In one ounce of iron, for example, there are approxi-
mately 22 million billion billion electrons.
It takes an electrical device such as a battery or a
generator to get electrons moving in a conductor.
Both the battery and generator can light lights and do
other jobs requiring a flow of electric current (elec-
trons). When many electrons are moving, the current
is high. When few are moving, the current is low.
Following chapters describe starting motors, batter-

162
 020-5 THE AMMETER Now let us see how the
ammeter measures electric current. The simplest
kind of ammeter is shown in Fig. 20-2. This is the kind
of ammeter found in many lawn tractors and station-
ary engine installations. Its purpose is to tell the
operator whether the alternator is charging the bat-
tery or not. The battery will run down if the alternator
does not charge the battery when it is supposed to. A
run-down battery means no starting, no running en-
gine.
Here is how the ammeter works: The conductor is
connected at one end to the battery. The pointer is
mounted on a pivot. There is a small piece of iron,
oval-shaped, mounted on the same pivot. This oval-
shaped piece of iron is called the armature. A perma-
nent magnet attracts the armature and tends to hold
it in a horizontal position. In this position, the pointer
or needle points to zero. Nothing is happening. Now
suppose the alternator starts sending current to the
battery. The current passes through the conductor.
The current produces magnetism. This magnetism
attracts the armature and causes it to swing clock-
FIG. 20-1 Electric current: electrons moving in a wire. wise. This moves the pointer to the “charge” side. The
greater the amount of current flow, the stronger the
magnetism and the farther the pointer moves. The
ies, generators (and alternators), and ignition sys-
meter face is marked off to show the number of am-
tems.
peres flowing.
Now suppose the alternator is not working and you
© 20-3 MEASURING CURRENT Current is mea-
turn on the lights. Current flows from the battery to
sured in amperes, or amps. One ampere of electric
the lights. The current flows in the reverse direction
current is a rather small amount of current. The bat-
through the conductor in the ammeter. Now the ar-
tery can put out 200 to 300 amps when it is operating
mature is attracted in the opposite direction, and it
the starting motor. Headlights may draw 10 or more
swings counterclockwise. This moves the pointer to
amps. When you consider how many electrons it
the “discharge” side. The greater the current flow
takes to make an ampere, an ampere seems like a
from the battery, the farther the pointer moves.
pretty big amount of electric current. It takes 6.28
billion billion electrons flowing past a point in one
second to make | amp.
Nobody actually can count electrons to find out how
many amperes are flowing in a circuit. An ammeter
must be used to measure current flow. The ammeter
reports the amount of current flow in amperes.
The ammeter makes use of an interesting effect of PERMANENT
electron flow. This effect is that a flow of electrons, or MAGNET

an electric current, produces magnetism. TERMINAL

020-4 MAGNETISM Magnetism comes in two

forms: natural and electrical. Both act the same. Nat-
ural magnets are made of iron and certain other met-
als. Magnets attract iron objects. Two facts about
magnets that are important are the following:

¢ Magnets can produce electricity.

¢ Electricity can produce magnets. Magnets pro- PERMANENT MAGNET
duced by electricity are called electromagnets. ARMATURE
FIG. 20-2 Simplified construction of an ammeter and its
We discuss electromagnets in more detail later. interior construction.

163
020-6 WHAT MAKES ELECTRONS MOVE? Elec-
trons on the move make up electric current. But what
makes the electrons move? Simply too many elec-
trons in one spot. When electrons are gathered in one
place, they try to move away. The battery and the
alternator are devices that collect electrons. They
collect electrons at one terminal by taking them away
from the other terminal. If we connect the two termi-
nals with a conductor, electrons flow from the termi-
nal with “too many” to the terminal with “too few.”

©20-7 VOLTAGE Suppose there are a great many

electrons at one terminal. And suppose the other ter- FIG. 20-4 Magnetic lines of force between two unlike mag-
minal has a great shortage of electrons. With this netic poles. The magnetic lines of force tend to shorten, thus
producing the attractive force that pulls the poles together.
great excess and great shortage, the electric pressure
is high. The pressure on electrons to move from the
“too-many” terminal to the “too-few” terminal is high. circuit. It can cause all sorts of trouble, as you will
Electric pressure is measured in volts. High pres- see later.
sure is high voltage. Low pressure is low voltage. Car Insulation keeps the electric current moving in the
batteries are 12-volt units; 12 volts is low pressure. proper paths, or circuits. These circuits include the
The spark at the spark-plug gap is a flow of electrons wires and electrical devices on the engine.
at high voltage. The voltage there can be 20,000 volts
or more. That is high, but not nearly so high as the ©20-8 MAGNETS—ANOTHER LOOK Let us take
voltage on power lines. These are the wires that carry another look at magnets. Magnets act through lines
electricity from power plants to your home and to of force. The lines of force stretch between the ends of
factories. The voltage in these lines is in the hun- the magnet. The two ends of the magnet are called
dreds of thousands of volts. It could make a spark the poles, or the magnetic poles. One pole is called
several feet long. the north pole, the other the south pole. The area
surrounding the poles, where the lines of force are, is
©20-8 INSULATION Wires that carry electric cur- called a magnetic field.
rent are covered with insulation. Power lines are
hung from long insulators on the power poles or tow- © 20-10 LINES OF FORCE sLines of force have two
ers. We do not want those electrons to escape. If they properties: One is that they try to shorten themselves.
escape, electricity is lost. Worse, electrons on the If you hold the north pole of one magnet close to the
loose can cause serious trouble. For example, dam- south pole of another magnet, the two magnets pull
aged insulation on the wires of household appliances together (Fig. 20-3). If we drew the lines of force be-
can start a fire. Or someone can be electrocuted. tween the two poles, the picture would look some-
.Also, on the engine, there may be wires between thing like Fig. 20-4. The lines of force, stretching be-
the battery, the alternator, and other electrical de- tween the two poles, try to shorten up and so pull the
vices. These wires are all covered with insulation. two poles together.
The insulation is a nonconductor. Insulation will not The other property is that lines of force run more or
let electrons—electric current—flow through it. But if less parallel to each other. Also, they try to push
this insulation goes bad, the electric current will not away from each other. Suppose we bring two like
flow where it is supposed to. It could take a short cut poles together—two north poles, for example (Fig.
through the metal of the engine. This is called a short 20-5). The lines of force run parallel to each other and

—_—_—_—_—>

ATTRACTION
REPULSION
FIG. 20-3 Unlike magnetic poles attract each other. FIG. 20-5 Like magnetic poles repel each other.

164
 yeti! TAM TE AH|A | small engine. We shall find out more about this later,
quel Mt Vu!ver i ni
1]hu
nit it ANi§ wl t/\
when we discuss the starting motor, charging sys-
AN My iy! Miata
tem, and ignition system.

\\\

JIA AN
©20-12 RESISTANCE An insulator has a high re-
Ly d sty/ ue 441 AY : Wut
Ce sistance to the movement of electrons through it. A
4 y yp, AN\S
2 ALG SS conductor, such as a copper wire, has a very low
Si,Ce 22H W'S

S57
—S—' 57 ANE
resistance. Resistance occurs in all electric circuits.
=e
SESS Zz. We want resistance in some circuits so too much cur-
SSS zZ Go
rent (too many electrons) will not flow. In other cir-
TRO
SSeS
PRAWN Wz
tA
777% cuits, we want as little resistance as possible so that
WA Qw~ gy iy 417,
WW \ ANN vay a high current can flow.
Vy hy\ Win WU RA
\ Way ! Resistance is measured in ohms. For example, a
1000-foot [304.8-m] length of No. 10 wire, which is
MUD WAN
tl
i
Vn niin about 0.1 inch [2.54 mm] in diameter, has a resistance
a AlPAN Wh Wait uh} of 1 ohm. A 2000-foot [605.6-m] length has a resistance
FIG. 20-6 ane lines of force between two like poles. of 2 ohms. If the wire is heavier, the resistance drops.
Magnetic lines of force tend to parallel each other, thus For example, a No. 4 wire, 0.2 inch [5.08 mm] in di-
forcing the two like poles away from each other. ameter, has only 1/4 ohm resistance per 1000 feet
[304.8 ml].
The longer the path, or circuit is, the farther the
try to push away. The magnet that is free actually
electrons have to travel and the higher the resistance
moves away when the like pole of the other magnet is
to electric current becomes. With the heavier wire,
brought close (Fig. 20-6).
the path is wider. More electrons can flow, and so the
So now we can draw these conclusions:
resistance is lower.
¢ Like magnetic poles repel each other. North re-
©2-13 OHM'S LAW There is a definite relation
pels north. South repels south.
between current (electron flow), voltage (electric
¢ Unlike magnetic poles attract each other. North pressure), and resistance. As the electric pressure
attracts south. South attracts north. goes up, more electrons flow. Increasing the voltage
increases the amperes of current. However, increas-
© 20-11 ELECTROMAGNETS Electromagnets act ing the resistance decreases the amount of current
just like magnets. An electromagnet can be made by that flows. These relationships can be summed up in
wrapping wire around a tube. We saw what hap- a statement known as Ohm's law:
pened in the ammeter when current flowed one way Voltage is equal to amperage times ohms
or the other through the conductor. The current pro-
duced magnetism, or magnetic lines of force. or Eee it
Current flowing through a single conductor will not
produce very much magnetism. But suppose we wind where E = voltage
a conductor—a wire—around a tube. Then suppose I = current, in amperes
we connect the ends of the wire to a source of electric R = resistance, in ohms
current (or electrons). The winding produces strong The main thing about Ohm's law is that it shows that
magnetism. There is a strong magnetic field around increasing the resistance reduces the current. A
the coil of wire. major cause of electrical troubles is excessive resis-
With current flowing through the winding, the tance in circuits. This can be due to poor connections,
winding acts just like a bar magnet. One end of it will defective wires, or bad contacts.
either attract or repel a pole of a bar magnet. One end
of the winding is a north pole. The other end is a 020-14 ONE-WIRE SYSTEMS For electricity to
south pole. You can change the poles by reversing the flow, there must be a complete path, or circuit. The
leads to the source of current. This shows that when electrons must flow from one terminal of the battery
electrons flow through in one direction, it makes one or alternator, through the circuit, and back to the
of the poles north. But when the electrons flow other terminal. In the automobile and many small-
through in the reverse direction, the poles reverse. engine installations, the engine and car frame, or
The north pole becomes the south pole, and the south engine support, are used as the return circuit. There-
pole becomes the north pole. fore, no separate wires are required for returns from
An electromagnet, such as that made by winding electrical devices to the battery or alternator. The
wire around a tube, is also called a solenoid. It is return circuit is called ground and is indicated in
used in several places in the electric system of the wiring diagrams by the symbol =. The ground—the

165
 OL
mecrramnati
Wibcoe i!
SWITCH

DC-ONE DIRECTION

QQ
=————__)
AC-FIRST ONE DIRECTION
-THEN THE OTHER
FIG. 20-7 Directions of ac and dc current flow in a wire.
GENERATOR
engine and car frame—is the other half of the circuit. LIGHTS IN
It is the return circuit between the source of electricity PARALLEL
(battery or alternator) and the electrical device. FIG. 20-9 When light bulbs are connected in parallel to the
current source, the current divides, part of its flowing
©20-15 ALTERNATING AND DIRECT CURRENT through each light bulb.
Most of the electricity generated and used in this
world is alternating current (ac). The current flows
Practically the same voltage is applied to each de-
first in one direction and then in the opposite direc-
vice, and each device can be turned on or off inde-
tion, as shown in Fig. 20-7. It alternates. The current
pendently of the others.
you use in your home is ac. It alternates 60 times per
Many small-engine vehicle and motorcycle circuits
second and therefore is called 60-cycle [60 Hz] ac. (In
are series-parallel circuits. Forexample, even though
the metric system of measurement, one cycle per
a pair of headlights are connected to the battery in
second is called a hertz, abbreviated Hz.)
parallel, both are connected in series to the battery
The battery and other electrical devices used in
through a lighting switch, as shown in Fig. 20-10.
automobiles and small-engine installations cannot
use ac. The battery is a direct-current (dc) unit. When
©20-18 RESISTANCE IN PARALLEL AND SERIES
you discharge it by connecting electrical devices to it,
CIRCUITS The resistance of a series circuit is the
you take current out in one direction only. The current
sum of the resistances of the various components of
does not alternate, or change directions. Likewise,
the circuit. In Fig. 20-11, the total resistance, ignoring
the other electrical devices in the car, motorcycle, or
the wires between the resistors, is4 +2454 1, or
small engine operate on dc only.
12 ohms. Using Ohm's law, we can calculate that 1.0
© 20-16 SERIES CIRCUITS Inseries circuits, each amp will flow from the 12-volt battery through the
electrical device is connected to other electrical de- 12-ohm circuit.
vices in such a way that the same current flows The resistances of parallel circuits are more diffi-
through all, as shown in Fig. 20-8. The whole series of cult to calculate. Paralleling devices reduce the re-
electrical devices is connected together in a single sistance, and so more current flows. For example, the
circuit. If any one device is turned off, the circuit is headlights of a garden tractor are in parallel in Fig.
broken and no current can flow through any device in 20-10. To calculate the resistance of a number of cir-
the circuit. cuits in parallel, use the formula

© 20-17. PARALLEL CIRCUITS In parallel circuits,

the various devices are connected by parallel wires,
Ria Wry
ee
lire = Virgie
eee
ir
as shown in Fig. 20-9. The current divides, part of it
flowing into one device, part into another, and so on. in which R is the total resistance of the group in
ohms, and rj, rz, 3, ¥4, and so on, are the resistances
of the individual circuits.

SWITCH

HEADLIGHTS

GENERATOR
LIGHTS
IN
SERIES FIG. 20-10 The headlight circuit in a garden tractor is a
SWITCH series-parallel circuit. The two headlights are in parallel
FIG. 20-8 When light bulbs are connected in series, the with each other but are connected in series with the light
same current flows through all. switch to the battery.

166
 4 OHMS 2 OHMS

REFLECTOR

A RESISTOR MAY
VINNY
\/ =
A RESISTOR IS
INDICATED LIKE
i| |
EYL
AYA
[| FILAMENT
LOOK LIKE THIS THIS IN A DIAGRAM
FIG. 20-11 A series circuit made of four resistors of varying
resistances.

FIG. 20-12 Current flow through the filament of a headlight

Example: Suppose that the resistance of each of the causes the filament to heat up and glow brightly.
headlights shown in Fig. 20-10 is 1 ohm. The total
resistance would then be be considerable heating. Likewise, a bad connection
will become hot.
l
Site Tel 52 NOTE: Any connection becoming abnormally hot
when current flows through it is in bad condition.
Example: As amore complicated example, suppose The reason for the heating effect is as follows: Volt-
we had a parallel circuit with three resistors of 1, 2, age, or electric pressure, causes electrons to hop from
and 4 ohms. The resistance would be one atom to another. There is also a certain amount of
“bumping about,” and so the atoms proceed to move
io
l faster. When-atoms move faster, the substance be-
1/1 + 1/2 4 1/4
comes hotter. Fast atom motion means a high tem-
eat Psi os LResel Clea? perature. Therefore, the more bumping about the
my 4/4 oe 24 A atoms get from a heavier electron flow, the hotter the
conductor becomes.
A light bulb is simply a wire conductor, called the
filament, in an airtight glass envelope, as shown in
© 20-19 VOLTAGE DROP If the voltage across Fig. 20-12. When the light bulb is connected to an
each of the resistors in the circuit shown in Fig. 20-11 electric circuit, electrons bombard the atoms in the
were checked with a voltmeter, the voltage would wire so hard that the filament becomes very hot. It
add up to 12 volts. For example, the voltage between gets so hot that it glows brilliantly and gives off light.
A and B, or across the 4-ohm resistor, would be 4 As current passes through a wire, the resistance
volts, from B to C it would be 2 volts, from C to D it and the temperature of the wire also may increase.
would be 5 volts, from D to E it would be 1 volt. If we Most metals show this effect. A simple explanation
did not know the resistance of any of the resistors, we might be this: With increased temperature, the atoms
could find it by measuring the voltage and amperage of metal that make up the wire are moving faster.
and then using Ohm's law(R = E/I). For example, the Therefore, the electrons have a harder time jumping
resistance of resistor AB would be 4 volts divided by between the faster moving atoms.
1 amp, or 4 ohms.
The voltage is gradually “used up” from one end of 020-21 WIRING CIRCUITS With the increasing
the circuit to the other. The voltage drops 4 volts number of electrically operated devices that can be
across the 4-ohm resistor. Thus a voltage measure- used with a small engine, the wiring circuits have
ment between points B and E would be 8 volts, from C become rather complex. Figure 20-13 shows the wir-
to E it would be 6 volts, and from D to E it would be 1 ing diagram for one model of a small engine. On
volt. Any resistance in a circuit causes a voltage loss, some engines, the wires between the components are
or voltage drop. The voltage drop is also called the JR bound together into wiring harnesses. Each wire is
drop. This comes from the formula E = IR. marked by special colors in the insulation—for ex-
ample, light green, dark green, blue, red, black with
020-20 RESISTANCE HEATING As electric cur- a white tracer, and so on. These markings make
rent flows through a conductor, a heating effect re- identification of the various wires easier.
sults. Normally, the heating effect is very slight and The wires connecting electrical components and
does no harm. But if the wire is too small, there will instruments usually are fastened together by termi-

167
 FOR REMOTE STARTING
SOLENOID IN PLACE OF
STARTER
STARTING STARTER SWITCH
SWITCH
SWITCH
STARTING

SOLDERED TYPE

\
12 VOLT IGNITION |
SWITCH |
BATTERY
|
|
!
WELDED TYPE

TEMPERATURE
SAFETY SWITCH
——
CRIMPED TYPE
FIG. 20-14 Types of wire terminals.
res IGNITION
a
KD
DISTRIBUTOR = Goi,
GENERATORC
FIG. 20-13 Wiring diagram of a small engine that has Notice that the only tool used is regular pliers.
battery ignition and a dc generator charging system. (Wis- In electrical work, abbreviations and symbols are
consin Motor Corporation)
used constantly. Symbols are a kind of shorthand.
nals attached to the ends of the wire. Figure 20-14 Their use permits large and complicated electrical
shows various types of terminals. Use of terminals systems to be accurately drawn in schematic form. As
and connectors makes disassembly and assembly you work in the small-engine service field, you will
operations of wires and electrical devices faster and find many different types of drawings and illustra-
easier. Many types of connectors are available for tions. There, you will have to understand and inter-
use in the shop. One advantage of many connectors pret. Figure 20-16 shows many of the widely used
is that they may be used to splice and tap into a wire electrical symbols that you may find in manufactur-
without your having to strip insulation, solder, or ers’ manuals. Should you see in an illustration a
tape the bare connection afterwards. Figure 20-15 symbol that is not on this list, look carefully through
shows how a connector can be used to tap into a wire. the book to find the caption for symbols used.

CONTACT TAP INSULATED

ELEMENT WIRE =~ COVER

CONNECTOR
INSTALLED
CONNECTOR
FIG. 20-15 To tap into a wire using a connector, (a) slide the open side of
the connector on the wire and position the tap wire in the connector. (b)
Squeeze the contact element down with pliers. (c) Close the connector
cover and snap it in place to provide insulation. (3M Company)

168
 ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS

Hel
SYMBOL REPRESENTS SYMBOL REPRESENTS

AMMETER GROUND—CHASSIS FRAME (Preferred)

BATTERY—ONE CELL GROUND-CHASSIS FRAME (Acceptable)

i] BATTERY—MULTICELL LAMP or BULB (Preferred)

(Where required, battery voltage or LAMP or BULB (Acceptable)

:ak us
+ |H= polarity or both may be indicated
as shown in example. The long line
is always positive polarity.) MOTOR—ELECTRICAL

CABLE—CONNECTED NEGATIVE

ea
[ole
M+]
CABLE—NOT CONNECTED POSITIVE

CAPACITOR RESISTOR

CONNECTOR—FEMALE CONTACT SWITCH—SINGLE THROW

—S 4
|
CONNECTOR—MALE CONTACT (ca SWITCH—DOUBLE THROW

Hel
CONNECTORS—SEPARABLE—ENGAGED

A
Olea
TERMINATION

FUSE VOLTMETER

GENERATOR ro~™ | WINDING—INDUCTOR

FIG. 20-16 Commonly used electrical symbols. (General

Motors Corporation) excessive amounts of current begin to flow, the high
current overheats the soft metal strip. This melts the
strip (or the fuse blows”), and the circuit is opened as
shown in Fig. 20-17b. When this happens, the circuit
020-22 FUSES AND CIRCUIT BREAKERS Most should be checked so that the short or ground can be
electric circuits have fuses or circuit breakers that eliminated. Then a new fuse should be installed.
protect the electrical components from damage due to Circuit breakers perform the same function as fuses
a short circuit or ground. except that they do not “blow.” Therefore, circuit
The typical fuse is the cartridge type shown in Fig. breakers do not require replacement when an over-
20-17. It consists of a glass envelope, contact caps on load occurs. Instead, they cause contact points to
each end, and a strip of soft metal connecting the two open, interrupting the circuit. When the overload
contact caps. The fuse is connected in series into the condition is eliminated, the contact points close to
circuit. If a short or ground develops in the circuit and complete the circuit again.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
OPEN 1. What do you call a flow of electrons all moving
(BURNED OUT)
in the same direction in a wire?
2. Name two sources of electric current in small
engines.

The ampere is a measurement of what?

. Can magnets produce electricity?
. Can electricity produce magnets?
. What device is used to measure current?
(a) GOOD FUSE (6) BLOWN FUSE
FIG. 20-17 A cartridge fuse. S»
Oo
©O
Nn
© What makes electrons move in a wire?

169
 . What is voltage? Wes What is one of the major causes of electrical
troubles in engine electric systems?
. What is the purpose of insulation?
18. Explain what a one-wire system is. Why is it an
10. What is a short circuit?
advantage to have a one-wire system?
ER, What are the two ends of a magnet called?
19. What is dc?
2. Do like magnetic poles attract or repel each
20. What is ac?
other?
13. Do unlike magnetic poles attract or repel each
other? DERE PROJECH

14, Explain how to make an electromagnet.

Refer to Fig. 20-13 and make a list of all the electrical
15. What is resistance? How is it measured?
units you see in the illustration. File this list in your
16. What is Ohm's law? notebook.

170
Batteries

O21-1 PURPOSE OF BATTERY The battery (Figs.

21-1 and 21-2) supplies current to operate the starting
motor for starting the engine. It also supplies current
for lights and other electrical devices in use when the
After studying this chapter, you should be engine is not turning the alternator or generator fast
able to: enough. The alternator or generator has to be turning
above a minimum speed to supply enough current to
1. Explain the purpose of the battery in the en- handle any electrical loads that are turned on. The
gine electrical system amount of current the battery can supply is limited by
the capacity of the battery. The capacity, in turn,
. Explain how batteries are constructed and depends on the amount of chemicals the battery con-
how they work tains.

. Describe the various battery ratings and ex- ©O21-2 CHEMICALS IN THE BATTERY Figure 21-3
shows a battery in cutaway view. The chemicals in
plain what they mean
the battery are sponge-lead (a solid), lead oxide (a
paste), and sulfuric acid (a liquid). These three sub-
. Define “ni-cad battery”
stances are made to react chemically to produce a
flow of current. The lead oxide and sponge lead are
held in plate grids to form positive and negative
plates.
The plate grid (Fig. 21-4) is a framework of anti-
mony-lead alloy with horizontal and vertical bars.
The plate grids are made into plates (Fig. 21-5) by
applying lead oxide paste. The horizontal and verti-
cal bars hold the paste in the plate.

021-8 BATTERY CONSTRUCTION In the battery,

several similar plates are properly spaced and
welded, or lead-burned, to a strap, forming a plate
group (Fig. 21-5). Plates of two types are used: one for
the positive plate group, the other for the negative
plate group. A positive plate group is nested with a
negative plate group. Separators are placed between
the groups to form an element (Fig. 21-5). The separa-
tors hold the plates apart so that they do not touch.
The elements are placed in cells in the battery
case. Then heavy lead connectors are attached to the
cell terminals to connect the cells in series. Many
batteries have connectors that pass through the par-

171
E

FIG. 21-1 Comparative size of automobile and motorcycle

batteries.

FIG. 21-4 Battery plate grid.

titions, as in Fig. 21-6. Others have connectors that go

over the partitions. After the internal connectors are
in place, the cover is put on. The cover has openings
through which liquid can be added when the filler
plugs or vent caps are removed. After the liquid is
added and the battery is given the initial charge, it is
ready for operation.
Some batteries have the two main terminals on the
battery cover, as in Figs. 21-1 and 21-6. Other batter-
ies have the terminals in the side of the battery case,
as in Fig. 21-7. This type of battery is called an ST (for
the side terminal or sealed terminal) battery by the
manufacturer. Figure 21-8 shows how the cables are
connected to the ST battery. Figure 21-9 shows the
battery mounting arrangement for a motorcycle-type
FIG. 21-2 Location of the battery and starting motor on a battery.
tiller. (Ariens Company) There is also a “no-service” battery, which is
sealed (Fig. 21-10). It never requires the addition of
water, as other batteries occasionally do.
VENT
COVER SRE

TERMINAL
POSTS
FILLER
CAP
| CASE
NEGATIVE _ |
PLATE

SEPARATOR ELECTROLYTE
TevER

POSITIVE SEDIMENT POSITIVE NEGATIVE

PLATE SPACE PLATE GROUP
FIG. 21-3 Cutaway view of a battery. (Lawn Boy Division of SEPARATOR
Outboard Marine Corporation) FIG. 21-5 Partly assembled battery element.

172
 O21-4 VENTS When the battery is discharged, as
current is taken from it, chemical changes take place
in the battery. Also, when the battery is charged from
a source of electric current, other chemical changes
result in the battery. Gases are produced by these
chemical changes. These gases must be released
from the battery through vents. In some batteries, the
vents are in the vent plugs or caps. Figure 21-11
shows, in sectional view, a typical vent plug. It has
baffles which separate liquid droplets from the gas.
The liquid drops back down into the battery. The gas
escapes through the vent hole.
In motorcycle-type batteries, a special breather
tube is used as the vent for all cells (Fig. 21-9). The
location of the battery (Fig. 21-2) requires this type of
venting. It would be very undesirable to have vent
plugs of the type shown in Fig. 21-11 releasing gases
close to the operator. The gas released by a battery
while it charges is hydrogen, and it can explode if
ignited.
Even though the no-service batteries are sealed as
shown in Fig. 21-10, they also are vented through a
small, well-baffled hole. The vent hole prevents bat-
FIG. 21-6 Phantom view of a 12-volt storage battery. The tery damage from a gas-pressure buildup inside it.
case is shown as though it were transparent so that the
construction of the cells can be seen. (Delco-Remy Division
of General Motors Corporation) O21-5 CHEMICAL ACTIVITIES IN THE BATTERY
The liquid in a battery is called the electrolyte. It is
made up of about 40 percent sulfuric acid and about
60 percent water (in a fully charged battery). When
sulfuric acid is placed between the plates, chemical

ONE-PIECE VENT PLUG

COVER
DELCO EYE

SEALED
TERMINAL
SEPARATOR

FIG. 21-7 Phantom view of a 12-volt battery with

the terminals in the side of the battery case.
(Delco-Remy Division of General Motors Corpora-
ELEMENT tion)

173
 PLASTIC
TERMINAL
SOCKET

ELECTROLITE
LEVEL

TERMINAL
THREADED
INSERT
CONNECTOR

PLASTIC-
COVERED
CABLE

CONTAINER
WALL

ACID
SPACE
FIG. 21-8 Sectional view showing construction of a side- the two terminals are not connected by any circuit, no
terminal battery with the cable, stud, and terminal cap further chemical activity takes place.
assembly. (Gould, Inc.) However, when the two terminals do become con-
nected by an electric circuit, electrons (current) will
actions take place. These actions remove electrons flow. They flow from the terminal where chemical
from one group of plates and collect them at the other. activity has collected them. They flow through the
This creates a 2.l-volt pressure between the two circuit to the other terminal, where the chemical ac-
groups of plates. There is an electrical pressure of 2.1 tivity has removed them. Chemical activities now
volts between the two terminals of the battery cell. If begin again and so the 2-volt pressure is maintained.
The current flow continues. The chemical actions
POSITIVE CABLE “use up” the sponge lead, lead peroxide, and sulfuric
acid. After a certain amount of current has been with-
TERMINAL
drawn, the battery is discharged (or “run down” or
BIEL “dead"). It is not capable of delivering any additional
PLUG
current. When the battery has reached this state, it
BREATHER can be recharged. This is done by supplying it witha
TUBE flow of current from some external source. The exter-
nal source forces current back through the battery.
This reverses the chemical activities in the battery.
The plates are restored to their original composition,
and the battery becomes recharged. Then it is ready
to deliver additional current.

©21-6 CONNECTING CELLS Cells are connected

in series so that their voltages add. Three cells con-
nected in series make a 6-volt battery. Six cells con-
nected in series make a 12-volt battery. Most automo-
tive and motorcycle-type batteries are 12-volt
HOLD-DOWN batteries. Some small-engine applications require
STRAP 6-volt batteries. Some heavy-duty applications such
as trucks and buses may require two 12-volt batteries

oa
EGATIVE
CABLE
connected in series to produce 24 volts.
Actually, a battery cell at 80°F [26.7°C] will test on
FIG. 21-9 A motorcycle battery that has screw-type termi- open circuit at about 2.1 volts when fully charged.
nals. (Honda Motor Company, Ltd.) Common practice, however, is to call it 2 volts.

174
 STAINLESS STEEL TERMINAL STUDS —__ ELECTRICAL CONTACT

_____—_ POLARITY
STATE-OF-CHARGE INDICATOR
INDICATOR

HEAT-SEALED
COVERS

FINGER GRIPS ~@
— REINFORCED
HEAVY-DUTY
PLATE STRAPS —- aaa POLYPROPYLENE
AND TERMINALS CASE

“4
EXTRUSION-FUSION |i
INTERCELL .
CONNECTION

ENCAPSULATED ' PLATE

SEPARATOR ENVELOPE
WROUGHT LEAD-CALCIUM GRID
ELEMENT ON FLAT CASE BOTTOM

FIG. 21-10 Sealed battery of the type that never requires temperature, chemical activities are greatly reduced.
water. (Delco-Remy Division of General Motors Corporation) The sulfuric acid cannot work so actively on the
plates. The battery is less efficient and cannot supply
Therefore, a six-cell battery is said to be a 12-volt as much current for as long a time. High rates of
battery, rather than a 12.6-volt battery. discharge will not produce as many ampere-hours as
low rates of discharge. At high discharge rates, the
O21-7 BATTERY RATINGS The amount of current chemical activities take place only on the surfaces of
that a battery can deliver depends on the area and the plates. They do not have time to penetrate the
volume of the active plate material. It also depends plates and to use the materials below the plate sur-
on the amount and strength of electrolyte. Batteries faces.
are rated several different ways. Probably the most
common rating is the ampere-hour capacity.

©21-8 BATTERY EFFICIENCY The ability of the

battery to deliver current varies within wide limits. It
depends on temperature and rate of discharge. At low

VENT
HOLE

46%

0° F [—17.8°C]
/
(

250%

ELECTROLYTE BAFFLE
FIG. 21-11 Avent plug in cell cover has a small vent hole to FIG. 21-12 Battery power shrinks while cranking power
allow gases to escape. (Delco-Remy Division of General required increases with falling temperature. (Tecumseh
Motors Corporation) Products Company)

175
 Figure 21-12 relates battery temperature to the
cranking power required by the engine. These figures
are only approximations.
STARTING
SWITCH
©O21-9 VARIATIONS IN TERMINAL VOLTAGE Be-
cause the battery produces voltage by chemical
means, the voltage varies according to a number of
conditions. These conditions and their effect on the
battery voltage may be summed up as follows:

1. The terminal voltage of a battery that is being

charged increases with the following: WIRING
a. Increasing charging rate. To increase the HARNESS

charging rate (amperes input), the terminal

voltage must go up.
b. Increasing state of charge. As the state of
charge goes up, the voltage must go up to
maintain the charging rate. For example, a
voltage of approximately 2.6 volts per cell is
NICKEL-
required to force a current through a fully CADMIUM
charged battery. This is the reason that volt- BATTERY
age regulators are set to operate at 15
volts—slightly below the voltage required to
charge a fully charged battery. This setting
protects the battery from overcharge. ENGINE
c. Decreasing temperature. Lower battery tem-
peratures require a higher voltage to main-
tain the charging rate.
2. The terminal voltage of a battery that is being
discharged decreases with the following:
a. Increasing discharge rate. As the rate of dis-
charge goes up, the chemical activities in-
crease and cannot penetrate plates so effec-
tively. Therefore, the voltage is reduced. WIRING
HARNESS TO
b. Decreasing state of charge. With less of the STARTER
active material and sulfuric acid available,
less chemical activity takes place, and the FIG. 21-13 A lawn mower that uses a nickel-cadmium bat-
voltage drops. tery to operate the starter. (Briggs & Stratton Corporation)
c. Decreasing temperature. With lower temper-
atures, the chemical activities cannot go on In normal use, the ni-cad battery will provide 40 to 60
as effectively and the voltage drops. starts of the engine before the battery must be re-
charged.
©21-10 NICKEL-CADMIUM BATTERIES Another
type of battery is used to operate the starting motor of O21-11 NI-CAD BATTERY CONSTRUCTION Asin
some small engines. This type of battery is the the lead-acid battery, the cell is the basic unit of the
nickel-cadmium, or ni-cad battery. It is smaller than ni-cad battery. The voltage of a ni-cad cell is about
a lead-acid battery, (discussed in ©21-2 through 1.2 volts. Each cell consists of positive and negative
© 21-9) of the same capacity. Therefore, the ni-cad plates, separators, electrolyte, and cell container.
battery can be used with certain equipment that does The active material in the plates is nickel hydroxide.
not have room for a lead-acid battery. Figure 21-13 After the plates are formed and cut to size, a nickel
shows the ni-cad battery attached to the handle of a tab is welded to a corner of each plate. Then the
lawn mower. Like the lead-acid battery, the ni-cad plates are assembled, with the tabs welded to the
battery is rechargeable. proper terminals. The plates are separated from each
When the key is placed in the starting switch and other by a continuous strip of porous plastic.
turned to start, the battery supplies power to the The electrolyte used in the nickel-cadmium battery
starter, which cranks the engine. In the operation, is a 30 percent (by weight) solution of potassium hy-
this system is the same as the starting system that droxide (KOH) in distilled water. The specific gravity
uses a regular 12-volt battery (discussed in Chap. 23). of the electrolyte remains between 1.240 and 1.300 at

176
 STARTING shipped. Before it will work, it must be charged. You
SWITCH
can check the condition of the ni-cad battery with a
voltmeter. A typical ni-cad battery used on small
engines consists of 10 cells packaged in five sticks, as
shown in Fig. 21-15. A fully charged battery of this
type will have a voltage reading of 12.0 to 12.5 volts.

BATTERY CAUTION: Only the trickle type of battery charger

CHARGER that comes with the ni-cad battery should be used to
STOP charge it. This special charger limits the charging
SWITCH
current to 100 milliamps, a very small amount of cur-
‘rent. Use of any other battery charger may cause the
battery to explode, possibly injuring you or anyone
else nearby and destroying the battery.
NICKEL-
CADMIUM
BATTERY
REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What is the purpose of the battery?

STARTER
FIG. 21-14 A starting system using a nickel-cadmium bat- 2. What are the three substances that react in the
tery includes a special battery charger. (Briggs & Stratton battery to produce current?
Corporation)
3. What are the two types of battery plates?
room temperature. Little change occurs in the electro- 4. What is placed between the two sets of plates
lyte during charge or discharge. As a result, the bat- in a battery cell?
tery state of charge cannot be determined by a spe-
5. What are the two locations of the battery termi-
cific gravity check of the electrolyte. On most small
nals?
engines, the batteries are completely sealed. There is
no way to get to the electrolyte to check its specific 6. Describe the chemical actions that take place
gravity or to add water. during battery discharge.
When a ni-cad battery needs recharging, the spe- 7. Describe the chemical actions that take place
cial trickle charger that comes with it (shown in Fig.
during battery charge.
21-14) must be used. The charger is plugged into a
120-volt household outlet and then connected to the 8. What is the reserve capacity of a battery?
battery. It takes 14 to 16 hours to fully charge a ni-cad 9. Name three things that cause the battery ter-
battery. The battery should not be put on the charger ' minal voltage to increase during battery
if the temperature is below 40°F [4.4°C].
charging.
Continual charging within the temperature limits
of 40 to 105°F [4.4 to 40.6°C] will not damage a ni-cad 10. Name three things that cause the battery termi-
battery. The battery always is discharged when it is nal voltage to go down during battery dis-
charging.
11. What is a ni-cad battery?
12. What is the voltage of each cell in a ni-cad
battery?
13. Why does the ni-cad battery require a special
battery charger?

SELF’ PROJECT.

Make a collection of battery advertisements from

magazines, newspapers, and catalogs. Note the
specific features that each battery has and that
make each battery different from others. After
studying these advertisements, file the best in your
notebook. In addition to obtaining much valuable
FIG. 21-15 A typical ni-cad battery, consisting of 10 cells
information about batteries, you will begin to learn
packaged in five sticks. (Lawn Boy Division of Outboard the types of batteries manufactured by the various
Marine Corporation) manufacturers.

177
 oer
Battery Service

O22-1 BATTERY MAINTENANCE Most people

tend to forget about the battery in their car, tractor, or
motorcycle. They forget it until one cold morning
when the battery won't do its job and the engine won't
After studying this chapter, you should be start. Battery failure is one of the more common en-
able to: gine troubles.
If people would have the battery checked once in a
I. List the steps in battery maintenance while, much of this battery trouble could be avoided.
Here are the things that should be done:
2. Demonstrate how to check electrolyte level
and add water 1. Visually inspect the battery.
2. Check the electrolyte level in all cells periodic-
. Demonstrate how to check a battery with a ally.
hydrometer and how to adjust and interpret
. Add water if the level is low.
the readings
. Clean off corrosion around battery terminals
. Explain the various factors that affect the and top.
specific gravity of the electrolyte
. Check the battery condition with a tester. We
describe battery testers in later sections.
. List the various battery troubles and their
possible causes . Recharge the battery if it is low.

. Demonstrate how to connect a battery

CAUTION: Sulfuric acid, the active ingredient in
charger and how to charge a battery battery electrolyte, is very corrosive. It can destroy
most things it touches. It will cause serious and pain-
. Demonstrate how to jump-start an engine
ful burns if it gets on the skin. It can cause blindness
that has a dead battery if it gets into the eyes. If you get battery acid (electro-
lyte) on your skin, flush it off at once with water.
Continue to flush for at least five minutes. Put baking
soda (if available) on the skin. This will neutralize the
acid. If you get acid in your eyes, flush your eyes out
with water, over and over again. Get to a doctor at
once! Do not wait!

CAUTION: The gases that form in the tops of battery

cells during charging are very explosive. Never light
a match or a cigarette near a recently charged bat-
tery. Never blow off a battery with an air hose. The

178
 *@
compressed air could lift the cell cover and splash ELECTROLYTE ELECTROLYTE
LEVEL LOW LEVEL NORMAL
electrolyte all over you or someone nearby.

022-2 VISUAL INSPECTION OF BATTERY Look

the battery over for signs of leakage, cracked case or
top, corrosion, missing vent plugs, and loose or miss- SURFACE OF ELECTROLYTE FILL TO SPLIT
BELOW SPLIT RING RING
ing hold-down clamps. Leakage signs, which could
FIG. 22-1 Appearance of the electrolyte and split ring when
indicate a cracked battery case, include white corro- the electrolyte level is too low and when it is correct.
sion on the battery carrier or on surrounding metal (Delco-Remy Division of General Motors Corporation)
parts of the machine. If the top of the battery is cov-
ered with corrosion and if the owner complains that
the battery needs water frequently, the battery prob-
ably is being overcharged. This means a check of the
charging system should be made.
The most common cause of a cracked top is im-
proper installation. If the wrong wrench is used to
remove or tighten the cable clamps, the battery top
probably will be broken. See © 22-16 on how to re-
move and replace cable clamps.
The most common cause of a cracked case is exces-
sive tightening of the hold-down clamps.
FIG. 22-2 Corroded battery cables and terminal posts.
022-3 CHECKING ELECTROLYTE LEVEL AND ADD-
ING WATER To check the electrolyte level in most
batteries, remove the vent caps and look down into
the cells. If water is needed, add it. Distilled water is
recommended, but any water that is fit to drink may
be used.
Battery cells on sealed batteries cannot be
checked. But make sure connections are tight at the
terminals.
Many batteries have rings in the cell covers which
show whether or not the battery needs water. The
ring looks as shown in Fig. 22-1. The figure shows the
ring when the level is too low and when it is correct.
Many batteries have a Delco Eye, a special vent
cap or plug, in one of the six cells. It has a transpar-
ent rod extending down into the cell. When the end of FIG. 22-3 Using a wire battery-cleaning brush to clean the
the rod is immersed, the exposed top of the rod shows battery terminal posts and cable clamps.
black. When the level of the electrolyte falls below
the tip, the top of the rod glows. This means water
should be added. On this type battery, vent caps do of water. Brush on the solution, wait until the foaming
not need to be removed to check electrolyte level. stops, and then flush off the battery top with water. If
the buildup of corrosion around the terminals is
CAUTION: Do not add too much water. Too much heavy, detach the cables from the terminals (as ex-
water will cause the electrolyte to leak out. This will plained later), and use battery-cleaning brushes,
corrode, or eat away, the battery carrier and any shown in Fig. 22-3, to clean the terminal posts and
other metal around. cable clamps. Then coat the terminals with an anti-
corrosion compound to retard additional corrosion.

022-4 CLEANING CORROSION OFF THE BAT- 022-5 CHECKING BATTERY CONDITION There
TERY Battery terminals, especially those located are several ways to test battery condition. The most
on the top of the battery, tend to corrode (Fig. 22-2). common way is with a battery hydrometer. Other
This corrosion builds up around the battery and the methods use testing meters. In the shop, you will be
battery clamps and also, unseen, between the termi- shown how to use the instruments that are available
nal posts and clamps. To get rid of it and to clean the and how to tell a good battery from a bad battery.
battery top, mix some common baking soda in a can Here we cover the highlights of the tests.

179
O22-6 HYDROMETER TEST The hydrometer tests between 1.200 and 1.230, the battery is only half
the specific gravity, or gravity, of the battery electro- charged. If the reading is around 1.140, the battery is
lyte. It has a rubber bulb at top, a glass tube, a float, about run down and needs a recharge. The following
and a rubber tube at the bottom (Fig. 22-4). You use it table of specific-gravity readings gives a general
by squeezing the bulb, putting the end of the tube into idea of battery condition.
the battery cell, and then releasing the bulb. This will
draw electrolyte up into the glass tube. The float will ¢ 1.265-1.299: Fully charged battery
float in this electrolyte. How far the stem of the float
¢ 1.235-1.265: Three-fourths charged
sticks out of the electrolyte tells you the battery state
of charge. Take the reading at eye level, as shown in ¢ 1.205-1.235: One-half charged
Fig. 22-4.
¢ 1.170-1.205: One-fourth charged
In making this test, do not drip electrolyte on the
paint or on yourself! It will ruin the paint on the ¢ 1.140-1.170: Barely operative
equipment, corrode metal, and eat holes in your
¢ 1.110-1.140: Completely discharged
clothes! See Cautions in © 22-1.
Figure 22-5 shows how to read the hydrometer. If
If some cells test much lower than others, it means
the float sticks out to the extent that the reading on
there is something wrong with the cells. There could
the stem is between 1.260 and 1.290, the battery is
be a cracked case that has allowed electrolyte leak-
fully charged. If the reading at the electrolyte level is
age, or perhaps there has been internal damage to
the plates or separators. If the variation is only a few
specific-gravity points, then there probably is no
RUBBER BULB
major defect. But, if the low cells measure 25 to 50
points lower, then those cells are defective and the
battery should be replaced.
It should be noted that some 12-volt batteries have
a lower specific gravity when charged. For example,
one battery is charged when it has a specific gravity
of 1.270. Other batteries, for example, those used in
hot climates, have a specific gravity of only 1.225
when fully charged.
The decimal point is not referred to in a discussion
of specific gravity. For example, “twelve twenty-five”
means 1.225 and “eleven-fifty” means 1.150.
RUBBER
TUBE = 022-7 VARIATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY WITH
TEMPERATURE Specific gravity is affected not
only by the state of charge but also by temperature.
As a liquid cools, it becomes thicker and gains spe-
cific gravity. As a liquid warms, it becomes thinner
and loses gravity. Temperature must therefore be
considered when a gravity reading is taken. A cor-
FIG. 22-4 Using a battery hydrometer to check the specific rection must be made if the temperature varies from
gravity of a battery cell. The reading should be taken at eye
standard. This correction involves the addition or
level.

1.140 1.200 1.230

RUN DOWN ONE-QUARTER HALF- iAREES FIG. 22-5 Various specific-gravity readings.
CHARGED
CHARGED CHARGED QUARTERS (Delco-Remy Division of General Motors Corpora-
CHARGED tion)

180
 terials. The higher the battery temperature is, the
more rapidly self-discharge will take place. The lead
sulfate that forms on the battery plates as a result of
self-discharge is difficult to reconvert into active ma-
terial. A battery that is badly self-discharged may be
ruined.

022-10 SPECIFIC GRAVITIES FOR HOT CLI-

MATES In hot climates, chemical activities take
place more readily in the battery. It is often desirable
to adjust the gravity reading to as low as 1.210 (28.5
percent acid) for a fully charged battery. This reduces
the amount of self-discharge and prolongs the life of
the battery. On discharge, the electrolyte may be
reduced to a gravity as low as 1.075 before the battery
stops delivering current. Where there is no danger of
FIG. 22-6 A ball-type hydrometer that does not require freezing, low gravities can be used.
temperature compensation. (Tecumseh Products Company)
022-11 FREEZING POINT OF ELECTROLYTE The
subtraction of gravity points, according to whether higher the specific gravity of the electrolyte, the
the electrolyte temperature is above or below the 80°F lower the electrolyte freezing point. The battery must
[26.7°C] standard. The gravity of electrolyte changes be kept in a sufficiently charged condition to prevent
about four points, or thousandths (0.004), for every the electrolyte from freezing. Freezing usually ruins
10°F [5.5°C] temperature. To make a temperature cor- the battery. Figure 22-7 shows the freezing point of
rection, four points must be subtracted for every 10°F electrolyte of various specific gravities.
[5.5°C] below 80°F [26.7°C].
O 22-12 HIGH-DISCHARGE OR CAPACITY TEST
Examples: 1.250 at 120°F. Add 0.016 (4 ~« 0.004). Cor- For this test, the battery voltage is measured during a
rected reading is 1.266. high discharge. The battery should be in good condi-
1.230 at 20°F. Subtract 0.024 (6 x 0.004). The cor- tion with no obvious defects, such as a broken cover
rected reading is 1.206. or case. Figure 22-8 shows a battery being given a
high discharge while the voltage is being measured.
Another type of hydrometer is sometimes used. It is Specifications for the amount of high discharge vary.
much smaller and simpler to use than the one dis- You should always check the manufacturer's manual.
cussed above. Basically, the small hydrometer has Figure 22-9 outlines the recommended procedure.
four small plastic balls in it, as shown in Fig. 22-6,
instead of a float. When electrolyte is drawn into the 022-132. CADMIUM-TIP Thon This test requires a
tube, the condition of the cell is told by the number of special tester. The tester has cadmium tips that are
balls that float. If all the balls float, the cell is fully inserted into the electrolyte of adjacent cells (Fig. 22-
charged. If no balls float, the cell has no charge. 10) after filler plugs are removed. Electrolyte must be
up to the proper level. If the engine has been oper-
©22-8 LOSS OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY FROM AGE ated, or the battery charged, within the preceding
As the battery ages, the electrolyte gradually loses eight hours, turn on the headlights for one minute.
specific gravity. This is because of the loss of active Then turn the headlights off. Start the test by putting
material from the plates (as the material sheds and the red probe into the cell that has a positive termi-
drops into the bottom of the cells). It is also because
of loss due to gassing. Over a period of two years, for
example, battery electrolyte may drop to a top grav- Freezing
ity, when the battery is fully charged, of not more Specific temperature,
than 1.250. The original top gravity, when the battery gravity degrees Fahrenheit [°C]
was new, may have been 1.280. Little can be done to 1.100 18 [— 8]
restore gravity, since the loss is an indication of an 1.160 1 [=]
1.200 —17 [=27]
aging battery.
1.220 Sil [SS]
1.260 —75 [—59]
022-3 LOSS OF GRAVITY FROM SELF-DISCHARGE
1.300 = 25 [= 7/il)
If a battery is allowed to stand idle for a long time, it
will slowly self-discharge. This is brought about by FIG. 22-7 Table showing freezing temperatures of electro-
internal chemical reactions between the battery ma- lyte of various specific gravities.

181
 01020304050
oO fe)
FIG. 22-10 Testing battery cells with a cadmium-tip bat-
tery-cell voltage tester.

1. If any two cells vary five scale divisions or more

(top scale), the battery is at the point of failure
and needs to be replaced.

FIG. 22-8 Testing battery voltage under high discharge.

2. If all cells vary less than five scale divisions and
all read in the green section, the battery is
charged and in good condition.
nal. Put the black probe into the next cell. Note the
meter reading. Move the probes to cells 2 and 3, and 3. If all cells vary less than five scale divisions and
so on, noting the meter readings. Compare the read- some fall in the red section, the battery is in
ings. The readings can be interpreted as follows: good condition but needs charging.

BATTERY CAPACITY TEST

ADJUST RESISTANCE UNTIL AMMETER READS 3 TIMES AMPERE-HOUR
RATING OF BATTERY. HOLD FOR 15 SECONDS AND NOTE VOLTAGE.

VOLTAGE OVER 9.6 VOLTAGE LESS THAN 9.6

| CHECK SPECIFIC GRAVITY. CHARGE BATTERY

IF BELOW 1.230. OTHERWISE BATTERY IS OKAY. CHECK SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF EACH CELL

LESS THAN 50 POINTS MORE THAN 50 POINTS

(0.050) BETWEEN CELLS (0.050) BETWEEN CELLS

ADD WATER IF NECESSARY. CHARGE BATTERY PER

REPLACE BATTERY
CHARGING SCHEDULE AND REPEAT CAPACITY TEST.

TOTAL VOLTAGE TOTAL VOLTAGE

LESS THAN 9.6 MORE THAN 9.6

REPLACE BATTERY BATTERY IS SERVICEABLE

FIG. 22-9 Procedure for making a typical battery capacity test.

182
 4. If any reading falls in the recharge and retest tion, the lead sulfate is converted into a hard,
_ area, the battery is too low to make a good test. crystalline substance. This substance is difficult
Recharge and retest it. to reconvert into active materials by normal
charging processes. Such a battery should be
022-14 BATTERY SERVICE Battery service can be charged at half the normal rate for 60 to 100
divided into four parts: visual inspection, testing and hours. Even though this long recharging period
trouble diagnosis, charging, and care of batteries in may reconvert the sulfate to active material, the
stock. battery may still remain in a damaged condi-
tion. The crystalline sulfate, as it forms, tends to
022-15 BATTERY TESTING AND TROUBLE DIAG- break the plate grids.
NOSIS Battery testing includes a check of the con-
dition of the battery. It should also include analysis of 4. Cracked case. A cracked case may result from
any abnormality found, so that corrections can be excessively loose or tight hold-down clamps,
made. This will prevent any repetition of the trouble. from battery freezing, or from flying stones.
The following are various troubles and their possible 5. Bulged cases. Bulged cases result from tight
causes:
hold-down clamps or from high temperatures.

1. Overcharging. If the battery requires a consid- 6. Corroded terminals and cable clamps. This
erable amount of water, it is probably being condition occurs naturally on batteries. You
overcharged. Too much current is probably should be prepared to remove excessive corro-
being supplied to the battery. This is a damag- sion periodically from terminals and clamps.
ing condition that overworks the active material Cable clamps should be disconnected from the
in the battery and shortens the battery life. In terminal and the terminal posts and cables
addition, overcharging causes more rapid loss cleaned, as explained in © 22-4.
of water from the battery electrolyte. Unless this
water is replaced frequently, the electrolyte 7. Corroded battery holder. Some spraying of bat-
level is likely to fall below the tops of the plates. tery electrolyte is natural as the battery is being
This exposes the plates to the air and may ruin charged. The battery holder may become cor-
them. Also, battery overcharge causes the bat- roded from the effects of the electrolyte. Such
tery plates to crumble. Therefore, a battery sub- corrosion may be cleaned off, with the battery
jected to severe overcharging will soon be ru- removed. Use a wire brush and common bak-
ined. Where severe overcharging is occurring or ing-soda solution.
suspected, the charging system should be 8. Dirty battery top. The top of the battery may
checked. It should be adjusted if necessary to become covered with dirt and grime mixed with
prevent overcharging, as explained in Chap. 28. electrolyte sprayed from the battery. This should
2. Undercharging. If the battery is discharged, it be cleaned off periodically as explained in
should be recharged as outlined later in this © 22-4.
chapter (unless it is an old battery approaching
9. Discharge to metallic hold-down. If the hold-
failure and requiring replacement). In addition,
down clamps are of the uncovered metal type, a
an attempt should be made to determine the
slow discharge may occur from the insulated
reason that it is discharged. The reason could be
terminals to the hold-down clamp. This may
one of the following:
occur with a dirty battery top, across which cur-
a. Charging system malfunction
rent can leak. The remedy is to keep the battery
b. Defective connections in the charging circuit
top clean and dry.
between the generator or alternator and the
battery
022-16 REMOVING AND REPLACING A BATTERY
Excessive load demands on the battery
To remove a battery from any equipment, such as a
p09 A defective battery car, motorcycle, or garden tractor, first take off the
e. A battery that has been permitted to stand
clamp from the grounded-battery-terminal cable.
idle for long periods so that it has self-
This prevents accidental grounding of the insulated
discharged excessively
terminal when it is disconnected. To remove a nut-
f. An old battery
and-bolt type of cable (Fig. 22-11), loosen the clamp
3. Sulfation. The active materials in the plates are nut about 3/s inch [10 mm]. Use a box wrench or bat-
converted into lead sulfate during discharge. tery pliers (Fig. 22-12). Do not use a screwdriver or bar
This lead sulfate is reconverted into active ma- to pry on aclamp. This could damage the battery cell
terial during recharge. However, if the battery or cover. Then use a battery-clamp puller to pull the
stands for long periods in a discharged condi- cable from the battery terminal (vig. 22-12). To detach

183
 m™ |W

INCORRECT CORRECT
FIG. 22-11 Using battery-nut pliers to loosen a nut-and-bolt FIG. 22-14 If there is no gap between the jaws of the clamp
type of battery cable. (United Delco Division of General Mo- (left), the clamp is probably loose on the terminal post.
tors Corporation)

CAUTION: Make sure the cable clamps are tight and

make good connections with the terminal posts. If the
jaws of the clamp come together as shown at the left
in Fig. 22-14, chances are the clamp is not tight on the
post. This could mean starting trouble. Correct the
condition by disconnecting the clamp from the post.
Shave the clamp jaws with a file so you get a gap as
shown to the right (Fig. 22-14) when the clamp is
installed. .

022-17 BATTERY ADDITIVES Dopes is a good

name for certain chemical compounds that are sup-
FIG. 22-12 Using a battery-clamp puller to pull the cable posed to restore a battery to a charged condition.
from a battery terminal. (United Delco Division of General Such chemicals should never be added to the battery.
Motors Corporation) Their use may void the battery guarantee and cause
battery failure.

© 22-18 BATTERY-CHARGING METHODS Two

methods of charging a battery now are used. These
are the constant-current method and the constant-
voltage method. Since most localities have alternat-
ing current only, the battery-charging devices must
convert this alternating current (ac) to direct current
(dc) and supply it to the battery at a constant current
or voltage.

FIG. 22-13 Using pliers to loosen a spring-ring type of cable CAUTION: The gases released by batteries are
clamp from a battery terminal. (United Delco Division of highly explosive. Therefore, battery-charging areas
General Motors Corporation)
should be well ventilated.
You need charging lead adapters, as shown in
the spring-ring type of clamp, squeeze the ends of the
Fig. 22-15, to connect to the types of terminals set in
rings apart with Channellock pliers (Fig. 22-13).
the side rather than in the top of the battery. Batteries
After the grounded cable is disconnected, discon-
with recessed screw-type terminals in the top, as
nect the insulated-terminal cable. Clean both battery
shown in Fig. 22-16, also may require special bolts or
terminals and cable clamps with special tools
adapters.
(Fig. 22-3). Loosen the battery hold-downs, and take
out the battery. When installing a battery, do not
reverse the terminal connections. (Some engines O 22-19 CONSTANT-CURRENT CHARGING The
have the negative terminal grounded, others the pos- constant-current charger usually employs a rectifier,
itive terminal.) Reconnect the insulated-terminal which may be a gas-filled bulb or a series of copper
cable. Apply corrosion inhibitor to clamps and termi- oxide or other chemical disks. In ac, the current (or
nals. Install and tighten the hold-down. Avoid over- electron flow) moves first one way and then the other.
tightening. The rectifier permits the current to flow one way only.

184
 a battery approaches charge, its terminal voltage
increases (current input remaining constant). The
charger usually has a 7.5-volt rating for 6-volt batter-
| ‘aca CHARGER OR TESTER —— ies or a 15-volt rating for 12-volt batteries. When a
CLAMPS | yy
AS) discharged battery is connected to the charger, a

ADAPTERS | 2: high charging current will flow into the battery. As it

¥ approaches a charged condition, the battery’s termi-
nal voltage increases and the battery's opposition to
the charging current increases. By the time the bat-
tery reaches a fully charged state, only a very small
charge will enter it. The charging current tapers off
as the battery approaches a charged condition. This
tt
x
nn
is the principle of self-regulation used in many slow
socaessprecersennnccrnccein
q

chargers.

O 22-21 QUICK CHARGERS Quick chargers, such

as the one shown in Fig. 22-17, charge the battery at a
very high rate (as much as 100 amps) for a short
time—30 to 45 minutes. The battery is brought to a
fair state of charge before the battery temperature
increases excessively. The quick-charger method
does not seem to harm batteries that are not exposed
FIG, 22-15 Charging lead adapters for side-terminal bat-
teries. (Chevrolet Motor Division of General Motors Corpora- to excessive temperatures. However, high charging
tion) rates combined with battery-electrolyte temperatures
above 125°F [51.7°C] are very damaging to a battery.
Do not charge small motorcycle-type batteries by
Current enters the rectifier as ac and leaves as dc.
the quick-charge method. Also, a battery with discol-
Some form of rheostat, or variable resistor, is usually
ored electrolyte (from cycling) or with gravity read-
incorporated in the charging system. This allows the
ings of more than 25 points apart should not be
amount of current to be adjusted to the value recom-
quick-charged. Likewise, a badly sulfated battery
mended by the battery manufacturer.
should not be quick-charged. Such batteries may be
Small batteries, such as those used in motorcycles,
near failure, but they may give additional service if
must be charged at a very low rate. Honda, for exam-
slow-charged. However, quick charging may damage
ple, recommends charging some small batteries at '/2
them further. During quick charging, check the color of
amp and no more.
the electrolyte. Stop charging if the electrolyte be-
comes discolored as a result of the stirring up of
022-20 CONSTANT-VOLTAGE CHARGING The
washed-out material. Cell voltages should be
constant-voltage charger depends on the fact that as
checked every few minutes. Charging should be
stopped if cell voltages vary more than 0.2 volt.
When quick-charging a battery in a vehicle, be
oe sure to disconnect the battery ground strap to protect
the electrical system from damage due to high volt-
age.
es BATTERY
CHARGER

FIG. 22-16 Motorcycle batteries such as shown here may

require adapters to make connections to the terminals. FIG. 22-17 Quick-charging an automobile battery. (Chrysler
(Honda Motor Company, Ltd.) Corporation)

185
© 22-22 CHARGING SULFATED BATTERIES When do. Shield your eyes.
a battery has been allowed to stand for some time
oo. Do not allow the two vehicles to touch each
without charging, its plates may have become sul-
other.
fated to such an extent that it will not take a charge
in a normal manner. In fact, the battery may be 4. Make sure all electrical equipment except the
completely ruined. However, an attempt to save such ignition is turned off on the engine you are trying
a battery may be worthwhile, especially if the battery to start.
is not too old. Put the battery on charge at half the
5. Connect the end of one jumper cable to the posi-
normal charging rate for 60 to 100 hours to see
tive (+) terminal of the booster battery. Connect
whether the sulfation can be broken down so that the
the other end of this cable to the positive (+)
battery will take a charge.
terminal of the dead battery.
© 22-23 CARE OF BATTERIES INSTOCK Wet bat- 6. Connect the other end of the second cable to the
teries (or batteries with electrolyte in them) are per- negative (—) terminal of the booster battery.
ishable. They are subject to self-discharge. If allowed
7. Connect one end of the second cable to the
to stand idle for too long a time, they can become
engine block of the car you are trying to start. Do
completely ruined. To prevent this, batteries in stock
not connect it to the negative (—) terminal of the
should be recharged at 30-day intervals. Also, they
vehicle battery! This could damage electrical
should not be stacked on top of each other without
equipment or cause a battery to explode. Do not
some means of individual support. The weight of one
lean over the battery while you are making this
battery is enough to collapse the plate assemblies
connection!
and cause short circuits.
8. Now start the vehicle containing the booster bat-
O22-24 STARTING WITH A BOOSTER BATTERY tery. Then start the vehicle containing the low
The following procedure applies to automobiles and battery. After the disabled vehicle is started,
to small-engine installations and motorcycles. The disconnect the booster by first disconnecting the
general principles apply to all installations where cable from the engine block. Then disconnect
you must use a second, or booster, battery to start an the other end of this (the negative) cable. Fi-
engine. If the battery is too low to start the engine, nally, disconnect the positive cable.
another battery must be connected. This other bat-
tery, called a booster battery, will furnish the current Never operate the starting motor for more than 30
the starting motor needs to start the engine. You seconds at a time. Pause for a few minutes to allow it
should observe certain precautions when using a to cool off. Then try it again. You can overheat and
booster battery. Otherwise, you can damage the ruin a starting motor by using it for too long.
electrical equipment. If you connect the booster bat-
tery backwards, one of the batteries could explode REVIEW QUESTIONS
from the high discharge current taken from it. Here is
the recommended procedure for a negative-ground 1. What should you do if you get battery acid on
battery. You will need two jumper cables, as shown in your skin? In your eye?
Fig. 22-18.
2. Why is it dangerous to bring an open flame near
a battery that is being charged?
1. Remove the vent caps from both batteries. Cover
the holes with cloths to prevent splashing of the 3. How do you check the electrolyte level in batter-
electrolyte in case of explosion. ies?

wo Re

FIG. 22-18 Connections between the

jumper battery and the dead battery for
starting a car with a dead battery.

186
. What is the Delco Eye? What is its purpose? 9. Why will overcharging a battery damage it?
. Explain how to clean corrosion off the top of a PELE EPROJEC
TS
battery.
1. Make a list of the six steps in battery mainte-
. Explain how to use an hydrometer to test a bat-
nance and file it in your notebook.
tery.
. Write down—so you will be sure to remember
. Explain how to perform the cadmium-tip test on
it—what you should do if you get electrolyte on
a battery.
your skin or in your eyes. Knowing what to do
. Which will freeze more easily, a fully charged could save you from a severe burn or the loss of
battery or a half-charged battery? Why? your eyesight.

187
Starting Systems for
Small Engines

MECHANICAL STARTERS

O7321) EYPESOsOF.o AR LENS Both mechanical

and electric starters are used on small engines. The
After studying this chapter, you should be mechanical starters do not use a motor as do electric
able to: starters. Mechanical starters are usually used on
small engines when weight, cost, or size must be
1. List the types of starters used on small en- limited. Mechanical starters are generally classed as
gines rope-wind, rope-rewind, windup, and kick-lever
types. Electric starters provide the convenience and
2. Explain the operation of the various types of quick power of motor starting. Although normally
mechanical starters used with larger engines, electric starters are being
used more and more on small engines. Electric start-
3. Describe the construction and operation of ers are generally classified according to the power
starting motors source used for operation. One type is operated by
connecting the starter motor to 120-volt house power.
4. Explain the purpose of the overrunning The other type uses a regular 6- or 12-volt automo-
clutch and how it works bile-type battery. Now, let us see how various starters
operate.

5. Discuss the purpose of the safety interlock

023-2 ROPE-WIND MECHANICAL STARTERS
6. Describe the construction and operation of a The engine which is equipped for rope-wind starting
has a pulley attached to the crankshaft. The flange of
starter-generator
the pulley is slotted, as shown in Fig. 23-1. The start-
ing rope has a knot in one end and a grip handle on
the other. To use the rope, you hook the knot end into
the flange slot. Then you wind the rope around the
pulley, adjust the choke, make sure the ignition is on,
and give the rope a strong pull. This spins the crank-
shaft to start the engine. It usually takes more than
one windup-and-pull operation to get the engine
started.

023-3 ROPE-REWIND MECHANICAL STARTERS

To avoid having to rewind the rope each time you
attempt to start, manufacturers introduced the rope-
rewind starter. This starter has a rope permanently
connected and includes a recoil spring that rewinds
the rope on the pulley after each starting attempt.
Figure 23-2 shows the basic parts of the rope-rewind

188
 PULLEY KNOT
FLANGE

CRANKSHAFT

PULL }
ROPE FROM bai
CARBURETORtSIDE
is f
OF sa

FIG. 23-3 How to use the rope-rewind starter. You pull it out
to crank the engine. Then you release the pull on the handle
and allow the rope to rewind on the pulley.

retracted by the small attached spring. The starter is

ROPE SLOT
then ready for another starting attempt.
FIG. 23-1 The rope-wind starter is the simplest of all
small-engine starters. You wind the rope on the pulley and
pull it to spin the engine crankshaft. (Briggs & Stratton Cor- 023-4 WINDUP MECHANICAL STARTERS The
poration) windup starter is designed to reduce the amount of
effort required to start a small engine. With the rope-
wind and rope-rewind starters, you must exert a
starter. Figure 23-3 shows how the rope is pulled out strong pull to spin the crankshaft. The windup starter
for starting the engine. requires much less effort: you simply wind up a
Let us look at the way the rope-rewind starter spring and then release it. When the spring unwinds,
works. When you pull the rope, the starter pulley is it spins the crankshaft. There are several designs of
turned. Centrifugal force from movement of the pul- the windup starter, but each operates in the same
ley causes the pawls to fly out and lock the pulley to manner. Figure 23-4 shows how to use the windup
the crankshaft so that it rotates as the rope is pulled starter.
out. At the same time, the recoil spring is being First, you set the release lever so it will hold the
wound up. Note that the inside end of this spring is spring on windup. Next, you swing the crank handle
attached to the pulley. The outside end of the spring out and rotate it to wind up the spring. Some models
is attached to the starter housing. Now, after you lock the spring when the crank handle is returned to
have pulled the rope all the way out and then re- the running position. The release lever is then moved
leased it, the spring has enough tension in it to spin to allow the spring to unwind and crank the engine.
the pulley back in the opposite direction. This re-
winds the rope on the pulley. Rewinding takes place
whether or not the engine has started. On the rewind
cycle, the pawls are ineffective because they do not
catch in the teeth on the inside of the crankshaft
adapter. At the end of the rewind cycle, the pawls are

CRANKSHAFT RELEASE . i
ENGAGING PAWL LEVER (a) (b)
CRANKSHAFT
ADAPTER CRANKING
HANDLE
PAWL SPRING PULLEY

ROPE
RECOIL FIG. 23-4 Here are the steps in using a windup starter: (a)
STARTER SPRING Lock the spring by moving the control lever to WINDUP. (b)
HOUSING Open the crank handle. (c) Wind up the recoil spring. (d)
FIG. 23-2 A partially cutaway view of a typical rope-rewind Fold the handle. (e) Release the spring by moving the con-
starter. trol lever to RUN.

189
STARTER BEING WOUN ) STARTER OPERATING
Zo
CRANK f CONTROL LEVER
HANDLE (DISENGAGED)
HOUSING
RATCHET a
SPRING |cre
RATCHET RECOIL
GEAR SPRING WN (HOLDING)
(BEING
STARTER WOUND) SPRING
elle HOLDING (UNWINDING)
Oe s MECHANISM “>
STARTER

FLYWHEEL
CUP FLYWHEEL
(a) (b)
FIG. 23-5 This shows schematically how the windup starter
works. Parts are shown separated so their relationship can the inside out. This engages the rachets or starter
be seen. In (a), the recoil spring is being wound up. The dogs inside the flywheel cup so that the flywheel is
control lever locks the holding mechanism. In (b), the con- rotated to crank the engine.
trol lever is pushed to unlock the holding mechanism, al- Some designs include a reduction-gear arrange-
lowing the spring to unwind and crank the engine.
ment which makes it easier to wind up the spring, as
shown in Fig. 23-6. Although it requires less effort to
On some models, the spring is automatically re- operate the crank, the crank has to be turned more
leased when the crank handle is returned to the run- times to wind up the spring.
ning position. Typical windup starters are shown in Fig. 23-7. At
Figure 23-5 shows how a typical windup starter the top of the illustration the major parts are shown
works. It includes a crank with a rachet and a second as they would appear when removed from the engine.
crank attached to one end of a spring. The other end The lower part shows a different windup-starter
of the spring is attached to a shaft that is part of the model disassembled.
spring-holding mechanism. The shaft lower end is
attached to the starter drive. The starter drive has a © 23-5 MECHANICAL KICK STARTERS The kick
dog-and-rachet arrangement inside the flywheel cup. starter uses leg power for its operation and is a popu-
With the starter control lever set, the holding mecha- lar starter found on minibikes and motorcycles. All
nism is locked in place to hold the inner end of the kick starters operate in a similar manner. Figure 23-8
spring. When the crank handle is turned, the rachet shows the gear train for one starter model. When the
gear and crank wind up the spring. The rachet spring kick pedal is kicked down by means of leg power, the
at the top prevents the spring from unwinding. When rotary motion is carried through the gear train to the
the spring is completely wound up, the control lever engine crankshaft, causing it to spin. When the pedal
is released so that the spring starts to unwind from is released, a heavy spring returns it to the former
raised position. It may take several kicks to start a
cold engine. The gear train in Fig. 23-8 has a consid-
erable increase in gear ratio from the kick-shaft gear
to the crankshaft primary pinion gear. This increases
the crankshaft revolution rate so that it spins rapidly
when the kick-shaft gear rotates. Once the engine is
DRIVEN running, the starter is disengaged from the crank-
GEAR
shaft. The one-way starter motion is achieved in dif-
ferent ways, depending on the design.
One kick-starter design is shown in Fig. 23-9, to
illustrate how one-way starter motion is possible. The
kick-shaft gear is free to rotate on the kick shaft. A
ratchet wheel (also called a gear) can move back and
forth on splines of the kick shaft. When the engine is
FIG. 23-6 Some windup starters have a gear reduction running, the arm on the ratchet wheel is resting be-
which makes it easier to turn the crank, although the crank hind the stopper guide. This holds the ratchet wheel
must be turned more times to wind up the recoil spring. away from the kick-shaft gear. However, when the

190
 HANDLE
7 CRANK SOA. CRANKSHAFT GEAR
———HATA2 Se

Se

CLUTCH GEAR
CONTROL Stes HOUSING
CLUTCH

MAIN oN =

RATCHET DOG
AND SPRING
STARTER
RELEASE KICK LEVER
HOUSING
LEVER

TRIP RATCHET

BEM > Ip ) SPRING AND

Lp
TRIP WE 4 KEEPER FIG. 23-9 Gear train from kick lever to the crankshaft for a
RELEASE i= © three-cylinder engine. (Suzuki Motor Company)
POST
Naw,
© BRAKE kick pedal forces the kick-shaft gear to turn. This
transmits motion through the gears, causing the
STARTER DOGS apy tele crankshaft to spin.
ee

BRAKE Soria Yue wel As the engine starts, it backdrives the kick-shatft
CENTERING gear. However, the ratchet is a one-way device, and
KER Pin so the kick-shaft gear spins without driving the
ratchet wheels. The ratchet teeth are disengaged,
and no motion is transmitted to the kick-starter shaft.
FLYWHEEL
CUP AND
SCREEN ELECTRIC STARTERS
(b)
© 23-6 ELECTRIC MOTORS _ Inthe electric starter,
FIG. 23-7 Assembled and disassembled views of windup
starters. In (a), the type shown must be disassembled from
an electric motor provides the power to spin the en-
the handle end. In (b), the type shown must be disassem- gine crankshaft and start the engine. The battery
bled by first removing the drive mechanism. furnishes the electricity to operate the motor. (Some
electric starters for small engines use 120-volt house
current.) Taking electricity out of the battery runs it
kick pedal is pushed down, the kick shaft turns, forc-
down. This means that there must be a charging
ing the ratchet wheel to turn. The arm on the ratchet
system to put electricity back into the battery. The
wheel moves out from behind the stopper guide. The
electrical system for an engine or equipment using
spring-back of the ratchet wheel now forces the
electric starting is considerably more complicated
ratchet forward so that the ratchet teeth mesh to en-
than the simple mechanical-starting arrangement.
gage the kick-shaft gear. Further movement of the
Some small engines use a 12-volt starter-genera-
tor, as shown in Fig. 23-10, which cranks the engine
CRANKSHAFT KICK PEDAL
PINION

BATTERY

eit KICK-STARTER
DRIVE IDLE SHAFT
GEAR GEAR
KICK-SHAFT GEAR FIG. 23-10 Battery starter system. This system includes an
FIG. 23-8 Gear train from kick lever to the gear on the electric starter which is also a generator to recharge the
crankshaft. (Suzuki Motor Company) battery. (Briggs & Stratton Corporation)

191
for starting. It also remains connected to the engine
and battery. Then the starter-generator is driven by
the engine after it starts to produce an electric cur-
rent. This electric current charges the battery and
also handles any electrical loads that might be
turned on, such as lights. We discuss this system
later in the chapter.

© 23-7 BASIC MOTOR PRINCIPLES Most electric

starting motors are low-voltage direct-current motors,
taking their electric current from a storage battery
(Fig. 23-10). This type of starting motor is a special
high-capacity heavily-constructed electric motor. It is
designed to produce a high horsepower for its size for
short periods of time. It is not the type of motor that
can be operated continuously. The unit is also called
a starter, a starter motor, and a cranking motor. It
works on the same basic motor principles that apply
FIG. 23-12 End view of the conductor shown in Fig. 23-11.
to all electric motors. The job of the starting motor is
to convert electrical energy from the battery into me-
chanical energy that spins the crankshaft. netic field to the left of the conductor is in the same
When current moves through a conductor, a mag- direction as the straight-line magnetic field from the
netic field builds up around that conductor. If the magnet. To the right of the conductor, it is in the
conductor is in a magnetic field, as from a horseshoe opposite direction. This weakens the magnetic field
magnet, force is exerted on the conductor. Figure 23- to the right of the conductor. It strengthens the mag-
11 illustrates the conductor in a magnetic field. Fig- netic field to the left of the conductor. Therefore, the
ure 23-12 shows the conductor in end view, with the resulting magnetic field distorts around the conduc-
resulting magnetic field indicated. The cross in the tor, as shown in Fig. 23-12.
center of the conductor indicates that the current is Magnetic lines of force tend to shorten up to a mini-
flowing away from the reader. This causes the mag- mum length. The bent lines of force in the magnetic-
netic field due to the current flow to circle the conduc- field pattern in Fig. 23-12 tend to straighten out. As
tor in a counterclockwise direction. The circular mag- they do, they exert a push to the right on the conduc-
tor. The more current is flowing, the more the lines of
force will be distorted around the conductor—and the
stronger will be the push. Increasing the straight-line
magnetic field has a similar effect.

023-8 MOTOR CONSTRUCTION Suppose we

bend the conductor into a U shape and connect the
two ends to the two halves of a split copper ring. We
now have the elements of an electric motor (Fig. 23-
DIRECTION OF 13). Stationary brushes, connected to a battery and
ee

CONDUCTOR MOTION
MAGNET

CONDUCTOR

DIRECTION OF CURRENT BATTERY

FIG. 23-11 Conductor moved in the magnetic field of a
magnet. The direction of current flow and the encircling FIG. 23-13 Simple electric motor with a two-segment com-
magnetic field around the conductor are shown by arrows. mutator.

192
resting on the split ring, and two poles of a magnet MOTOR
TERMINAL
complete the motor. The brushes are carbon blocks COMMUTATOR
that form sliding contacts with the commutator. The (REST OF
U-shaped conductor loop and the split ring (which is caeARMATURE
SHOWN)
called the commutator) are able to rotate together.
Current flows from the battery through the right-hand
brush and segment of the commutator. Then it flows,
through the conductor and left-hand segment of the
commutator and brush, back to the battery, as shown
in Fig. 23-13. This causes the left-hand part of the
conductor to be pushed upward and the right-hand
part to be pushed downward (Fig. 23-13). Therefore,
the loop rotates in a clockwise direction. As the two
sides of the loop reverse positions, the direction of the
current flow through the two sides reverses. The
magnetic force continues to rotate the loop clockwise.
The starting motor must use more than one loop to
develop enough power. Actually, many loops or con-
ductors are used, as shown in Fig. 23-14, which illus-
trates a starting-motor armature and field assembly.
The ends of the conductors in the armature are con-
nected to the commutator segments.
High magnetic-field strength is needed for power-
ful starting-motor actions. The natural magnetic
strength of the magnetic poles is aided by an electro-
magnet formed by the field windings. Current flows
through the field windings in such a direction as to
increase the magnetic field between the two poles.
Figure 23-15 is a simple wiring diagram of a starting
motor. Current enters the motor and passes through
the two field windings, then through the armature,
and back to the battery. If the battery connections BATTERY
were reversed, the current would flow through the
armature first, as shown in Fig. 23-16. This is a sche- DIRECTION OF ===
ROTATION
matic drawing of a simple motor. This type of motor is
FIG. 23-16 Schematic drawing of a starting motor. The
called a series-wound, or series, motor. The armature heavy arrows show the direction of current flow. The light
and field windings are connected in series. circular arrows show the direction of the magnetic field
The wiring diagram in Fig. 23-15 is a two-pole two- around the conductors. Compare this with Fig. 23-13.
brush starting motor. Many starting motors have four
brushes and four poles. Some also have one or two
COMMUTATOR
parallel or shunt windings (and are called series-
BRUSH
shunt or compound starting motors). The shunt wind-
ings prevent overspeeding (Fig. 23-17).

FIELD SHUNT COIL

LAMINATION WINDING

CONDUCTOR COMMUTATOR

ARMATURE FIELD-FRAME
ASSEMBLY
YS
SERIES COIL
FIG. 23-14 Two major parts of a starting motor: the arma- FIG. 23-17 Wiring diagram for a four-pole series-shunt, or
ture and the field assembly. (Delco-Remy Division of Gen- compound, starting motor. (Delco-Remy Division of General
eral Motors Corporation) Motors Corporation)

193
 GROUND RETURN PLUNGER SHIFT LEVER

{
INSULATED GROUNDED SOLENOID
BRUSH BRUSH LEAD gas SWITCH SPRING
HOLDER HOLDER
ie yo LEVER
ary F STUD
UL)
ay REE )-

mer K
re

Co
armature

BRUSH \ DRIVE
SPRING a HOUSING

288
igsmaerareteeeencneneeeem
<
4 THROUGH OVERRUNNING
aipscemreemecenscacte BOLTS ASSIST SPRING CLUTCH

FIG. 23-18 Disassembled view of a starting motor. (Delco- ARMATURE AND SHAFT
Remy Division of General Motors Corporation) BEGINNING TO ROTATE

A typical starting motor, with the main parts disas-

sembled, is shown in Fig. 23-18. The motor consists of
the following:

1. The commutator end head, holding the brushes FORCES

STATIONARY PINION
2. The field frame, into which the field windings ENDWISE ON SHAFT
are assembled around iron pole shoes
3. The drive housing, which houses the drive as- PINION MESHED
sembly and supports the motor on the engine | : IN FLYWHEEL

flywheel housing
4. The armature

5. The drive assembly

Some starting motors also have a solenoid that oper- ALL PARTS NOW ROTATING
ates the shift lever (© 23-11). TOGETHER, CRANKING ENGINE

023-9 DRIVE ARRANGEMENT The drive assem- ENGINE STARTS:

bly contains a small pinion that, in operation,
meshes with teeth cut in the flywheel (Fig. 23-19). This
provides gear reduction, so that the armature must
rotate about fifteen times to cause the flywheel to
rotate once. The armature may revolve about 2000 to
3000 rpm (revolutions per minute) when the starting
motor is operated. This causes the flywheel to spin at EXCESSIVE FLYWHEEL SPEED
speeds as high as 300 rpm. This is ample speed for DRIVES PINION OUT OF MESH
starting the engine. FIG. 23-19 Operation of a Bendix drive. (Delco-Remy Divi-
After the engine starts, it may increase in speed to sion of General Motors Corporation)
3000 rpm or more. If the starting-motor drive pinion
remained in mesh with the flywheel, it would be spun automobile and battery-powered small-engine start-
at 45,000 rpm because of the 15:1 gear ratio. This ers, there are two general types, inertia and overrun-
means that the armature would be spun at this terrific ning clutch, described below.
speed. Centrifugal force would cause the conductors
and commutator segments to be thrown out of the 023-10 INERTIADRIVE The inertia drive depends
armature, ruining it. To prevent such damage, auto- on the drive pinion to produce meshing. Inertia is the
matic meshing and demeshing devices are used. For property that all things resist any change in motion.

194
When the drive pinion is not rotating, it resists any similar to the compression-spring type. It is used on
force that attempts to set it into motion. There are starting motors for outboard engines and on other
several types of inertia drive. small engines. In this starting motor, a rubber cush-
In the Bendix drive (Fig. 23-19), the drive pinion is ion takes up the shock of meshing as the drive pinion
mounted loosely on a sleeve. The sleeve has screw meshes with the flywheel.
threads matching internal threads in the pinion.
When the starting motor is at rest, the drive pinion is 0 23-11 OVERRUNNING-CLUTCH DRIVE More
not meshed with the flywheel teeth. As the starting positive meshing and demeshing of the pinion and
motor switch is closed, the armature begins to rotate. flywheel teeth is provided by the overrunning clutch
This causes the sleeve to rotate also, since it is fas- drive. The overrunning clutch uses a shift lever
tened to the armature shaft through the heavy spiral (Fig. 23-18) to slide the pinion along the armature
Bendix spring. Inertia prevents the pinion from in- shaft and into, or out of, mesh with the flywheel teeth.
stantly picking up speed with the sleeve. Therefore, The overrunning clutch is designed to transmit driv-
the sleeve turns within the pinion, just as a screw ing torque from the starting-motor armature to the
would turn in a nut held stationary. This forces the flywheel. Then the clutch permits the pinion to over-
pinion endways along the sleeve so that the pinion run (run faster than) the armature after the engine has
goes into mesh with the flywheel teeth. As the pinion started.
reaches the pinion stop, the endways movement The overrunning-clutch drive (Fig. 23-21) consists of
stops. The pinion must now turn with the armature, a shell-and-sleeve assembly, which is splined inter-
causing the engine to be cranked. The spiral spring nally to match splines on the armature shaft. A pin-
takes up the shock of meshing. ion-and-collar assembly fits loosely into the shell.
After the engine starts and increases in speed, the The collar makes contact with four hardened-steel
flywheel rotates the drive pinion faster than the ar- rollers, which are assembled into notches cut from
mature is turning. This causes the pinion to be spun the shell. These notches taper slightly inward. There
back out of mesh from the flywheel. The pinion turns is less room in the end away from the rollers than in
backwards on the sleeve. The screw threads on the the end where the rollers are shown. Spring-loaded
pinion and sleeve cause the pinion to be backed out plungers rest against the rollers.
of mesh with the flywheel. The shift lever, which causes the clutch assembly
The rubber-compression type of drive (Fig. 23-20) is to move endways along the armature shaft, is oper-

FIELD-FRAME ASSEMBLY ARMATURE

COMMUTATOR-
END FRAME

THROUGH BOLT —
nes
ne

ae
oe
STOP
We
Pe
—
oa DRIVE PINION
———
SCREW
> ee
SHAFT SLEEVE

0
(oh) ES ae WASHER

CUSHION
CUP
ADVE
BRUSHES

DRIVE ASSEMBLY

FIG. 23-20 Disassembled view of a rubber-compression-type drive and

the starting motor with which it is used. (Onan Corporation)

195
 CLUTCH switch contacts and the armature begins to revolve.
SPRING SHELL AND This rotates the shell-and-sleeve assembly in a
eas SLEEVE clockwise direction (in the end view of Fig. 23-21). The
INTERNAL rollers rotate between the shell and the pinion collar,
SPIRAL moving away from their plungers and toward the
SPLINES
sections of the notches in the shell, which are
smaller. This jams the rollers tightly between the
pinion collar and the shell, and the pinion is forced to
rotate with the armature and crank the engine. Fig-
ure 23-22 illustrates the engaging action in q sole-
ae PINION noid-operated starting motor.
AND COLLAR
LOCK WIRE When the engine begins to operate, it attempts to
drive the starting-motor armature, through the pin-
ion, faster than the armature rotates under its own
power. Therefore, the pinion rotates faster than the
shell, turning the rollers back toward their plungers,
PLUNGER SHELL where there is enough room to let them slip freely.
SPRING The pinion-and-collar assembly can now overrun the
shell-and-sleeve assembly and the armature. This
gives the armature enough protection for the short
PINION COLLAR
time that the operator leaves the ignition switch in
the START position after the engine has started (or
until the automatic controls take over and open the
PLUNGER
starting-motor control circuit). When the pressure on
the shift lever is relieved, the shift-lever spring slides
the clutch assembly back along the armature shaft so
ROLLERS
that the pinion is demeshed. At the same time, the
FIG. 23-21 Cutaway and end sectional views of an over- starting motor switch is opened.
running clutch. (Delco-Remy Division of General Motors Cor-
poration)
© 23-12 STARTING-MOTOR CONTROLS Start-
ing-motor controls (shown in Fig. 23-10) have varied
ated either by manual linkage or by a solenoid from a simple hand- or foot-operated switch to auto-
(Fig. 23-18). When the shift lever is operated, it moves matic devices that close the circuit when the acceler-
the clutch assembly endways along the armature ator is depressed. The system used today for many
shaft and the pinion drops into mesh with the fly- small engines has starting contacts in the ignition
wheel teeth. If the teeth should butt instead of mesh, switch. A typical key-and-ignition switch for start-
the clutch spring compresses and spring-loads the ing-motor control on a small engine is shown in
pinion against the flywheel teeth. Then, as soon as Fig. 23-23. When the ignition key is turned against
the armature begins to rotate, the pinion will mesh. spring pressure past the ON position to START, the
Full shift-lever travel closes the starting-motor starting contacts close. This connects the starting-

CURRENT
SHIFT SOLENOID FROM . CURRENT
LEVER PLUNGER ASSEMBLY PULL-IN COIL q SWITCH HOLD-IN COIL + FROM
STARTER HOLD-IN ia | BATTERY
pevORN SWITCH COIL PINION
SPRING

STARTING COMPRESSION SPRING aes OVERRUNNING CLUTCH

MOTOR FOR BUTT ENGAGEMENTS FLYWHEEL

DISENGAGED PINION PARTIALLY ENGAGED PINION FULLY ENGAGED AND

STARTING MOTOR CRANKING
FIG. 23-22 Actions of the solenoid and overrunning clutch as the pinion
engages. (Chevrolet Motor Division of General Motors Corporation)

196
 PLUNGER SWITCH
PULL-IN WINDING
HOLD-IN WINDING

BATTERY

CONTACT TO STARTING
DISK MOTOR

FIG. 23-25 Schematic wiring circuit of a magnetic switch

with two windings: a pull-in winding and a hold-in wind-
ing.

(Fig. 23-25). There is a pull-in winding of a few turns

FIG. 23-23 A key-and-ignition switch used for starting- of heavy wire and a hold-in winding of many turns of
motor control on a small engine. (Ariens Company) fine wire. When the control switch is closed, current
from the battery flows through both these windings.
motor or magnetic switch to the battery. The solenoid The current returns to the battery from the hold-in
or magnetic switch then operates to connect the bat- winding directly through ground. The current passing
tery directly to the starting motor. As soon as the through the pull-in winding must flow through the
engine starts, the operator releases the pressure on starting motor before returning through ground to the
the ignition switch. A spring then returns it from the battery. This hookup may seem unnecessary. But its
START to the ON position. This disconnects the start- purpose is to short out (across the main switch con-
ing motor from the battery and so the starting motor tacts) the pull-in winding when the magnetic switch
stops. However, the ignition remains connected to the operates, pulls in the plunger, and forces the contact
battery so that it and the engine continue to function. disk against the two contacts. Shorting out the pull-in
winding lessens the drain on the battery and leaves
© 23-13 MAGNETIC SWITCH The magnetic more energy for cranking. More magnetism is needed
switch depends on the fact that a flow of current in a to pull the plunger in, so both windings work together
winding creates a magnetic field. The winding is to accomplish this. But once the plunger is in, less
wrapped around a hollow core, and a cylindrical iron magnetism is needed to hold it in. Therefore, the
plunger is placed partway into this core. When the pull-in winding is shorted out. Only the hold-in wind-
winding is energized, the resulting magnetic field ing operates to hold the plunger in place as long as
pulls the plunger farther into the core (Figs. 23-24 and the control switch remains closed.
23-25). A contact disk is attached to the plunger, and
two contacts are placed so that the plunger move- 023-14 SOLENOID SWITCH On most automobile
ment forces the disk against the contacts. This closes vehicles and some small engines, overrunning-clutch
the circuit between the battery and the starting starting motors use a solenoid to move the overrun-
motor. ning clutch and close the starting-motor switch. The
Some magnetic switches have two windings solenoid is larger than the magnetic switch and is
mounted on the starting motor, as shown in Fig. 23-
18. When the solenoid operates, it first shifts the drive
SWITCH-CONTROL pinion into mesh with the flywheel teeth (Fig. 23-22).
TERMINAL
PLUNGER Then it closes the circuit between the battery and the
RETURN starting motor.
SPRING
The solenoid has two windings: a pull-in winding
and a hold-in winding. The pull-in winding is con-
nected across the starter-switch contacts in the sole-
y CAP
noid. Both windings work together to pull the sole-
WINDING CONTACT DISK noid plunger in and move the overrunning clutch
MOUNTING BRACKET pinion into mesh. But once mesh is completed, it
MOTOR TERMINALS takes much less magnetism to hold the plunger in.
FIG. 23-24 Typical magnetic switch. (Delco-Remy Division Therefore, the pull-in winding is shorted out as the
of General Motors Corporation) main contacts are connected by the solenoid disk.

197
 023-15 SAFETY INTERLOCKS For the operator's _ similar to the type used on a battery-powered starter,
safety, manufacturers of equipment such as_garden _ covered earlier in this chapter. The other two types
. tractors, riding mowers, and snowblowers install a use different drive arrangements that are special for
safety interlock in the cranking circuit or in the igni- small engines.
tion system. These safety interlocks allow the engine
to be cranked only when the transmission is in neu- © 23-18 CONE-DRIVE 120-VOLT STARTER One
tral, when the power takeoff is disengaged, or when type of 120-volt electric starter, shown in Fig. 23-28,
the operator is sitting on the seat of the vehicle. uses a cone-shaped friction-drive clutch. To operate
Figure 23-26 shows in schematic view an engine this starter, press down on the switch-control button.
that has electric starting and battery ignition (dis- This connects the electric motor to the 120-volt source
cussed in Chap. 25). Notice that in the safety-inter- so it spins. As soon as it gets up to speed, then press
lock circuit on the vehicle, there are three electric down on the starter housing. This engages the cone-
switches wired in series. Each switch is spring- shaped drive clutch so that the flywheel and crank-
loaded to hold it in the open position. When some shaft are spun. When the engine starts, release the
action takes place—for example, when the operator starter housing and the switch-control button. The
sits down on the seat—the switch closes. When the release springs lift the starter housing so the clutch
proper actions have been taken to close all three disengages. At the same time the spring under the
switches, then turning the key in the ignition switch switch-control button lifts the button so that the
will activate the starter. starter motor is disconnected from the 120-volt source.

©23-19 SPLIT-PULLEY-DRIVE 120-VOLT STARTER

CAUTION: If the engine must be cranked with the This type, shown in Fig. 23-29 also engages by fric-
safety interlock bypassed, make sure that all safety tion, but it does this automatically. The upper part of
conditions are such as to permit the engine to operate Fig. 23-29 shows how the split-pulley drive operates.
safely. This is to prevent personal injury to you or When the starter is not operating, the two halves of
someone nearby or damage to the engine or equip- the pulley are apart, as shown to the upper left. When
ment. You must never leave the safety interlock by- the starter is operated, the upper half of the pulley
passed or disconnected when the equipment is re- comes up to speed along with the motor armature and
turned to the owner. There is a possibility that you shaft because the upper half of the pulley is attached
could be held liable for any subsequent injuries or to the shaft. The lower half of the pulley, being some-
property damage. what free, does not pick up speed instantly. Instead,
it lags behind because of inertia. Inertia is that prop-
erty that all things have which resists change of posi-
120-VOLT STARTERS
tion. Therefore, the lower pulley half is momentarily
stationary. The pin in the motor shaft then pushes
023-16 ELECTRIC STARTERS Some engines use
against the ramp in the lower pulley half, forcing the
starters that are powered from the 120-volt home or
pulley half to move upward, as shown to the upper
shop wiring outlet. The starter is connected by an
right in Fig. 23-29. Now the sides of the two pulley
extension cord to the electric outlet as shown in
halves clamp the drive belt so that the drive belt is
Figs 23-27.
forced to move. This causes the drive pulley located
above the engine flywheel to spin, thereby cranking
CAUTION: When using the 120-volt starter, connec- the engine.
tions should always be made at the 120-volt outlet After the engine starts and the motor is discon-
receptacle, as shown in Fig. 23-27, and never ai the nected from the 120-volt source, the belt tension ap-
starter. If you make or break the electrical connection plied to the pulley forces the lower half to continue to
at the starter, the spark could ignite gasoline vapor move for a moment. This allows the lower half to drop
from the carburetor and you could have a fire. Always down to the disengaged position, as shown to the
make sure the extension cord is in good condition, upper left in Fig. 23-29.
without frayed insulation. The extension cord should
be of the type having the third or ground lead. O 23-20 BENDIX-DRIVE 120-VOLT STARTER This
starter is very much like the electric starting motors
with Bendix drive that are battery-powered. At one
023-17 120-VOLT ELECTRIC-STARTER DRIVES time, the Bendix drive was used on many automotive
The 120-volt electric starter uses a small electric starting motors, but today most use an overrunning
motor which develops sufficient power to spin the clutch. The Bendix drive is used in some small-
engine crankshaft and get the engine started. There engine starters because of its simplicity. We de-
are several types of electric starters. One is very scribed the Bendix drive in ©O 23-10.

198
 | SEAT
SWITCH TRANSMISSION SWITCH
POWER-TAKEOFF |
SWITCH

SMALL STARTING
TERMINAL MOTOR

SOLENOID

BATTERY
FIG. 23-26 A typical safety interlock system. (Kohler Com-
ELECTRICAL OUTLET
pany) .
SWITCH CONTROL
BUTTON
MOTOR
SWITCH
___ STARTER
MOTOR | HOUSING
GEARS

sopSyBat
a

CONE- ae a
DRIVE CLUTCH ——Spo_
=z
Sin

GUIDE ee S RELEASE
ge oer ee
ENGINE aera Baek.
FIG. 22-28 Details of the cone-drive mechanism used with a
120-VOLT 120-volt starter. Parts are shown separated so their relation-
OUTEEN ship can be seen.

© 23-21 STARTER-GENERATOR In many small-

engine installations using battery-type electric start-
ing motors, the starter may also be a generator. This
makes it a starter-generator assembly. As a starter, it
=>
TI cranks the engine to start it. Then when the engine is
:
SF running, the starter-generator acts as a generator to
produce current that puts back into the battery the
current taken out by the starting cycle.
Figure 23-30 shows a typical wiring circuit for a

a starter-generator system. It includes a generator reg-

wei
ulator, which is described later. The starter-generator
is connected by a V-belt to the engine, as shown in
Fig. 23-31, and is continuously connected during
both cranking and generating. The starter-generator
has two sets of field windings, one for cranking the
STARTER
engine and the other for producing current. When the
FIG. 23-27. Electric starter which uses house current to starter switch is closed, battery current flows through
operate. (Briggs & Stratton Corporation) the starter field windings. These windings are made

199
 % INCH [13 mm] DEFLECTION

SPLIT
PULLEY.
CLUTCH

ELECTRIC
MOTOR FIG. 23-31 Belt drive for a starter-generator. Proper belt
tension is indicated as allowing 1/2-inch [12.7 mm] deflec-
tion and is adjusted by moving the starter-generator toward
or away from the engine. (Kohler Company)
SWITCH

EXTENSION + generator field windings, which are made up of rela-

CORD tively light copper wire. These windings are shunted,
FIG. 23-29 Details of the split-pulley-drive mechanism used or connected across, the armature and use up a small
with a 120-volt starter. Parts are shown schematically so part of the current that the armature produces. This
their relationship can be seen. The top views, (a) and (b),
creates a magnetic field in which the armature spins.
show the two positions of the lower pulley half: at left, not
cranking; at right, cranking. The armature windings, which have been serving as
starter windings during the starting cycle, now begin
to serve as current producers.
of heavy copper wire so that a heavy current can flow Figure 23-32 shows schematically two variations of
from the battery through them. This produces a strong _ the basic starter-generating system, one using a
magnetic field, which results in a strong cranking starter solenoid. The purpose of the solenoid is to
effort. The armature is spun and the engine crank- make it possible for the starter switch to be located
shaft is rotated so that the engine starts. some distance away from the battery and starter.
Then the operator opens the starter circuit by re- This reduces the length of heavy cable needed to
leasing the starter switch. This opens the starter field make the circuit between the battery and starter.
windings so starter action is ended. Now, as the en- Only a light wire is needed between the switch and
gine comes up to speed and drives the starter- solenoid, because the solenoid needs only a small
generator, the generator begins to produce current. A amount of current to make it work. (The bigger the
magnetic field is produced in the generator by the current flow, the heavier the wire needed to carry it.)

se TERMINALS:
F-FIELD

(=p
B-BATTERY
L-LOAD
LD BY VF (LIGHTS, ETC.)
A-ARMATURE
VOLTAGE ay) G-GENERATOR
REGULATOR \
STARTER SWITCH —1_] AMMETER

FIG. 23-30 Wiring circuit of a typical starter-

generator system. The starter-generator starts the
engine, and then generates current to charge the
battery. The system includes a regulator to con-
trol the generator.
 VOLTAGE
nes ULATOR
GROUND ; \ WITHOUT SOLENOID
HIGH-
) VOLTAGE WIRE
¥
START
BATTERY - SWITCH
SWITCH
12 VOLT

STARTER
GENERATOR BREAKER
POINTS

GROUND

= BATTERY -
12 VOLT

WITH SOLENOID

FIG. 23-32 Wiring diagrams of two types of starter-

generator systems, one without a solenoid and the other
with a solenoid. (Kohler Company) . What are the two main parts of the battery-
powered starting motor?
When the switch is turned to SOLENOID for starting, . What makes the starting motor operate?
the solenoid is connected to the battery and it pro-
10. What is a starter drive?
duces a magnetic field. This magnetic field pulls in
an iron plunger which forces heavy contacts to close. 11. Why must the starting-motor pinion be
These heavy contacts make a direct connection from demeshed from the flywheel as soon as the
the battery to the starter so that the engine is engine starts?
cranked. The system shown in Fig. 23-32 includes an
12. Explain how the Bendix drive works.
ignition system. This is a battery ignition system
which is discussed in Chap. 25. The generator and 13. Explain how the overrunning clutch works.
regulator also are described in later chapters cover-
14. What is the most common type of starting-motor
ing charging systems.
control?
REVIEW QUESTIONS 15. What job does the magnetic switch do in the
starting system?
1. What are the two general types of starters used
on small engines? 16. Why does the starting-motor solenoid have two
windings?
2. What are the advantages of a mechanical
starter? 17. What is the difference between a magnetic
switch and a solenoid?
3. What are the advantages of an electric starter?
18. What is a safety interlock?
4, What is the difference between a rope-wind
and a rope-rewind starter? 19: Why should you never disconnect or bypass a
safety interlock for a customer?
5. Describe the operation of a windup starter.
20. Describe the operation of a cone-drive on a
6. What type of engines usually have a kick
120-volt starter.
starter?
21. Explain the operation of the split-pulley drive
7. What type of electric starter is used on equip-
on a 120-volt starter.
ment such as riding mowers and lawn and gar-
den tractors? 22. What is a starter-generator?

201
 23. How is a starter-generator connected to the en- starter used on each engine. Notice that some
gine crankshaft? engines have more than one starter available.
24. What is the difference between the two types of
. Locate a discarded starter for a small engine.
starter-generator systems?
Disassemble the starter and clean the parts.
SELF PROJECTS Then mount them on a board for display in the
. Using the set of school shop manuals for small school shop or classroom. Label each of the
engines, make a list of engines and the type of parts in the starter.

202
| Servicing
Small-Engine
Starters

© 24-1 TROUBLESHOOTING MECHANICAL START-

ERS The following points should be kept in mind
whenever you begin to solve a starting problem:

After studying this chapter, you should be 1. Look for obvious troubles first, such as a broken
able to: __-»rewind spring, a weak battery, poor battery con-

1. List the steps in troubleshooting mechanical

2. Try to pinpoint the trouble before removing the
starters starter.

2. Demonstrate how to service each type of me- 3. On electric starters, disconnect the battery cable
chanical starter before removing the starter.
4. Disassemble the starter only as far as necessary
3. Explain how to troubleshoot electric starters to correct the trouble.

4, List the possible causes of the trouble if the 5. Test the starter before reinstalling it.
starting motor does not operate or if it oper- 6. Wear safety goggles and follow all safety pre-
ates slowly but the engine does not start cautions when working on mechanical starters.

5. Demonstrate how to rebuild and test a start- When troubleshooting mechanical starters, first
ing motor determine if the starter is really the problem. Gener-
ally, if the mechanical starter is able to crank the
6. Describe how to test the starting-motor drive engine, the problem is elsewhere—possibly in the
ignition or fuel system. However, in the study of igni-
tion systems you will find that most small engines
require normal cranking speed to generate ignition
voltage. So you must be sure that the starter is crank-
ing the engine at the proper speed. After operating a
few mechanical starters, you will be able to “feel”
how much power they have. You will be able to sense
what “normal” cranking speed should be.
Figure 24-1 shows typical procedures to follow
when troubleshooting mechanical starters. The chart
does not list all the problems that could happen, nor
the obvious ones, such as a broken pull-rope or
handle.

CAUTION: Some types of mechanical starters have

powerful springs wound up inside. Use caution when

203
MECHANICAL STARTER TROUBLESHOOTING CHART
Condition Check or Correction

. Starter spins but engine . Check engagement of

does not crank starter pawls, rachet, or
dogs
. Engine cranks but . Check engine compres-
starter pull has no feel sion
of tension (rope-wind
and rope-rewind starter)
. Rope does not rewind . Check operation of re-
on starter (rope-rewind wind spring
starter)
. Starter slips while . Check starter pawls, (a)
cranking engine dogs, or rachet teeth
. Check flywheel teeth
. Check for dirt or grease
in drive mechanism
. Starter does not wind up . Check windup spring
(wind-up starter)
. Starter does not crank . Check that starter en-
engine fast enough gages and does not slip
b. Check starter spring
(windup starter or kick
starter)
c. Check for engine drag
7. Engine cranks properly a. Check ignition system
but does not start for spark
b. Check fuel system for
(b) (d)
fuel, water in fuel, line
FIG. 24-2 How to make a double-overhand knot.
obstructions, and over-
choking
c. Check engine for low
compression

FIG. 24-1 Troubleshooting chart for mechanical starters.

taking these starters apart. If the starter is improperly

disassembled, the spring could unwind with consid-
erable force. To prevent eye injury, wear safety gog- SS

gles when working with the starter spring.

024-2 ROPE-WINDSTARTERS This type of starter

operates by winding several turns of rope around the
engine flywheel pulley, then pulling it quickly to
crank the engine. The only parts usually needing
service on this type starter are the rope and handle.
You can buy a new rope and handle assembly, or (a)
either part if only one goes bad. The new rope should
be the same size and length as the old one. Most
engines use a 3/ie-inch [S-mm] nylon braided rope
about 5 feet [1.5 m] long. The rope should be long
enough to wrap around the flywheel pulley up to five
times plus an additional 1 foot [305 mm] to make
knots at the two ends.
(6)
Two kinds of knots can be used to hold the rope in
the handle at one end and on the pulley at the other.
The procedure for making the knots is illustrated in (c)
Figs. 24-2 and 24-3. Some handles use a pin tied into FIG. 24-3 How to make a figure-eight knot.

204
 HANDLE VISE JAW

WASHER

FIG. 24-4 Handle retained by a pin tied into the knot.

(Briggs & Stratton Corporation)

ROPE
the knot to retain it in the handle as you see in HOLE
Fig. 24-4. Before making any knots in the rope, singe
both ends with a match to prevent the rope from un-
raveling. This procedure also assures that the knots
will not slip and loosen after they are tied. In servic-
ing any rope-pull starter, replace the rope if it is
frayed or ragged. ROPE VISE-GRIP
OUTLET PLIERS
O 24-3 ROPE-REWIND STARTERS The rope- FIG. 24-6 Holding the pulley with Vise-Grip pliers. (Te-
rewind starter uses a pull-rope with a powerful cumseh Products Company)
spring to rewind the rope after it is pulled out for
cranking. Several designs of this type of starter are in clamp it upside down in a vise, as shown in Fig. 24-5.
use. All work on the same general principle but re- If the knot in the rope is visible, you will be able to
quire different servicing procedures. General servic- replace the rope without disassembling the starter. If
ing procedures for rope-rewind starters include re- the knot is not visible, you will have to disassemble
placing the rope, replacing the spring, and repairing the starter. With the starter disassembled, always
the drive mechanism. check the spring. When the rope breaks, it sometimes
bends the spring.
O24-4 REPLACING THEROPE Remove the starter On the visible-knot starter, shown in Fig. 24-5, pull
from the engine. Usually the starter is attached by the rope all the way out against the tension of the
three or four screws. On some engines, you must recoil spring. The pulley must be held in place so the
remove a top cover or other piece to get to the starter. spring does not unwind when the new rope is in-
You can work on the starter if it is laid on a work- stalled. You can hold the pulley with Vise-grip pliers
bench, but you will find it easier to work on if you as shown in Fig. 24-6, or you can use a wrench and
square stick as shown in Fig. 24-7. When the wood-
CENTER
SCREW VISE JAW
STARTER
WRENCH

WOOD STICK

ROPE
OUTLET

ROPE HOLE IN PULLEY

FIG. 24-7 On some starters you can hold the pulley, or wind
FIG. 24-5 To begin the repair of the visible-knot type of up the recoil spring, with a square piece of wood and a
rope-rewind starter, pull the rope all the way out. wrench. (Briggs & Stratton Corporation)

205
 FIG. 24-10 Installing the rope on a starter that does not
have a guide lug. (Briggs & Stratton Corporation)

through the rope end, as shown in Fig. 24-9. On this

FIG. 24-8 On some starters, you can wind up the recoil
spring with a screwdriver.
starter, be sure that the rope passes on the inside of
the guide lug. After the rope is in the pulley, tie a knot
in the rope end. On some starters, a thin washer with
stick rewind method is used, the end of the wrench is a 3/a-inch [19-mm] diameter and a 1/4-inch [6.35-mm]
wired to the housing, as shown in the inset in hole is inserted on the rope before the knot is tied as
Fig. 24-7. shown in Fig. 24-6. When the knot is tied, pull the
If the spring has no tension when the rope is pulled rope so the knot is near the hole and does not inter-
out, the spring has unwound. You can wind it up fere with anything when the pulley rotates. Now, with
again with a wrench and square stick or with a the rope pulled taut, release the Vise-grip pliers or
screwdriver as shown in Figs. 24-7 and 24-8. the wrench holding the wood stick. Slowly let the
Whenever you wind up a starter spring, always rope wind up on the pulley. Then attach the handle to
make sure you wind it in the correct direction. The the other rope end, as explained earlier for rope-wind
general rule is to wind the spring up tight and then starters.
back it off one complete turn. If the spring cannot be On the hidden-knot starter, the knot is not visible
wound up, it is probably broken or detached. We will and the starter must be disassembled to replace the
discuss how to service the spring later. rope. Disconnect the handle from the end of the rope
The new rope should be the same size and length and untie the knot. Hold the pulley with a cloth or a
as the old. Singe both ends of the rope with the flame gloved hand and allow it to turn slowly. This removes
of a match. This prevents the rope from fraying and the tension on the spring. Then remove the starter
also prevents the knot from loosening. Thread the drive from the pulley assembly. This requires disas-
rope through the rope eyelet in the housing and then sembly of the starter-drive mechanism, which we will
through the hole in the pulley, as shown in Figs. 24-9 cover later. There are two types of pulleys: the one-
and 24-10. If the holes line up, threading the rope is piece and the two-piece.
not difficult. But when the holes do not line up, The one-piece pulley is shown disassembled in
threading is made easier by using a hooked wire Fig. 24-11. When the starter has a one-piece pulley,

HOUSING
ADJUSTABLE WRENCH

Ae
—ae
1
| ROPE
HOLE IN
REWIND
SPRING —©)
eee HANDLE
ONE-PIECE eae
PULLEY "(Co3)
Sa,

GUIDE LUG Se
BRAKE S
KD

WIRE OR PAPER CLIP EE STARTER —__+&

DOG
©)
fay

HOOK IN WIRE RETAINER =

FIG. 24-9 When rethreading the rope into the pulley hole, &
you may find that a piece of wire hooked into the end of the FIG. 24-11 Disassembled rope-rewind starter with one-
rope, as shown at the bottom, will make it easier. piece pulley. (Tecumseh Products Company)

206
 remove the pulley, leaving the spring in the housing.
Then the rope can be replaced on the pulley, as we
have discussed earlier.
Figure 24-12 shows a rope-rewind starter that uses
a two-piece pulley. When the starter has a two-piece
pulley, remove one side of the pulley, leaving the
spring under the other half in the housing. You will
now be able to remove the rope and install a new
rope, as already explained.
TWO-PIECE Now reinstall the pulley after winding the rope on
PULLEY
it. The drive mechanism is assembled as explained
later. Rewind the spring and secure the pulley in
place with Vise-Grip pliers or with a wrench and
| wood stick. Assemble the handle on the rope end so
STARTER | SR BUSHING AND
DOG S 4 SPRING that the pulley cannot unwind. Then release the
Vise-Grip pliers or wood stick. Reinstall the starter on
the engine, making sure that it is properly aligned.
Some starters have an alignment pin which is in-
serted into a hole in the crankshaft to secure align-
ment. If the alignment is not correct, the starter will
not work properly and will wear out rapidly.

024-5 REPLACING THE SPRING There are two

types of recoil springs: the removable type and the
packaged type. One removable type is shown in-
FIG. 24-12 Disassembled rope-rewind starter with two- stalled in a starter in Fig. 24-13. You can recognize it
piece pulley. because you can see the spring end on the outside.
The packaged type is a stronger spring and comes
SPRING END OLD-STYLE SPRING = pre-oiled and compressed inside a retainer housing.
HANDLE
The retainer housing may be of the permanent type
and is installed in the starter along with the spring.
On others, the housing is discarded when the spring
is installed in the starter.
If the spring is of the removable type accessible
BUMPER from outside the starter housing, remove the starter
PULLEY and clamp it in a vise. Remove the rope from the
SPARE TANG
handle, and with a gloved hand or cloth, slowly let
TWISTED
the pulley rotate to release the spring tension. Pull
BLOWER HOUSING
TANG the spring out of the housing as far as possible with
FIG. 24-13 A removable type of recoil spring. The end of pliers, as shown in Fig. 24-14. Use a cloth or wear
this spring can be seen from outside the starter.

SPRING

STARTER HOUSING

FIG. 24-14 Use pliers and a cloth or a glove on your hand to pull the
spring out of the starter housing.

207
 HUB
HOLE IN

FIG. 24-15 Unhooking the spring from the pulley.

gloves to protect your hands. Remove the pulley. If FIG. 24-17 A packaged type of recoil spring. Most replace-
the pulley is held in place by bumper tangs as shown ment recoil springs are enclosed like this in a housing for
safe handling.
in Fig. 24-14, bend up one tang to remove the pulley.
If the pulley is held in place by the starter-drive
mechanism, remove it first. We describe starter-drive
If the spring is of the semicoiled removable type, it
service later in this chapter.
should be removed from its package as shown in
Disconnect the spring from the pulley, as shown in
Fig. 24-18. The spring can then be wound into the
Fig. 24-15. If you are going to use the spring again,
housing on the starter.
straighten it, as shown in Fig. 24-16. Wear gloves to
protect your hands.
Attach the replacement spring to the pulley. Install © 24-6 DRIVE-MECHANISM SERVICE All rope-
the pulley inside the starter housing with the spring rewind starters are similar in construction. The main
extending out, as shown in Fig. 24-14. Now with difference is in the ratchet mechanism that causes
gloves or cloth protection for your hands, guide the the pulley to engage the crankshaft for cranking and
spring into the housing. Let the spring wind up, using then releases when the engine starts. There are four
either of the methods shown in Figs. 24-7 and 24-8. Be general types, as shown in Fig. 24-19, based on the
sure the spring end securely locks into the side of the method used for flywheel engagement. These meth-
housing at the end of the rewind. Attach the rope to ods are pawls, dogs, friction shoes, and steel balls.
the pulley and install the handle. Then install the To service the drive mechanism, remove the starter
starter on the engine and check its operation. and clamp it in a vise, as shown in Fig. 24-5. Pull the
If the spring is of the packaged type, as shown in rope and feel the action of the drive mechanism.
Fig. 24-17, the retainer housing may be of the tempo- When the rope is pulled, a properly working drive
rary type or it may be permanent. If it is temporary, mechanism should quickly engage the flywheel
the spring is slid from the temporary housing into the adapter. If service is required, remove the drive
permanent housing on the starter. If the retainer mechanism, as shown in Fig. 24-20. Disassemble it.
housing is of the permanent type, the old housing is Note very carefully what parts go where when you
removed from the starter and the new housing with take the mechanism apart. Then you will know ex-
spring is installed.

GLOVES

SPRING

FIG. 24-16 Straightening the spring to provide more ten-

sion. Wear gloves when handling the spring. FIG. 24-18 A removable or semicoiled type of recoil spring.

208
STARTER FLYWHEEL ADAPTER
DRIVE SHAFT
FLYWHEEL RELEASE
ADAPTER SPRING

CENTRIFUGAL
PAWL
PULLEY ROPE PULLEY

(a) WEDGING STEEL BALLS (b) CENTRIFUGALLY ACTUATED PAWLS

CENTER
CONTROL CUP RELEASE
SPRING
WASHER CAM can
SHOES _/ ~ AS

Sat?«
m AA.wie
ft

CONTROL CUP BRAKE -

FLYWHEEL ADAPTER ROPE FLYWHEEL ADAPTER
ROPE
PULLEY STARTER
FRAME PUEEEY,

(c) CAM-OPERATED DOG (d) CAM-OPERATED SHOES

FIG. 24-19 Various types of drive mechanisms for rope-
rewind starters.

actly how everything goes together when you reas- off the plastic starter pinion. It is shown in Fig. 24-21.
semble it. Be especially careful to put the engaging The pinion gear mounts on the worm gear with the
mechanism back in exactly the same way you found grooved side toward the pulley. Remove the screws
it. If you get it in wrong, the starter will not work. that hold the pulley plate to the pulley and disassem-
Lubricate the parts lightly with graphite or multipur- ble the pulley (Fig. 24-22). Obtain the new replace-
pose grease on reassembly. ment rope and singe the ends. Remove the old rope
Check for proper operation after reassembly. Then and install one end of the new rope in the pulley, as
install the starter on the engine. Recheck the starter shown in Fig. 24-22. Install the pulley plate on the
for proper operation. pulley and tighten the screws. Hold the starter so the
worm gear points toward you, and wind the rope
© 24-7 VERTICAL-PULL STARTERS The rewind clockwise on the pulley.
starter shown in Fig. 24-21 is used on some outboard To install a new starter spring, remove the outer
engines and lawn-mower engines. It is a vertical-pull pulley cup and old spring. Curl the end of the new
starter using a Bendix drive. To service the starter, spring on the outside of the starter pulley, as shown
remove the handle and let the rope slowly recoil to in Fig. 24-23. Position the cover over the pulley so that
remove the spring tension. Then unscrew the starter- the spring is guided through the slot in the cover.
mounting bolt, and remove the starter from the en- Clamp the starter in a vise using wooden blocks to
gine. Hold the starter together while removing it to prevent damage to the worm-gear shaft. Wind the
prevent releasing the spring. rope on the pulley. Then pull the rope to turn the
To replace the rope on this starter, take off the pulley, as shown in Fig. 24-24. Repeat this as neces-
retainer clip on the end of the Bendix drive and slide sary to draw the spring into the cover. The end of the

209
 BENDIX DRIVE
SNAP RING

STARTER
PINION os VERTICAL-PULL
STARTER

FIG. 24-21 Vertical-pull rope-rewind starter using a Bendix

drive. (Evinrude Motors Division of Outboard Marine Corpo-
ration)

PULLEY PULLEY PLATE

a
FIG. 24-22 Position of the rope in the pulley. (Evinrude
Motors Division of Outboard Marine Corporation)

STARTER DRIVE
FIG. 24-20 On some models, remove the drive mechanism PULEEBY,
by removing a snap ring as at (a). On others, remove a
screw as at (b).

starter spring should hook on the cover slot, as shown NEW SPRING
in Fig. 24-25. Install the starter rope-retainer on the FIG. 24-23 Installing a new starter spring. (Evinrude Mo-
outside of the pulley. tors Division of Outboard Marine Corporation)
If the starter could be pulled but it did not crank the
engine, the pinion spring may be sprung or dam-
aged. A distorted spring will not grip the pinion prop-
erly and so the pinion will fail to engage the fly-
wheel. The two prongs of the pinion spring should be
1/4 inch [6.35 mm] or less apart when the spring is off
the pinion. If the spring needs replacement, use care
to stretch the new one only wide enough to allow it to
snap into the groove of the pinion.
Place the starter assembly on the engine with the
end of the starter spring up and in the cutout made for
it, as shown in Fig. 24-26. One prong of the starter-
pinion spring should be above the mounting plate FIG. 24-24 Winding the new spring into the cover. (Evin-
edge and the other prong below it. The starter-rope rude Motors Division of Outboard Marine Corporation)

210
 STARTER-ROPE END OF STARTER ROPE RETAINER
RETAINER

FIG. 24-25 When installed, the end of the starter spring

hooks over the edge of the cover slot. (Evinrude Motors
Division of Outboard Marine Corporation) FIG. 24-27 Starter-rope retainer will lock in place when the
starter is properly positioned. (Evinrude Motors Division of
retainer will lock into place as shown in Fig. 24-27 Outboard Marine Corporation)
when the starter is positioned correctly.
Install and tighten the starter mounting bolt. Com- taking off the handle, as shown in Fig. 24-29. Hold the
pletely wind the rope around the starter pulley. Then handle with one hand, and remove the Phillips-head
turn the pulley an extra one to one and a half more screw holding the handle to the starter.
turns for proper tension. Thread the rope through the
handle, and fasten the handle to the rope.
CAUTION: Never attempt to work on a windup
starter without releasing the spring tension. The
024-8 SERVICING WINDUP STARTERS The
spring is very strong and could cause serious injury if
windup starter is also called an impulse starter,
it should pop out of the starter during disassembly.
self-starter, ratchet starter, speed starter, and other
names. It uses a ratchet and pawl, or dog, mecha-
nism to wind up and hold the tension of an internal
spring. When the spring is released, it overcomes
engine compression and friction to crank the engine.
The ratchet is usually rotated directly through gear-
ing by a windup handle. The spring is released by an CONTROL
external lever or control knob. Two types of windup
starters are shown in Fig. 24-28.
Before beginning to work on a windup starter, al-
ways make sure the starter spring is fully unwound.
Wind the spring several turns with the handle. Then
trip the release lever or operate the control knob and
OLD STYLE
let the spring unwind. If the spring does not unwind,
on some models you can release the spring tension by

END OF STARTER SPRING

CONTROL
LEVER

NEW STYLE

FIG. 24-28 (Top) Old-style windup starter with control

FIG. 24-26 Proper position of the end of the starter spring. knob. (Bottom) New-style windup starter with control lever.
(Evinrude Motors Division of Outboard Marine Corporation) (Briggs & Stratton Corporation)

211
 PHILLIPS-HEAD CAUTION: Do not remove the spring from the re-
tainer unless the service manual for the engine you
are working on specifically says to do it and tells you
how. These springs are very strong and can hurt you
if they are released improperly!

LEVER IN When disassembling the drive mechanism, ob-

CRANK serve carefully the location and position of all parts
POSITION
so you can correctly put the mechanism back to-
gether. Inspect the housing and operating parts for
KNOB IN
CRANK cracks, worn gear teeth or ratchet, and broken or bent
POSITION pawls. Watch for small parts such as springs, wash-
FIG. 24-29 Releasing the windup spring by removing the ers, and spacers. Clean all parts and lubricate all
Phillips-head screw. Hold the handle with one hand while moving surfaces with engine oil.
removing the screw. If you install a new spring, be sure to destroy the
old spring so that no one will get hurt tampering with
it. The best way is to heat the old spring with a torch.
If the starter does not crank the engine, the spring This removes the temper and tension in the spring.
is broken or the starter clutch balls are not engaging. On reassembly, make sure you put all parts back
Put the control knob or release lever in position for into their proper places. Reinstall the starter on the
START, and crank the handle 10 turns clockwise. engine, and check it for proper operation.
While turning the crank handle, watch the starter
clutch ratehet. The clutch ratchet is shown in Fig. 24- © 24-9 SERVICING ELECTRIC STARTERS In this
30. If the ratchet does not move, the spring is broken. part of the chapter, we cover in detail the trouble-
If the ratchet moves, it is the ratchet that needs ser- shooting and service of electric starters used on small
vicing. engines. There are two general types of electric start-
Some windup starters are disassembled from the ers: 12-volt and 120-volt. If the engine has a 12-volt
drive end. Others are disassembled from the handle starter, it probably has a charging system. The 12-
end. If the handle is riveted or welded to the shaft, volt starter needs a 12-volt storage battery. To keep
remove the drive mechanism first. The drive mecha- the battery charged, a generator or an alternator is
nism and retainer screws are similar to those on required. You have already learned about batteries
rope-rewind starters, but heavier. If necessary, re- and how to test and service them in previous chap-
move the drive mechanism for repair. Remove the ters. Charging systems are covered in later chapters.
mainspring assembly, with its retainer. If a 120-volt alternating-current starter is used, then a
charging system is not required, although the engine
may also have this equipment.

BEFORE REASSEMBLING O24-10 TROUBLESHOOTING 12-VOLT STARTERS

APPLY GREASE TO q
SHADED AREAS AND The most common problem you will encounter with
RATCHET TEETH starters is a starter that cranks the engine very slowly
or does not crank it-at-all. In such a case, you can
usually pinpoint the problem by turning on the lights
(if provided) and then operating (or attempting to
operate) the starter. Many engines equipped with
12-volt starters also have lights. Under normal condi-
tions the battery voltage drops and the lights dim
slightly as the engine is cranked. However, in the
case of trouble, the lights may do one of the follow-
ing:

. Stay bright with no cranking action

. Dim slightly with no cranking action
. Dim considerably with no cranking action
. Go out with no cranking action
FIG. 24-30 Partially disassembled windup starter. (Briggs
& Stratton Corporation) —.
DP
6d
fF
on Not come on at all :

212
en SS EE eee ee ee ae a ee, ee ee ee eee ee eee ee et ee

TABLE 24-1 12-VOLT STARTER TROUBLESHOOTING CHART

Condition Possible Cause Check or Correction

1. No cranking, no lights a. Battery dead Recharge or replace battery
b. Open circuit _Clean and tighten connections; re-
— place wiring
2. No cranking, lights go out a. Poor connection, probably at bat- Clean cable clamp and terminal;
tery tighten clamp
3. No cranking, lights dim slightly a. Pinion (Bendix) not engaging Clean pinion and sleeve; replace
damaged parts
b. Excessive resistance or open circuit Clean commutator; replace brushes;
in starter repair poor connections
4. No cranking, lights dim heavily a. Battery weak Check and recharge or replace bat-
tery
b. Very low temperature Make sure battery is fully charged
and engine, wiring circuit, and
starter are OK
c. Pinion (Bendix) jammed Free pinion
d. Frozen shaft bearing, direct short Repair starter
in starter
5. No cranking, lights stay bright a. Open circuit in switch Check switch contacts and connec-
tions
b. Open in control circuit Check solenoid, ignition switch, and
connections
c. Open circuit in starter Check commutator, brushes, and con-
nections
6. Engine cranks slowly but does not a. Battery run down Check and recharge or replace bat-
start tery
b. Very low temperature Make sure battery is fully charged
and engine, wiring circuit, and
starter are OK
Starter defective Test starter
. Undersized battery cables Install cables of adequate size
. Mechanical trouble in engine Check engine
aa Operator may have run battery
mo
down
7. Engine cranks at normal speed . Ignition system defective Check ignition system
but does not start Q
ao.Fuel system defective Check fuel pump, line, choke, and
carburetor
c. Air leaks in intake manifold or car- Tighten mounting; replace gasket as
buretor needed
d. Engine defective Check compression, valve timing, etc.
8. Solenoid plunger chatters a. Hold-in winding of solenoid open Replace solenoid
b. Weak battery Charge battery
9. Pinion disengages slowly after a. Sticky solenoid plunger Clean and free plunger
starting b. Overrunning clutch sticks on arma- Clean armature shaft and clutch
ture shaft sleeve
c. Overrunning clutch defective Replace clutch
d. Shift-lever return spring weak Install new spring

No Cranking, No Lights Look at the first entry in the nections, or a bad battery cable. The cables can be
troubleshooting chart: no cranking, no lights. This checked by inspection and by probing the connec-
should tell you that there is no voltage at the starter tions. Look carefully for such things as corrosion
or at the solenoid terminal. If there were voltage, the and breaks in the cables. The battery can be checked
lighs would light. The possible causes include all with a voltmeter, a test lamp, or a hydrometer. Go
factors or defects which would prevent current from back to Chapter 22 to find out about how to check
reaching the starter: a dead battery, defective con- batteries.

213
No Cranking, Lights Go Out If the lights come on battery is the most common cause. The battery should
when the light switch is turned on and if they go off be checked and recharged or replaced as necessary.
when the starter circuit is closed, there probably is a At very low temperatures, when the engine oil is stiff
bad connection between the starter and the battery. and cranking is hard, the battery is subjected to a
The bad connection is probably at one of the battery much heavier load. At the same time, a cold battery is
terminals. A poor connection, in effect, will not allow much less able to maintain voltage under a heavy
very much current to get through. There will be load. As a result, during cranking and very low tem-
enough for the lights. But when the starter circuit is peratures, battery voltage will drop considerably and
closed, most of the current that does get through then lights will become very dim. The cold can be so se-
flows through the starter. This is because the electri- vere that the starter is unable to crank the engine at
cal resistance of the starter is much lower than the all.
resistance of the lights. However, there will be insuf- If the pinion (Bendix type) jams in the flywheel or if
ficient current to operate the starter. there is trouble in the starter (frozen shaft bearings or
You can often tell whether or not there is a bad a direct short, for example), the starter will draw a
connection at a battery terminal by keeping the very high current without any cranking taking place.
starter circuit closed for a few seconds while watch- A jammed Bendix pinion may be replaced either by
ing the battery terminal connections. If there is a bad loosening the starter mounting bolts or by rocking the
connection, heat will develop. You can feel this heat flywheel back and forth. Internal damage requires
by touching the cable clamp. Sometimes there is so removal of the starter so that it can be overhauled.
much heat that the connection starts to smoke. Mov- Keep in mind that the operator may run the battery
ing the cable clamp around on the terminal a little down ina vain attempt to start the engine. Then there
may improve the connection enough to get the engine is no cranking action when you test the starter, even
started. However, the remedy is to remove the cable though the battery may still be in good enough condi-
clamp, clean the clamp and terminals, and install the tion to light the lights. In such a case, the cause of
clamp tightly. failure to start is not in the battery or starter, but
You can find almost any bad connection in a circuit possibly in the ignition system, fuel system, or en-
through which current is flowing by checking the gine. Always question your customer to find out if the
voltage drop across the connection. This procedure is battery was run down trying to start the engine.
described later in this chapter.
No Cranking, Lights Stay Bright If the lights stay
No Cranking, Lights Dim Slightly If the lights dim bright as the starter circuit is closed and no cranking
when the starter circuit is closed, it may help to try to action takes place, it means there is no current flow-
determine whether the lights dim only slightly or dim ing from the battery to the starter. The tests to be
considerably. If the lights dim only slightly with no made to locate the open circuit differ according to the
cranking action, it could be that there is excessive type of starting system.
resistance or a partial open in the starter. This condi- On some engines, such as garden tractors and out-
tion would prevent all but a small amount of current board engines, there is a safety interlock that pre-
from flowing. No cranking and only slight dimming of vents starting unless the selector lever is in neutral or
the lights would result. If slight dimming is accom- park position. On such applications, be sure that the
panied by the sound of a running electric motor, it is selector lever is in the proper position and that the
possible that the drive pinion (on the Bendix-type safety switch and interlock circuit are in normal con-
drive only) is not engaging. When this happens, the dition before proceeding.
‘motor runs free without cranking the engine. The Then, find out if the control system is doing its job
Bendix pinion might fail to engage because it is stuck by going through the procedure that should produce
on the sleeve. This could be due to dirt or gum or starter action. Move the gearshift lever to NEUTRAL
possibly to battered threads that prevent movement or PARK, or depress the clutch pedal and turn the
on the sleeve. If the slight dimming is accompanied ignition switch to START, according to the normal
by the sound of pinion engagement without cranking starting method. One of two things will happen:
action, the starter solenoid (on overrunning-clutch (1) The solenoid or relay will not operate; or (2) the
drives) is producing pinion engagement but there is solenoid or relay will operate, but the starter motor
an opening in the starter that is preventing cranking will not. In either case, the problem should be
action. checked further, as follows:
Relay or solenoid does not operate: This means that
No Cranking, Lights Dim Heavily If the lights dim the current is not getting to or through the relay or
considerably without cranking action, there could be solenoid. One of the various control devices is not
mechanical trouble in the engine, the battery could doing its job. Before proceeding any further, make
be run down, the temperatures might be very low, or sure that the starter will operate. Momentarily con-
there could be trouble in the starter itself. A run-down nect a heavy jumper cable across the two main termi-

214
nals of the solenoid or relay. Touch the nuts, not the Pinion Disengages Slowly after Starting Sometimes
screws, to avoid burning the threads. On some relays the pinion will not release readily after the engine
and solenoids, this same test may be made by oper- starts (overrunning-clutch drive). Then, after the en-
ating the relay or solenoid by hand. If the starter gine speed increases, the pinion may release with a
operates, look for trouble in the control system. loud “zooming” sound. The overspeeding of the
Relay or solenoid operates, but starter does not: starter armature causes this sound. Such overspeed-
This indicates that there is an open circuit in the ing may result in thrown armature windings and
relay, solenoid, or starter. Usually, the trouble will be complete destruction of the starter.
found in the starter. Take the cover band off if the The possible causes of this condition are a sticky
starter is equipped with one, and check the brushes solenoid plunger, an overrunning clutch sticking on
and commutator. Further starter servicing will be the armature shaft, a defective overrunning clutch
discussed later. that will not allow the pinion to normally overrun the
shaft, or a weak shift-lever return spring. If slow
Engine Cranks but Does Not Start If the starter turns disengagement is noted, prompt measures to elimi-
the crankshaft slowly but the engine does not start, nate this trouble should be taken before the armature
there are several conditions to consider. The battery is ruined by thrown windings. Operate the shift lever
may be run down, the temperature may be so low as by hand to see if it is binding or if the spring is weak.
to cause cranking difficulty, the starter may be defec- Remove the starter if necessary to check the freeness
tive, undersize cables may have been installed, or of the clutch on the armature shaft, and the clutch
there may be mechanical trouble in the engine. It is operation.
also possible that the operator has run the battery
down trying to start the engine. In this case, the 024-11 CHECKING 12-VOLT STARTERS Two gen-
starter may crank normally with a fully charged bat- eral types of drives are used with battery-powered
tery, but the engine will not start because of trouble starters for small engines. One type is a mechanical
in the ignition system or fuel system or because of drive, such as the Bendix drive (Fig. 23-19), the over-
abnormal conditions in the engine. running clutch drive (Fig. 23-18), or the rubber-
compression drive (Fig. 23-20). The other type is a belt
drive, as shown in Fig. 24-31, which is a cutaway
Engine Cranks at Normal Speed but Does Not Start view of a 12-volt starter mounted on an engine. The
Normal cranking but failure to start is another impor- belt-drive starter is used with a belt clutch, either in
tant trouble symptom. This is not a starter problem. It the starter pulley or in the crankshaft pulley. Because
is usually caused by trouble in the ignition or carbu- of the action of the belt clutch, the belt can drive only
retion system. Troubleshooting these systems is dis- one way, and that is from the starter to the engine.
cussed in other chapters. When the engine starts and attempts to backdrive the
starter, the clutch disengages it.
Chattering Solenoid Plunger A chattering solenoid Regardless of type, no regular service is required
is one in which the plunger is alternately pulled in on the starter drive. However, belt-drive starters must
and released. The motion of the plunger makes a have the drive belt checked and adjusted periodi-
chattering noise. cally. To do this, remove the belt guard. Check the
When properly energized, the solenoid engages the condition of the belt and its deflection, as shown in
pinion and then closes the starter switch contacts. An
open-circuited hold-in winding in the solenoid or
magnetic switch will cause the plunger to pull in and DEFLECTION % INCH [6.35 mm]
release repeatedly when the control circuit is closed. BELT GUARD
With this defect, the pull-in winding pulls the plunger
in and closes the circuit between the battery and the
starter. But as this happens, the switch contacts short
out the pull-in winding. Since the hold-in winding is
then not operative, there is nothing to keep the
plunger in, and the plunger is released. The pull-in
winding is again energized, and it pulls the plunger
in once more. Chattering results, as the plunger
moves in and out of the solenoid or magnetic switch
quite rapidly, and no cranking takes place.
Chattering may also be due to a weak battery or to DRIVE
excessive resistance in the starter control circuit. BELT
With either of these conditions, the solenoid wind- FIG. 24-31 A 12-volt starter that uses belt drive. (Briggs &
ings may not become fully energized. Stratton Corporation)

215
CRACKS

FIG. 24-32
GREASE-SOFTENED

Conditions to look for when

belts. (Gates Rubber Company)
checking
4 FF
GLAZED

drive
PEELING SPLIT

solenoid by connecting a heavy jumper wire to the

two terminals. If the starter works,
the switch or solenoid.
the trouble is in

Fig. 24-31. Various conditions of the drive belt that

require its replacement are shown in Fig. 24-32. Inspecting the Starter Motor If everything outside of
Most electric starters are prelubricated and require the starter looks satisfactory, then check the starter
no further lubrication during normal service. About brushes and commutator. Some starters have a cover
the only trouble that can occur inside the starter re- band which can be removed. This type of starter is
sults from worn brushes or commutator. Sometimes shown in Fig. 24-33. On other starters, such as shown
starters are damaged by overloading that causes in Fig. 23-18, you must remove the end frame or cap
overheating. Such overloading can result from exces- assembly. This is done by removing the two through
sively long cranking periods. An electric starter bolts so that the cap can be slipped off part of the
should not be used for longer than about 10 seconds way. To take the cap completely off, take the insu-
at a time. If the engine does not start within this time, lated brush out of the brush holder. This is done by
the starter should be released. Allow it to cool for one lifting the spring and gently pulling the brush out.
minute or longer before attempting to restart. Contin-
uous cranking will overheat and damage the starter. Examining the Brushes and Commutator If the
brushes are worn down (Fig. 24-34), they must be
replaced. If the commutator is worn or rough, it
Checking the Electrical Connections When an en- should be cleaned with fine sandpaper or a brush-
gine cranks slowly, or fails to crank, and low temper- seating stone (Fig. 24-35). Never use emery cloth to
ature is not to blame, check the battery. Battery ser- clean the commutator. Some manufacturers supply
vice is covered in Chap. 22. Then look at the cables brush replacement kits. The grounded brush lead
and connections. If cables are frayed and connections may be riveted to the end cap. The rivet must be
are bad, not enough current can get through to pro- drilled out so the new brush lead can be riveted into
duce normal cranking. place. The insulated brush is connected to the field
lead and must be unsoldered before removal. Then
the new brush lead is soldered to the field lead.
Checking the Starter Control On systems using a Rosin-core solder must be used when soldering elec-
starter switch or a solenoid, bypass the switch or trical connections.
END-FRAME-
AND-BRUSH
ASSEMBLY POLE SHOE

%e
FIG. 24-33 Disassembled view of an electric
starter with a Bendix drive. (Kohler Company)

216
 BRUSH BRUSH TEST LEADS
SPRING HOLDER \ ARMATURE
GROWLER

TEST COMMUTATOR
LIGHT
FIG. 24-36 Checking an armature for grounds using a test
light. (Outboard Marine Corporation)

Some manufacturers state that cleaning of the

commutator and replacement of brushes are the only
FIG. 24-34 Checking the brushes for wear. (Briggs & Strat- services that should be attempted. If there are other
ton Corporation) troubles in the starter, a new starter should be in-
stalled. Complete disassembly of some starters is not
recommended.

024-12 STARTER-MOTOR SERVICE Many manu-

facturers supply detailed instructions and illustra-
tions, such as shown in Fig. 24-33, to help you rebuild
starter motors. When the starter is disassembled, the
armature, field-frame assembly, and brush holders
should be checked with a test light for shorts and
grounds. Using a test light on a growler to check for
grounds in the armature is shown in Fig. 24-36. If the
armature is in good condition, place it in the growler
and check for shorts, as shown in Fig. 24-37. If the
commutator on the armature is worn, burned, or out-
of-round, place the armature in an armature lathe, as
shown in Fig. 24-38. Remove only enough metal to
clean the commutator and restore it to a round condi-
tion. Then the mica should be undercut, as shown in
Fig. 24-39. Your instructor will show you how to per-
form these operations in the shop.
If you are working on a small starter and have
removed only the end cap to check the commutator

METAL BLADE

GROWLER

(c) FIG. 24-37 Testing an armature for short circuits on a

FIG. 24-35 Cleaning commutator with a brush-seating growler. (Delco-Remy Division of General Motors Corpora-
stone (a) or sandpaper (b) and (c). tion)

217
 ARMATURE
LATHE

FIG. 24-41 Relationship of ring gear to pinion gear of Ben-

dix drive. Incorrect alignment will cause poor meshing and
rapid tooth wear. (Kohler Company)

and brushes, lubricate the bushing and armature

shaft before putting the end cap back on. Coat the
bushing in the end cap and the end of the armature
shaft lightly with SAE 10 oil before installing the end
cap. Do not put on too much oil or it will get onto the
commutator and brushes and cause trouble.
When putting the end cap back on, make sure the
FIG. 24-38 Using a vise-mounted armature lathe to refinish
the commutator bars. brushes are lifted so they will allow the commutator
to pass under them. This can be done by pulling up
on the brush springs with needle-nose pliers as
shown in Fig. 24-34. After the cap is partly on, let the
springs down so the brushes will rest on the commu-
tator. The end cap can then be pushed on into place
and then through bolts installed to complete the
assembly.
COMMUTATOR COMMUTATOR
024-13 CHECKING THE BENDIX DRIVE To in-
spect the Bendix drive, remove the starter from the
START GROOVE IN MICA UNDERCUT MICA WITH
WITH THREE-CORNERED FILE PIECE OF HACKSAW BLADE
engine. If the drive pinion or splined sleeve is dam-
aged, the drive must be replaced. Do not lubricate the
Bendix drive. This can cause it to stick.
"¢ AO NES Se >
While the starter is off, check the ring gear on the
engine flywheel. If the teeth are battered or broken,
RIGHT WAY WRONG WAY
the ring gear should be replaced. One method of
replacing the ring gear is shown in Fig. 24-40. This
MICA MUST BE MICA MUST NOT BE ring gear is attached with rivets on the original as-
CUT AWAY CLEAN LEFT WITH A THIN EDGE
BETWEEN SEGMENTS NEXT TO SEGMENTS sembly. The rivets must be drilled out as follows:
FIG. 24-39 Undercutting the mica on the commutator. Mark the centers of the rivets with a center punch.
Then drill out the rivets with a 3/1e-inch drill. Clean
the holes after drilling out the rivets. Then attach the
new ring gear with the four screws and locknuts that
RING GEAR FLAT-
HEAD are supplied in the ring-gear kit.
SCREWS When reinstalling the starter on the engine, use the
special mounting bolts and lockwashers from the
original installation. These bolts provide the proper
alignment of the drive gear to the ring gear, as shown
in Fig. 24-41. Incorrect alignment can cause gear
clash and damage to the gears.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
FLYWHEEL (=) Lock NUT 1. What are the four types of mechanical starters
FIG. 24-40 Method of replacing ring gear in one modelsof for small engines?
small engine. The old ring gear is removed by drilling out
the attaching rivets, and then the new ring gear is attached 2. If the starter will crank the engine, is the starter
with screws and locknuts. (Briggs & Stratton Corporation) the cause of a starting problem?

218
 . What types of starters require the rope to be 13. What is the most common cause of burned
replaced periodically? commutator bars?

What type of starters have powerful springs in 14. Explain how to turn a commutator.
them?
15. Explain how to test an armature on a growler.
. Why must eye protection be worn when you are
16. Explain how to check the brushes.
working on certain types of starters?
. What is a vertical-pull starter? SELF PROJECTS

. If arope-rewind does not rewind the rope, what ibs Make a list of the tests to be made if the starting
probably has happened? motor does not turn over when starting is at-
tempted.
. If a windup starter unwinds as soon as you
release the windup handle, what probably has . List the conditions that might cause slow crank-
happened? ing.

. On belt-drive starters, why is it necessary to . If you can find defective starting motor parts,
check the belt regularly? examine them and decide what has caused the
defects. Burned commutator bars, grounded
10. What are the three basic starting-motor prob- field windings, loose conductor connections to
lems? the commutator bars, thrown armature wind-
iW A starting motor does not turn over: What are ings, and bent armature shafts are samples.
the five possible causes of the trouble? Write descriptions of the defects on tags, and
attach the tags to the defective parts. This is the
12. What is the checking procedure if the engine actual procedure used by the dealer to return
cranks slowly but does not start? defective parts to the factory under warranty.

219
 Chapter
Ignition Systems

025-1 TYPES OF IGNITION SYSTEMS A consid-

erable variety of ignition systems have been used
with internal-combustion engines. There are two
main categories: magneto ignition and battery igni-
After studying this chapter, you should be tion. The magneto ignition system is self-contained
able to: and needs no outside source of energy. However, the
battery ignition system gets its energy from the
1. List the types of ignition system used on lead-acid storage battery, which we covered in
small engines Chaps. 21 and 22.
There are certain variations of these basic ignition
Explain the purpose of the ignition system, systems, which we cover in this chapter. The earlier
and describe the components in the system magneto ignition systems use contact points (also
called breaker points, because they break a circuit).
. Describe the construction and operation of a A later type, called electronic ignition (EI), does not
magneto ignition system use contact points. Instead, this breakerless magneto
ignition system uses electronic devices which do the
same job as contact points. Another type of ignition
. Describe the two circuits in the ignition sys-
system is the capacitor-discharge ignition (CDI) sys-
tem and explain how they work
tem. It stores energy in a large capacitor, instead of
in a coil as do the other ignition systems.
. Explain the difference between the breaker-
Although some small engines use battery ignition
point ignition system and the electronic
systems, most use some type of magneto ignition
breakerless ignition system, and describe system.
how both systems work
O 25-2 PURPOSE OF THEIGNITION SYSTEM ‘The
Explain the difference between a breaker- ignition system supplies high-voltage surges (of up to
less ignition system and a_ capacitor- 35,000 volts in some systems) of current to the spark
discharge ignition (CDI) system plugs in the engine cylinders. These surges produce
electric sparks at the spark-plug gaps. The sparks
. Explain the purpose of the centrifugal- and ignite, or set fire to, the compressed air-fuel mixture
vacuum-advance mechanisms in the distrib- in the cylinders. When the engine is idling, the
utor and how these mechanisms work. sparks are timed to appear at the plug gap just as the
piston approaches top dead center at the end of com-
pressing the air-fuel mixture. On many engines,
there is an advance mechanism that moves the spark
ahead, or advances it, when the engine is running at
higher speeds. This gives the mixture enough time to
burn and deliver its power to the piston.
Variable-speed engines such as those used in auto-
mobiles, motorcycles, and many small-engine appli-
cations have ignition systems that do the following:

220
1. Produce sparks at the spark-plug gaps to ignite STATIONARY
COIL
the compressed air-fuel mixture in the cylinders. VOLTAGE
2. Advance the timing of the sparks as the engine
speed increases. The sparks are moved ahead
so the air-fuel mixture is ignited earlier in the
cycle.
3. Advance the timing when the engine is running
at part throttle, because there is less mixture in
the cylinders and it burns slower.
MOVING MAGNET
Small engines that run at constant speed do not
FIG. 25-1 When a magnet moves past a stationary coil of
have features 2 and 3. For example, a lawn mower wire, a voltage is induced in the coil.
that runs at a steady speed of 3000 rpm does not have
a speed and part-throttle advance mechanism be-
cause it does not need it.
CONDENSER
MAGNETO IGNITION SYSTEMS
HIGH-VOLTAGE
025-3 PRINCIPLES OF MAGNETO IGNITION A (SECONDARY) CABLE
magneto is an engine-driven device that generates BREAKER
its own primary current, transforms that current into POINTS
high-voltage surges, and delivers them to the proper
spark plugs. Some magnetos are built into the en-
gine. Others are separate units that are installed on
the outside of the engine. The internal type is usually
called a flywheel magneto, because the engine fly-
PRIMARY
wheel is an integral part of the magneto. Magnetos LEAD
can be classified in another way. They may be the
type with contact or breaker points or the type that
does not use contact points. But regardless of all FLYWHEEL
these differences, all magnetos work on the same
PERMANENT
basic principle. The principle is that movement of a MAGNETS
magnetic field past stationary conductors induces FIG. 25-2 Typical flywheel magneto ignition system.
voltage and a current flow in the conductors. (Kohler Company)
Figure 25-1 illustrates the principle. A stationary
coil of wire is positioned above a moving magnet. As
the magnet moves past the coil, it carries a magnetic
field through the coil. This produces a voltage in the
coil. If the coil is connected to an electric device, this
MAGNET
voltage would cause current to flow.

©O25-4 PRINCIPLES OF A CONTACT-POINT FLY-

WHEEL MAGNETO Figure 25-2 shows schematic-
ally a flywheel magneto using the principle illus-
trated in Fig. 25-1. The flywheel itself is shown
separately in Fig. 25-3. Figure 25-4 shows in cutaway
view how the magneto fits into the engine.
The coil shown in Fig. 25-4 consists of two wind-
ings: a primary winding of a relatively few turns of
heavy wire and a secondary winding of many turns of
fine wire. The primary winding works part of the
time, and the secondary winding works at another
time, as explained later.
Figure 25-5 is a wiring diagram of the primary cir-
cuit. It includes the coil of wire which is the primary
winding. The magnets move past this primary wind- FIG. 25-3 Magnet mounted in the rim of the engine fly-
ing when the flywheel rotates. Also included in the wheel. (Clinton Engine Corporation)

221
 MOVABLE
CONTACT
POINT

MAGNET
IN
FLYWHEEL

STATIONARY
BREAK CONTACT Nee
POINT POINT
FIG. 25-6 Contact point set for a small engine. (Kohler
Company)

nets are whirling past the coil primary winding. Volt-

age is induced and current flows in the coil when the
breaker points are closed. This current causes a
strong magnetic field to build up around the winding.
FLAT ON When the round part of the cam comes around under
CRANKSHAFT the plunger and the breaker points separate, the cur-
rent stops flowing. Now the magnetic field rapidly
collapses. ;
The capacitor (also called a condenser) aids this
rapid collapse of the magnetic field. The condenser
FIG. 25-4 Cutaway view of engine, showing location and contains two long strips of metal foil insulated from
construction of the magneto. (Briggs & Stratton Corporation) each other, as shown in Fig. 25-7. When the points
start to separate, the current would continue to flow,
causing a momentary arc between the points, if it
circuit is a pair of breaker points, as shown in
were not for the capacitor. But for a moment the ca-
Fig. 25-6. One of these points is on a lever, or arm.
pacitor provides a place for this current to flow. It acts
The other point is stationary. One end of the arm rests
somewhat like a check spring and brings the current
on a plunger which rides on a cam on the crankshaft.
to a quick stop. This produces the rapid magnetic-
This cam is round except for a flat spot. When the
field collapse.
crankshaft and cam rotate, the breaker points remain
closed all the time the plunger is riding on the flat
spot. Then the flat spot moves out from under the
plunger, and the round part of the cam moves in
under the plunger. When this happens, the plunger is
pushed up, and this causes the contact points to sep-
arate.
Now let us see how these actions can produce an
electric spark. When the engine is running, the mag-

PRIMARY
WINDING

GROUND

ON-OFF
SWITCH

POINTS CLOSED
FIG. 25-5 Wiring diagram for magneto ignition with cur- INSULATION
rent flowing through the primary circuit. (Lawn Boy Division FIG. 25-7 Condenser assembled and with the winding
of Outboard Marine Corporation) partly unwound.

222
 I
i|if
Surrounding the primary winding is a secondary UH, VA;

winding made of many thousands of turns of a fine YW LLL)

wire, as illustrated in Fig. 25-8. The magnetic field TERMINAL

|:
LL
pes
from the primary winding, in collapsing, moves rap- nt

iNN
idly through the secondary winding. Since this is a WH| LL

movement of a magnetic field through a conductor, a W\7 x N eZ 2772

i
D

i
voltage is induced in the secondary winding. And,
since there are many thousands of turns of wire in the
secondary winding, a high voltage is induced. aa
—F
The spark plug, shown in Fig. 25-9, is connected to a
the two ends of the secondary winding. One end is INSULATOR
connected through the metal of the engine (called lt
gy
SEAL
ground), and the other through a rubber-covered wire
(called the high-voltage lead). The voltage in the
secondary winding quickly goes up high enough to
cause a powerful spark to jump the gap between the
two spark-plug electrodes. One of these electrodes is
connected to the metal shell of the plug which is /~
f SH
Yaa
Gy
GG
Y
Hy
DY
screwed into the cylinder head of the engine. The
other is insulated by a porcelain shell in which it is SSWY
SS
(I
centered. The porcelain is breakable, just like glass.
SKA,
This is the reason that the center electrode must ie CENTER
never be bent when the spark-plug gap is adjusted. SS ELECTRODE
Only the outer electrode should be bent. If the center N
electrode is bent, the porcelain probably will be bro- WS
Le
GROUND
ken and the plug will be ruined. This is also the SPARK GAP——“—<‘(—————
= ——___
ELECTRODE
reason that the plug must be removed and installed
FIG. 25-9 Spark plug partly cut away to show construction.
with care. Improper handling will also break the por-
celain and ruin the plug.
Figure 25-10 shows, in end view, what happens result is the same. Part of the time the contact points
before and after the contact points separate. Figure are open. The rest of the time they are closed.
25-11 is a top view of a typical magneto. Notice the When the points are closed, current is flowing
arrangement of the coil, the contact points, and the through the primary circuit. When the points are
condenser. The magnets are curved so that, as the open, the current stops. The magnetic field around
flywheel rotates, they pass close to the coil. The the primary winding collapses, and this induces a
magneto shown in Fig. 25-10 uses a cam that has a high voltage in the secondary winding. When this
high spot or lobe instead of a flat spot (as in the happens, the high-voltage surge causes a spark at
magneto in Figs. 25-7 and 25-8). Also, the end of the the spark-plug gap.
movable contact-point arm rests on the cam so the An ON-OFF switch is used on many ignition sys-
arm moves when the lobe comes up under it. The tems to turn the engine off. Figure 25-8 shows one
type. When this switch is flipped so it is closed, it
SECONDARY WINDING grounds the contact-point end of the primary wind-
ing. Now current continues to flow in the primary
winding, and opening the points does not interrupt it.
[2 NORV. Ge |
As a result, no sparks occur and the engine stops. The
engine can also be stopped by a grounding blade
located near the spark plug which can be bent by
hand or foot to ground the insulated terminal of the
plug, as shown in Fig. 25-12. When this happens, the
current flows through the blade, and no spark occurs.
Figure 25-13 shows other types of stop switches. All
work the same way. They ground the coil primary so
POINTS OPEN that, even though current continues to flow in it, the
FIG. 25-8 Wiring diagram of a magneto ignition system magneto cannot produce a high voltage.
with breaker points open. Current has stopped flowing in
the primary circuit, and a high-voltage surge has been
025-5 EXTERNALMAGNETO Someengines have
induced in the secondary circuit to produce a spark at the
spark-plug gap in the cylinder. (Lawn Boy Division of Out- an externally mounted magneto, as shown in
board Marine Corporation) Fig. 25-14. The magneto rotor is driven through an

223
 PERMANENT MAGNETIC LINES CONDENSER eS POINTS
MAGNET OF FORCE
MOUNTING
PRIMARY COIL

LAMINATED
IRON CORE

IGNITION
SWITCH
(GROUNDING)

TERMINAL
POINTS FEET
CLOSED (a) OILER

2
SHUT-OFF
SECONDARY COIL SWITCH
LEAD SS
MAGNETIC LINES CRANKSHAFT
OF FORCE
FIG. 25-11 Top view of the magneto. (Lawn Boy Division of
Outboard Marine Corporation)
POINTS
OPEN
lines of force collapse very rapidly. The rapid move-
ment of the lines of force through both the primary
GROUND and secondary windings produces a high voltage in
the secondary winding. This voltage is high enough
PERMANENT to produce a strong spark at the spark-plug gap. The
MAGNET condenser does the same job here as in the other
magneto ignition system previously discussed.
The impulse coupling (Fig. 25-15) through which the
rotor shaft is driven is included to improve starting. It
does two things: First, it retards the ignition timing
for better starting during cranking. Second, it flips
SPARK PLUG the magneto rotor at the proper moment so that the
rotor spins very rapidly for a part turn and therefore
POINTS produces a stronger spark. The faster the magnetic
OPEN field from the magneto rotor moves through the lami-
CAM CONDENSER nated iron frame, the stronger the magnetic field
(c)
induced in the iron frame becomes and the higher the
voltage in the secondary winding goes. The impulse
FIG. 25-10 Operation of the flywheel magneto (a) as energy
builds up in the primary and (6) at the instant the points coupling produces this action through a delayed
separate. (c) The induced high voltage produces the spark. spring action. During cranking, spring tension builds
up during a part turn of the coupling and then re-
leases to spin the rotor ahead. The rotor turns part
impulse coupling, which will be explained later. As
the rotor spins, it produces a magnetic field in the
laminated iron frame on which the primary and sec-
ondary coils are wound. Each half turn of the mag-
netic rotor causes a complete reversal of the magnetic
field in the laminated iron frame. This, in turn, GROUNDING
causes magnetic lines of force to build up and col-
lapse through the primary and secondary windings.
Therefore, a flow of current is induced in the primary
winding all the time that the contact points are
closed.
When the current flow is at its greatest, the breaker
points are opened by the cam on the end of the rotor FIG. 25-12 Grounding blade near the spark plug used to
shaft. This stops the flow of current, and the magnetic stop the engine.

224
 DEPRESS AND
HOLD BUTTON
UNTIL ENGINE
COMPLETELY STOPPED PUSH KNOB IN
OR MOVE SWITCH
TO “OFF” POSITION

STOP SWITCH
FIG. 25-13 A stop button or a stop switch may be used to shut down
some engines. (Kohler Company)

IGNITION CABLE

OIL BATH
AIR CLEANER SPARK PLUG

MUFFLER

——. VARIABLE
VALVE TAPPET SPEED CONTROL
INSPECTION PLATE

CHOKE LEVER
(CLOSED) GOVERNOR SPRING

CARBURETOR
NEEDLE VALVE

CARBURETOR

MAGNETO
STOP SWITCH

TIMING
INSPECTION PLUG

MAGNETO

FIG. 25-14 An externally mounted magneto on a one-cylinder four-cycle

engine. (Wisconsin Motor Corporation)

225
STOP SWITCH SECONDARY
pA COIL SECONDARY COIL

AS Serre IMPULSE
u— SPARK PLUG > ais ~ \ COUPLING
Sh af
_Z

PRIMARY COIL bg
ie aS
lp
ml MAGNETO ROTOR iB A) )
| 4 Za MAGNETO
pans \\ | Y
‘Bp f= ROTOR
BREAKER ARM te GROUND BREAKER
Cr a. xt PARK ARM
Se x" LAMINATED ae
INO IRON FRAME
_} <iWw s >)Z CONDENSER :
“ty Sj” PERMANENT /
MAGNETS GROUND =
BREAKER POINTS BREAKER POINTS OPEN
CLOSED
(a) (b)
FIG. 25-15 Schematic view of an external-type magneto
ignition system. (a) Breaker points closed. (b) Breaker points secondary winding, it is sent to the spark plug in the
open. cylinder that is ready to fire.
way, stops momentarily until spring tension builds
up again, and is once more flipped ahead. After the 025-7 BREAKERLESS MAGNETO IGNITION SYS-
engine starts, the impulse coupling unlocks, owing to TEMS Today many small engines have magnetos
centrifugal action, so that it does not function. Now without contact points. Instead, electronic devices
the rotor turns steadily in time with the engine. take the place of contact points. These electronic
devices have no moving parts. As a result, the igni-
tion systems require less maintenance, because there
025-6 OTHER EXTERNAL MAGNETOS Figure
are no contact points to wear and require adjustment
25-16 is a schematic view of a magneto for a four-
and replacement. These electronic devices include
cylinder two-cycle outboard engine. Let us see how a
diodes, which are one-way electric valves, and tran-
magneto can feed high-voltage surges to the four
sistors, which are controlling devices that act like
spark plugs in the four cylinders of the engine.
switches.
There are several special features on this magneto.
In Fig. 25-16, notice that the magneto has two mag-
nets and a rotor. The rotor is made up of iron strips 025-8 DIODES AND TRANSISTORS In Chap. 20,
which carry magnetism very well. When the rotor we discussed electrons and explained that electric
aligns with a pair of unlike magnetic poles, as shown current is really electrons in motion. Keep that fact in
in Fig. 25-16, the magnetic field is strongest. At this mind as you study about diodes and transistors. Their
position, the points open. When the points open, the action depends on electron movement and also on the
magnetic field collapses, producing the high voltage absence of electrons.
in the coil secondary winding. When we talk about these electronic devices (di-
This magneto has two sets of breaker points which odes and transistors), we get into the solid-state
are operating in parallel. They are mounted at a 90° world of semiconductors. Solid state means that the
angle to each other. The two sets operate alternately diodes and transistors are solid with no moving parts
to make and break the primary circuit. The reason for (except electrons). Semiconductor means a material
using the two sets is that a single set could not oper- that is halfway between a conductor and a noncon-
ate fast enough to do the job at high engine speed. ductor.
For example, at 4000 engine rpm, 16,000 high-voltage The diode is a one-way valve for electric current
surges are needed each minute to fire the spark (Fig. 25-17). Current is allowed to pass through in one
plugs. One set of points could not operate that fast. direction, but is blocked should it try to flow in the
So the job is split between two sets. opposite direction. This control of the direction of
Notice also in Fig. 25-16 that the spark plugs are current flow is the job of the rectifier in many electric
connected to the secondary winding through a dis- circuits, and it is the job a diode can perform. Charg-
tributor. The distributor has a rotor that moves past ing systems with alternators use diodes. Alternators
four terminals as it turns. The center of the rotor is produce alternating current (ac). The diodes change
connected to the secondary winding of the coil. As the this to direct current (dc). Engine electrical systems
rotor turns, it connects to the four spark plugs through require dc, so the diodes work with the alternator to
the wiring. As a high-voltage surge is produced in the produce dc. The diode is shown in wiring diagrams

226
 CONDENSER
—>
BREAKER
CAM

SAFETY GAP DISTRIBUTOR PORT | STARBOARD

ROTOR

DISTRIBUTOR CAP
PRIMARY WINDING

SECONDARY WINDING

and the collector. But when a small current flows to

the base, a large current can flow between the emit-
ter and the collector. This is shown in Fig. 25-18.
The thyristor is a special sort of semiconductor de-
vice that is also called a silicon-controlled rectifier
(SCR). It is shown in wiring diagrams as in Fig. 25-19.
Current can flow between the cathode and anode in
one direction but not in the other. This is the same
way the diode acts. However, the thyristor differs
MAGNET POLE SHOES from a diode in two ways:
(SOUTH)
FIG. 25-16 Schematic diagram of the external magneto 1. Even though a voltage is applied across the
ignition system for a four-cylinder two-cycle outboard en- thyristor, no current will flow until a signal is
gine. (Johnson Motors Division of Outboard Marine Corpora-
tion)
received at the gate, or door. This means that no
current will flow until a small current flows in at
the gate. This is the reason it is called a gate.
as an arrow and a line perpendicular to the arrow
When the small current flows in at the gate, the
(Fig. 25-17).
gate opens to let a large current pass between
The transistor acts as an electric switch in which a
the cathode and anode.
small current flowing into one part can allow a large
current to pass through a different part. In this way, a 2. Once started, the current will continue to flow
transistor acts like an amplifier. Figure 25-18 shows between the cathode and anode even after the
the way a transistor is represented in a wiring dia- signal current to the gate stops. The current be-
gram. When no current flows to the base, no current tween the cathode and anode will continue to
can flow through the transistor between the emitter flow until the voltage on the cathode-to-anode is
removed or reversed. This characteristic makes
DIODE “yes! the thyristor perform an important job in the
BATTERY solid-state ignition system.

©O25-9 ADVANTAGES OF SOLID-STATE IGNITION

Electronic ignition, also called breakerless ignition
and solid-state ignition, does not use breaker points.
The points are replaced by electronic components
and circuits, as discussed in 0 25-7.
There is a reason for getting rid of the breaker
points. The primary current flows through the breaker
ALTERNATOR
points while they are closed. When the points open,
FIG. 25-17 Alternating current from an alternator can be
rectified, or changed to direct current, by a diode for charg-
the current tries to continue flowing. The result is an
ing a battery. A diode is shown as a heavy arrow and unwanted arc between the points. Ideally, the con-
rectangle in electrical diagrams. denser would control the arc and prevent it from

227
 TRANSISTOR
COLLECTOR EMITTER

NO CURRENT FLOW

0.35 AMP

| FIG. 25-18 (Top) When the switch is open, no current

4.5 AMPS 4.15 AMPS
flows. (Bottom) When the switch is closed, current
er oa eee ee ee flows.
CURRENT FLOW

burning up the contact-point faces prematurely. But is a difference in operation that puts it in a class by
the condenser can never completely eliminate the itself.
arc. Therefore, the points do burn away in normal All the ignition systems we have discussed so far in
service. Engineers reasoned that if the points could this chapter are inductive ignition systems. They all
be eliminated completely, much less ignition system operate by passing an electric current through the
maintenance would be required. New points would primary winding of the coil. Current flow through the
not have to be installed periodically. Only the spark winding causes a magnetic field to build up around
plug would require periodic service. the coil. That magnetic field is a method of energy
Another important benefit of not having points is storage. The primary energy that will later cause a
that ignition timing, once set, seldom if ever will spark to jump the spark-plug gap is stored in the
need adjustment. In the breaker-point ignition sys- magnetic field surrounding the coil. When it is the
tem, timing must be checked and reset fairly often. right time for a spark to fire the spark plug, the
This is because the wear on the rubbing block of the breaker points are opened. This stops the current flow
movable point causes the point gap to change. A through the primary winding. The magnetic field col-
change in point gap changes ignition timing. As the lapses almost instantly. This induces a high voltage
rubbing block wears, the point gap decreases. This in the secondary winding which, in turn, fires the
increases dwell, which retards the ignition timing. A
good rule to remember is that in normal service, as
point gap decreases, the dwell increases and timing CAPACITOR-
CHARGING TO DISTRIBUTOR
retards. Dwell is the number of degrees that the dis- TRANSFORMER AND SPARK PLUGS
tributor cam rotates while the breaker points are =
IGNITION
[ __
closed. DIODE THYRISTOR
Notice in the above discussion that capacitor-dis-
charge ignition (CDI) was not included. CDI certainly
is a type of solid-state or electronic ignition. But there |
|
|
CATHODE
BATTERY L
Ce
TRANSISTOR
H

= ELECTRONIC CONTROL UNIT

POINTS OR
GATE OTHER PICKURS =
FIG. 25-19 The symbol for a thyristor used on wiring dia- FIG. 25-20 A typical capacitor-discharge ignition (CDI)
grams. system for small engines. (Champion Spark Plug Company)

228
spark plug. This type of system is widely used on through the primary winding of the coil. As it does so,
engines that have breaker points. a magnetic field is induced in the secondary winding.
As the magnetic field builds up, the voltage across
025-10 CAPACITOR-DISCHARGE IGNITION SYS- the spark-plug gap increases rapidly, until the spark
TEM Probably the most commonly used solid-state occurs.
ignition system for small engines is CDI. Figure 25-20 The difference between the CDI system shown in
shows in schematic view a typical CDI system for Fig. 25-20 and the conventional induction-coil system
small engines. A capacitor plays an essential role in is that the spark at the plug occurs when the circuit is
its operation. This is not the sort of capacitor dis- closed. (Transistors are used in place of points in
cussed in © 25-4 and illustrated in Fig. 25-7. This is a most CDI systems today.) The spark occurs on the
much larger capacitor, because it must store more buildup of the magnetic field in the secondary wind-
energy (electric charge, or electrons). ing of the coil, and not on the collapse of the mag-
A capacitor-discharge ignition system stores its netic field. CDI is available for automobile engines
primary energy in a large capacitor, instead of stor- and is standard equipment on some small engines,
ing the primary energy in a magnetic field around the outboard engines, and motorcycles. Now, let us take
coil. When a spark is needed at the spark plug, the a look at how a CDI system works.
capacitor is discharged. The primary energy stored in Figure 25-21 is a schematic view of a CDI system for
the capacitor becomes a surge of current that flows a one-cylinder engine. It includes the magnet on the

PRIMARY
WINDING ALTERNATING
CURRENT FLOW DIRECT CURRENT
FLOW IGNITION
COIL
FRAME =a am.
cme DIODE A
LI ca
q | RECTIFIER o s =)2
q Ujaa .
=
SPARK
»~ Ud =a > PLUG
g
re >.
6)
CABLE
“
MAGNET § »

Apez ee:
FLYWHEEL
PRIMARY (fh
SECONDARY

CURRENT
FLOW

~ ate <A ne =
yy) Soe teeoo RR AAP
ae. A

TRANSISTORIZED
ZU Ni
SWITCH
™“~ TRIGGER COIL RESISTOR
(b)
FIG. 25-21 Schematic view of a solid-state ignition system. The tran-
sistorized switch is essentially a switching device that, when triggered,
allows a flow of current to pass through it or, when not triggered,
prevents a flow of current.

229
 DIODE 2

CAPACITOR

PRIMARY
SWITCH
WINDING

TRIGGER PRIMARY SECONDARY

COIL WINDING WINDING

IGNITION | PLUG

FIG. 25-22 Schematic drawing of a capacitor-discharge

ignition (CDI) system used on small engines. (Kohler Com- the thyristor. In the standard magneto (Fig. 25-10), the
pany) magnetic field from the primary winding builds up
comparatively slowly.
flywheel, as on the other type of magneto. However,
there is only one winding (the primary winding) in- ©25-11 OTHERCDISYSTEMS Figure 25-23 shows
stead of two on the iron frame. The rest of the circuit a CDI system which includes an alternator. The al-
is different, also. Figure 25-22 is the wiring diagram. ternator produces electric current to keep the battery
Refer to Figs. 25-21 and 25-22 as we explain how the charged. Charging systems are covered in Chap. 27.
system works. The primary winding that charges the capacitor is
When the magnet moves past the primary winding, installed in the alternator stator. The alternator stator
an alternating current is induced in the winding. This also includes windings which produce low-voltage
ac is changed to dc by the diodes so it can charge the ac. This low-voltage ac passes through the rectifier
capacitor. The electrical energy from the primary regulator, where it is changed to dc to charge the
winding is then stored in the capacitor. As the fly- battery.
wheel continues its rotation, the magnet passes the
trigger coil as shown in Fig. 25-21b. When this hap-
AC LEADS
pens, a small current is induced in the coil. This
current flows from the coil to the thyristor through the
(Cen
gate, as shown in Fig. 25-22. The thyristor is noncon-
ducting until it is activated by a small signal current
entering the gate. When the signal current from the HIGH-VOLTAGE LEAD
trigger coil reaches the gate, the thyristor becomes (To spark plug)

conducting. Then the energy stored in the capacitor is

IGNITION ine
i IGNITION
released. It surges through the primary winding of
the ignition coil. This quick burst of current produces ASSEMBLY See
a strong magnetic field. As the magnetic field builds
up, it produces a high voltage in the secondary wind- RECTIFIER-
REGULATOR ~ TRIGGER
ing of the ignition coil. This high voltage then causes MY ac MODULE
a high-voltage surge of current to flow from the sec- LEAD
ondary winding and across the spark-plug gap, pro-
ducing an electric spark.
One essential difference between the actions of the ALTERNATOR
primary and secondary windings in the standard STATOR
magneto and their actions in the CDI system can be
seen in Fig. 25-10. In the standard magneto, the high
voltage in the secondary winding occurs when the
magnetic field from the primary winding collapses. FLYWHEEL
However, in the CDI system, the high voltage in the - 12-VOLT BATTERY
secondary winding occurs when the magnetic field
FIG. 25-23 Schematic diagram of a solid-state ignition
from the primary winding builds up. The basic differ-
system for a small engine using a battery as the source of
ence here is that the buildup occurs very rapidly, power. This system also includes an alternator which pro-
owing to the capacitor’s sudden discharge through duces current to keep the battery charged.

230
 The ignition part of the system shown in Fig. 25-23 basic respects from the magneto ignition system.
works the same way as the CDI system previously First, in the battery ignition system, the current is
described and shown in Figs. 25-21 and 25-22. The supplied by a battery or alternator, just as in automo-
magneto CDI system is used in engines of varying tive ignition systems. Second, the ignition switch in
sizes, including those with six cylinders. the battery ignition system must be closed for the
While all CDI systems operate on the same general system to work. Figure 25-24 shows the wiring dia-
principles, many different arrangements of the com- gram of a small engine that uses a battery ignition
ponents are used. For further information on the op- system. Notice the absence of a flywheel magneto.
eration of a specific CDI system on an engine that you The battery ignition system uses a separate igni-
must service, refer to the shop manual for the engine. tion coil. It is wound similarly to the coil used in the
magneto. However, in the automotive-type coil the
BATTERY IGNITION SYSTEMS primary winding is connected to the secondary wind-
ing. This connection is shown in Fig. 25-25. The two
O 25-12 PRINCIPLES OF BATTERY IGNITION SYS- ignition systems are very similar except for the
TEMS The battery ignition system differs in two source of the primary current. Operation of the bat-
tery ignition system on a small engine is shown in
Figs. 25-26 and 25-27. Rotation of a cam causes the
VOLTAGE contact points to close and open. When the contact
REGULATOR
12 VOLT
points are closed, the primary winding of the ignition
BATTERY coil is connected to the battery. This allows current to
flow through the primary winding and build up a
strong magnetic field. Then, when the cam rotates so
that the lobe on the cam opens the contact points, the
'
current stops flowing in the primary winding. The
EXTERNAL |

magnetic field collapses, and this causes the second-

ACCESSORY STARTING
LOAD
SWITCH ary winding to produce a high-voltage surge. The
high voltage causes a spark at the spark plug which
ignites the compressed air-fuel mixture in the engine
AMMETER
DISCHARG BREAKER cylinder. Aiding in the quick collapse of the magnetic
CHARGE BOX field is the condenser. It protects the contact points by
providing a momentary place for the current to flow
IGNITION IGNITION as the contact points begin to separate. Otherwise,
SWITCH COIL
the current would tend to continue to flow and would
arc across the contact points, burning them. The con-
FIG. 25-24 Wiring diagram for an engine using a battery
ignition system. (Wisconsin Motor Corporation)

HIGH-VOLTAGE
LEAD Ny
=== PRIMARY CIRCUIT
mms, SECONDARY CIRCUIT
SPARK PLUG

:a
IGNITION
I bn
SWITCH
CONDENSER

iM
ai
PRIMARY-
| SECONDARY
{ BATTERY CONNECTION
f BREAKER
\SS ys IGNITION POINTS
es COIL

GROUND
——
=a

FIG. 25-25 Schematic drawing of a battery ignition system for small

engines. (Kohler Company)

231
 PRIMARY IGNITION SWITCH SECONDARY
(CLOSED)

BREAKER
CLOSED REGULATOR
MAGNETIC FIELD
BUILDS UP

FIG. 25-26 Schematic view of a battery ignition

system with the breaker points closed and current
flowing from the battery through the primary wind-
GROUND WIRE ing of the ignition coil.

denser prevents arcing and, at the same time, brings stops flowing and the magnetic field collapses,
the current flow to a quick stop. This hastens the thereby producing a high-voltage surge in the sec-
collapse of the magnetic field in the ignition coil and ondary winding of the ignition coil. This high-voltage
thereby increases the high voltage in the secondary surge passes through the center terminal of the dis-
winding. The job of the condenser is the same as in tributor cap, the rotor, and cable, to the spark plug in
the magneto ignition system. the cylinder ready to fire.
The ignition distributor closes and opens the pri-
025-13 DISTRIBUTORS ANDTIMERS _ Figure 25-28 mary circuit at the proper time, and it distributes the
shows the battery ignition system. The primary cir- resulting high-voltage surges from the ignition coil to
cuit consists of the battery, the contact points in the the proper spark plugs. Figure 25-29 shows the top
distributor, the primary winding in the ignition coil, and sectional views of a typical distributor in a bat-
the ignition switch, and the wiring. The secondary tery ignition system.
circuit includes the secondary winding in the ignition To sum up, the ignition distributor does two jobs.
coil, the distributor cap and rotor, the spark plugs, First, it closes and opens the circuit between the
and the connecting high-voltage cables. battery and the ignition coil. When the circuit closes,
When the contact points close, they connect the current flows in the ignition coil and builds up a
primary winding of the ignition coil to the battery. magnetic field. When the circuit opens, the magnetic
Current flows, and a magnetic field builds up around field in the coil collapses. The coil produces a high-
the coil. Then, when the contact points open, current voltage surge of current. The second job of the dis-

IGNITION

VOLTAGE
BREAKER REGULATOR
POINTS OPEN

STARTER
SWITCH
FIG. 25-27 Schematic view of a battery ignition
system with the contact points open. The collaps-
ing magnetic field in the ignition coil produces a
high voltage in the coil secondary winding, and
GROUND WIRE this causes a spark to occur at the spark plug.
 BATTERY
tributor is to distribute that high-voltage surge to the
correct spark plug at the correct time. It does this by
means of the distributor rotor and cap and secondary
wiring.
There are two basic types of distributors: (1) the
type using contact points to close and open the coil
primary circuit and (2) the type using a magnetic
pickup and an electronic control unit to interrupt the
current flow in the coil primary circuit. This second
type is used in electronic ignition systems. In this
chapter, we discuss the distributor with contact
points.
PRIMARY This distributor (Figs. 25-29 and 25-30) consists of a
IGNITION
WINDING housing, a drive shaft with breaker cam, an advance
mechanism, a breaker plate with contact points, and
SPARK a condenser, rotor, and cap. The shaft is driven by the
engine through gears, and it usually rotates at one-
half crankshaft speed. A typical mounting arrange-
LAMINATIONS ment is shown in Fig. 25-31. Note that this illustration
DISTRIBUTOR CAP shows a timer instead of a distributor. When battery
SECONDARY WINDING ignition is used on a one-cylinder engine, no voltage
DISTRIBUTOR
distribution is needed. The same spark plug fires
every time the points open. Therefore, the device that
FIG. 25-28 Primary and secondary circuits in the battery
ignition system. controls the time of the spark is called a timer.
Rotation of the distributor or timer shaft and breaker
cam causes the contact points to open and close. The

PRIMARY LEAD

CONTACT
ASSEMBLY

eqns 2

CIRCUIT BREAKER CENTRIFUGAL

PLATE ASSEMBLY : PERE ENE
= Lerepent Hi 5 Assematy
CONDENSER LUBRICATION lt
RESERVOIR i)
VACUUM j| ——nousine
UNIT

FIG. 25-29 Sectional and top views of an ignition distributor. In the top
view, the cap and rotor have been removed so that the breaker plate can
be seen. (Delco-Remy Division of General Motors Corporation)

233
 GROMMET

an «PRIMARY LEAD

HOLD DOWN
PLATE CAP

e©+— CAP CARBON BUTTON

7 ROTOR

Oo-— CAM FELT WICK

\ CONDENSER
SHAFT AND \
WEIGHT PLATE

ES «— SPACER WASHER

@— cear SHIM

CENTRIFUGAL-ADVANCE
MECHANISM

FIG. 25-30 Disassembled view of a small-engine distribu- center terminal of the distributor cap with each out-
tor. (Wisconsin Motor Corporation) side terminal. As the rotor turns, the high-voltage
surges from the coil are directed first to one spark
breaker cam usually has the same number of lobes as plug, then to another, and so on, according to the
there are cylinders in the engine. Notice the shape of firing order of the engine. Figure 25-33 shows this
the cam in the timer shown in Fig. 25-32. It has one action of distributing the high voltage from the coil
flat spot to provide point closing on a one-cylinder secondary winding to the spark plugs.
engine. The spark occurs as the points open, approx- In some ignition systems, the breaker cam has only
imately in the position shown in Fig. 25-32. The cam one-half as many lobes as engine cylinders. In these
rotates at one-half of the crankshaft speed. The con- systems, there are two sets of contact points that are
tact points close and open once with every breaker- arranged to close and open alternately. This pro-
cam rotation. Therefore, one high-voltage surge is duces the same effect as the breaker cam and con-
produced by the ignition coil for every two crankshaft tact-point arrangement discussed previously.
revolutions in a four-cycle engine.
The distributor rotor is not to be confused with the 025-14 SPARK ADVANCE Ignition timing refers
magneto rotor, which we discussed earlier. Figure to the adjustment of the distributor so that the breaker
25-29 shows one type of distributor rotor. The rotor points open at just the right moment. When the
rotates with the breaker cam on which it is mounted. breaker points open at the right moment, the high-
A metal spring and blade on the rotor connect the voltage surge arrives at the spark plug at just the

234
 ENGINE COIL
GEAR-HOUSING SECONDARY
FLANGE CLAMP-LEVER SCREW

DISTRIBUTOR
CAP

TIMER BODY
ROTOR

CONDENSER
DRIVE GEAR
FIG. 25-31 Ignition timer used on a one-cylinder four-cycle
engine that has battery ignition. (Wisconsin Motor Corpora- SPARK PLUG
tion)

right time. Ignition timing is adjusted by turning the

distributor in its mounting, as we will discuss in
Chap. 26. This adjustment shifts the position of the FIG. 25-33 Simplified illustration showing how the sec-
breaker points so that the cam lobe opens them at the ondary winding of the coil is connected, through the rotor in
proper moment. the distributor, to the spark plug.
When the engine is idling or running at slow speed,
the high-voltage surge is timed to arrive at the spark
pistons move up on the compression strokes, go past
plug before the piston reaches top dead center (TDC)
TDC, and start down in far less time when the engine
on the compression stroke. When the engine speeds
is running at high speed. However, the combustion
up, things happen much faster in the cylinders. The
process in the cylinder does not speed up the same
amount.
Some engines have fixed timing. The spark is set to
BREAKER POINTS JUST
BEGINNING TO OPEN occur at the best time for the normal operating speed
BREAKER GAP 0.020 INCH [0.51 mm] of the engine. With fixed timing, the engine is always
STATIONARY
timed at its maximum advance. This system is widely
CONTACT LOCKNUT used with single-cylinder small engines which nor-
mally operate at a fixed speed. However, in engines
operating at varying speeds, fixed timing is not sat-
isfactory. Some way is needed to advance the timing
according to the speed of the engine.
BREAKER ARM If the spark continued to appear at the spark plug at
the same time at high speed as at low speed, this is
what would happen: The spark would occur and com-
bustion would start, but the piston would be past TDC
RUBBING
and starting down again before the combustion pres-
BLOCK FE LT WICK
sure built up. The piston would move down so fast
that it would get ahead of the pressure rise. This
would mean a very weak push on the piston and a
TIMER SHAFT ROTATION low engine power at high speed. Most of the power in
CLOCKWISE
WHEN ENGINE IS SET TORUN, the burning fuel would be wasted.
ROTATE TIMER BODY To prevent this, some distributors have centrifu-
COUNTER-CLOCKWISE gal-advance mechanisms that advance, or push
APPROXIMATELY 5 DEGREES
ahead, the spark as the engine speed increases. You
FIG. 25-32 The cam in this timer has one flat spot to open
the points and provide ignition for a one-cylinder four-cycle
can see the advance mechanisms assembled in
engine. (Wisconsin Motor Corporation) Fig. 25-29. In Fig. 25-30, you can see the separate

235
parts of the advance mechanism. The parts include a
pair of distributor advance weights. These weights
are held by pivots on the base. The base is attached
to the distributor shaft, and together they are called
the main-shaft assembly or distributor-shaft assem-
bly. Both weights have advance springs, which hold
them in when the engine is idling. Figure 25-34 shows ADVANCE
the two extreme positions of the advance weights.
Figure 25-34 also shows the operation of the centrifu-
gal advance and how it affects the time the spark
occurs in the cylinders. At the top left, the engine
cylinder is shown in sectional view. The engine is
running at 1000 rpm. The spark is occurring at 8°
before the piston reaches TDC on the compression 900 1,806 2,700 3,600
stroke. This gives the compressed air-fuel mixture ENGINE RPM
enough time to start burning and develop high pres- FIG. 25-385 A typical centrifugal-advance curve.
sure.
At the top right in Fig. 25-34, the positions of the two
advance weights are shown. With the engine operat- the breaker-cam rubbing block earlier. The points are
ing at 1000 rpm, there is no advance. With no ad- opened earlier. As a result, the spark is advanced 20°
vance, the spark occurs at the point of initial timing, for a total advance of 28° (8 + 20 = 28) before TDC
in this case 8° before TDC. when the engine is running at 4000 engine rpm (2000
As the engine speed increases, the advance distributor rpm). This arrangement gives the com-
weights push out. Their inner ends push against the pressed mixture more time to burn and build up pres-
advance cam, which is free to turn on the upper end sure on the piston. Therefore, the energy in the fuel is
of the distributor shaft. As the advance cam turns, it used more efficiently.
pushes the breaker cam forward in the direction of Distributors are designed to provide different ad-
the rotation. Now the breaker-cam lobes move under vance curves for different engines. The spark is ad-
vanced by the centrifugal-advance mechanism just
the right amount for every engine speed. Some en-
ADVANCE SPRING gines need more advance than others, and the speeds
at which the advances occur differ. For example, the
SPARK AT 8° curve in Fig. 25-35 is the centrifugal-advance curve
BEFORE TOP
DEAD CENTER for one engine. It shows that the ignition starts with
an advance of 8° for any speed under 900 engine rpm
(450 distributor rpm). As the speed increases, the ad-
vance begins. At 2700 engine rpm (1350 distributor
rpm), the advance reaches 18° and is at a maximum
ADVANCE WEIGHTS of 23° at 3600 engine rpm (1800 distributor rpm).
NO ADVANCE Engineers design the shapes of the advance
weights and the advance cam so that the proper ad-
vance for the engine is attained. In doing this, they
take into consideration how the engine will be used
and at what operating speed it will run. No two
SPARK AT 28° makes of engines are exactly alike. This is why the
BEFORE TOP spark-advance curves are different for each engine.
DEAD CENTER:

025-15 VACUUM ADVANCE There is another

condition under which some engines require addi-
tional spark advance. The condition occurs when the
ADVANCED WEIGHTS engine is operating at part throttle. At part throttle,
MOVED OUT
less air-fuel mixture gets into the cylinders. There is
FULL CENTRIFUGAL ADVANCE less air-fuel mixture in the combustion chambers.
FIG. 25-34 Centrifugal-advance mechanism in the no- With less fuel, the mixture takes longer to burn after
advance and full-advance positions. In the typical example
it is ignited.
shown, the ignition is timed at 8° before TDC on idle. There
is no centrifugal advance at 1000 engine rpm, but there is a The problem is the same as before. If the mixture
total advance of 28° (20° centrifugal advance plus 8° due to burns more slowly, the piston will be past TDC and
original timing) at 4000 engine rpm. moving down before the mixture has a chance to burn

236
and produce high pressure. As a result much of the
energy in the fuel will be lost. The vacuum-advance TOTAL
mechanism is designed to prevent this loss. ADVANCE
You can see vacuum-advance mechanisms in
Figs. 25-29 and 25-36. The mechanism contains a flex-
ible diaphragm that is spring-loaded. The center of
the diaphragm is connected by a linkage to the
breaker plate, on which the breaker points are VACUUM
mounted. The breaker plate is supported on a bearing ADVANCE
so that the plate can rotate a few degrees one way or
the other. Now here is how the vacuum advance
works: ADVANCE
DEGREES
The sealed side of the diaphragm is connected by a CENTRIFUGAL
ADVANCE
tube to the carburetor. On some engines, when the
engine is idling, there is no vacuum advance. This is
because the throttle is closed, and the throttle valve
OPERATING
is below the vacuum passage in the carburetor air SPEED
horn.
When the throttle is partly open, the vacuum in the
intake manifold can work on the vacuum passage. ENGINE SPEED
The vacuum pulls the diaphragm in. This rotates the FIG. 25-37 Centrifugal- and vacuum-advance curves for
breaker plate a few degrees on its bearing. Therefore, one engine.

the cam lobes move under the rubbing block of the

movable point earlier. This opens the contact points air-fuel mixture is getting into the cylinders. In other
earlier so that the spark is advanced. words, vacuum advance occurs only during part
With a wide-open throttle, there is very little vac- throttle.
uum in the intake manifold. Therefore, there will be In a distributor equipped with both centrifugal ad-
no vacuum advance. Vacuum advance occurs when vance and vacuum advance, the two advances will
there is a vacuum in the intake manifold and less combine to give the total advance needed for any
operating condition. Centrifugal advance is based on
engine speed. Vacuum advance is based on intake-
manifold vacuum. Centrifugal advance always oc-
curs as the engine speed increases. But vacuum ad-
vance is determined by the position of the throttle and
the vacuum in the intake manifold.
A curve showing a typical combined advance is
shown in Fig. 25-37. The vacuum advance is shown
added to the centrifugal advance. In the example
shown by a black line, the centrifugal advance is 15°.
On top of this another 15° of vacuum advance is pos-
sible if the throttle is only partly open at the engine
speed indicated. The result is a total of 30° possible
advance.

025-16 PIEZOELECTRIC IGNITION The piezoe-

lectric ignition system does not use contact points, a
battery, a condenser, or an ignition coil. Its operation
depends on a peculiar property of some crystals.
When these crystals are squeezed in a certain man-
Sinn

_
ner, they produce a voltage on opposing faces. Such
AIAN) crystals are used in many microphones and phono-
graph pickups. In the phonograph pickup, for exam-
ple, the phonograph needle vibrates as it rides in the
record groove. This vibration is applied to a crystal,
FIG. 25-36 Operation of the vacuum-advance mechanism. and the crystal produces a varying voltage exactly
When the throttle valve swings past the opening, a vacuum
matching the variations of pressure caused by the
is admitted to the vacuum-advance mechanism on the dis-
tributor. The breaker plate is rotated to advance the spark. vibration. The voltage causes current to flow through
(Delco-Remy Division of General Motors Corporation) an amplifier and speaker so that sound is produced.

237
 CAM LOBE HIGH-VOLTAGE TERMINAL 5. How do you stop an engine that has a flywheel
LEVER magneto?
SPARK-PLUG 6. What is the difference between a flywheel
GAP
magneto and an external magneto?
7. What is an impulse coupling?

pies 8. Why do some engines use more than one set of

PIEZOELECTRIC breaker points?
CRYSTALS
9. What is a breakerless ignition system?

FIG. 25-38 Simplified schematic drawing of a piezoelectric

10 Explain the actions of a diode.
ignition system for a one-cylinder engine. 11. Explain the actions of a transistor.
12 Explain the actions of a thyristor.
The piezoelectric principle has been applied to
some single-cylinder engines used on lawn mowers. 18. How does wear of the breaker points affect ig-
There is a possibility that this principle will be devel- nition timing?
oped for use in multiple-cylinder engines. The system
14. What is a capacitor-discharge ignition system?
for the single-cylinder engine is illustrated in
Fig. 25-38. The cam is driven by the engine and has a 15. Does the electronic ignition system use contact
single lobe. At the proper time, the cam lobe comes points?
up under the lever, causing the lever to apply pres-
16. What are the two circuits through the contact-
sure to the two piezoelectric crystals contained in an
point type of ignition distributor?
insulating tube. The outer ends of the crystals are
grounded. The inner ends are connected to the high- 17. Explain how the starting and stopping of a flow
voltage terminal. This terminal is connected to the of current in the ignition-coil primary winding
spark plug. The pressure on the crystals causes them produces a high-voltage surge in the secondary
to produce a very high voltage of up to 20,000 volts or winding?
more. This high voltage causes a spark at the spark
18. Name the essential parts in the primary circuit.
plug.
A piezoelectric crystal can continue to supply 19. Name the essential parts in the secondary cir-
high-voltage surges in this manner almost indefi- cuit.
nitely. A simple way of thinking about the process is
20. Describe the cap and rotor action.
to consider that a crystal is composed of atoms, which
are formed into molecules. The atoms are made up 21. Explain the condenser effect.
partly of electrons and protons.
22. What are the two general types of spark-
These particles, which are negatively and posi-
advance mechanisms?
tively charged, are in an orderly arrangement in the
crystal. When pressure is applied, this orderly ar- 23. Describe the operation of the centrifugal-
rangement is disturbed. The molecules and atoms advance mechanism.
are pushed out of position. In effect, all are turned in
24. Describe the operation of the vacuum-advance
such a way that their negative sides point one way
mechanism.
and their positive sides point the other. Then they act
somewhat like battery cells connected in series. High 25. What is piezoelectric ignition?
voltages appear on the opposing faces of the crystal.
If these opposing faces are connected by an electric DELIPROJEC Tos
circuit, current will flow through the circuit.
1. Refer to the line drawings in the chapter show-
REVIEW QUESTIONS ing the primary and secondary circuits. Draw
your own versions of these circuits. Use different
. What is the purpose of the ignition system? colors for the different circuits and for the system
components. For example, you could use blue
What is a magneto?
for the secondary circuit, red for the primary,
Describe a flywheel magneto. and black for the components. File your draw-
ings in your notebook.
ND
oO
PrP In a flywheel-magneto ignition system that
uses contact points, does the spark occur at the 2. If you can find a discarded ignition coil and
spark plug as the points open or as the points condenser, take them apart. Use a hacksaw to
close? cut the top off the cans.

238
 26
Chapter
Ignition-System
Service

026-1 FLYWHEEL-MAGNETO — IGNITION-SYSTEM

SERVICE Without a good spark delivered to the
spark plug at the correct time, the engine will perform
poorly or not at all. Producing a good spark and de-
After studying this chapter, you should be livering it to the spark plug at the correct time depend
able to: on several factors. The contact points must be in good
condition and properly adjusted. The magneto stator
1. Demonstrate how to service a flywheel-mag- coils or ignition coil, condenser, wiring (particularly
neto ignition system the high-voltage lead to the spark plug), and connec-
tions must be in good condition. The spark plug also
Demonstrate how to replace and adjust must be clean and properly gapped. Now let us see
breaker points how to check these various components of the small-
engine magneto-ignition system. In Chap. 29, on
Demonstrate how to time the ignition troubleshooting small engines, we describe how to
diagnose troubles such as failure to start, lack of
. Describe how to check and service spark power, engine surging, loss of power as the engine
plugs runs, and irregular firing.

. Explain how to check the impulse coupling O26-2 CHECKING THE SPARK One of the checks
to be made is the spark test. To make it, disconnect
on an external magneto
the high-voltage lead from the spark plug. Pull back
the rubber boot on the spark plug to expose the metal
Demonstrate how to troubleshoot the battery
clip, or put a bolt into the boot to get a metal contact.
ignition system
Hold the metal clip or bolt about 3/16 inch [5 mm] from
the cylinder head and crank the engine, as shown in
List the three categories of ignition-system
Fig. 26-1. If strong sparks jump to the cylinder head,
failures the ignition system is probably working properly. If
no spark occurs, then the ignition system is probably
8. Demonstrate how to make the spark test at fault and it should be checked. Some causes of
trouble could be dirty or worn contact points, points
9. List the causes of pitted breaker points out of adjustment, a defective capacitor (condenser),
a defective high-voltage lead that lets voltage leak
off to ground, a defective ON-OFF switch, and a de-
fective magneto coil.
If a spark does jump from the bolt or clip to the
cylinder head, examine the spark plug to see if it can
deliver the spark to the engine. Remove the plug and
reattach the high-voltage lead to it. Lay or hold the
plug against the cylinder head as shown in Fig. 26-2,
and crank the engine. Watch for a spark at the plug

239
 If you do not get a spark on the spark test, then
check for the following:

1. Bad insulation or poor connections in the wiring

2. A grounded ignition switch which prevents the
opening of the primary circuit so that primary
current is not interrupted when the contact
points open

be A shorted condenser, which would have the

same effect as a grounded ignition switch
SPARK-PLUG
BOOT ~ 4. A magneto coil that is shorted, open, or
grounded so it cannot produce high voltage
BOLT
FIG. 26-1 Check the ignition system by disconnecting the 5. A loss of magnetism in permanent magnets on
high-voltage lead from the spark plug and putting a bolt the flywheel or in the external magneto rotor
into it to get metal contact. Hold the lead with the bolt in it
about 3/16 inch [5 mm] from the cylinder head while crank- 6. Contact points that are dirty, worn, or out of
ing the engine. (Lawn Boy Division of Outboard Marine adjustment
Corporation)
If the engine backfires or kicks back when starting,
gap. If no spark jumps, the spark plug is probably at
the breaker-point gap may be too wide, causing
fault. Examine it for cracks, black sooty deposits on
ignition to occur too early in the compression stroke.
the porcelain or electrodes, burned electrodes, or a
When this happens, the resulting increase in pres-
wide gap (Fig. 26-3). Any of these could prevent a
sure forces the piston back down before it can reach
good spark. Spark-plug service is covered in detail
TDC. An early spark will also cause detonation when
ie 20-7 ;
the engine is running. The remedy is to reset the
A refinement of this test uses a special spark tester.
timing. On some magnetos, the only adjustment is to
To use the tester, remove the spark plug lead and
change the breaker-point opening. On others, you
connect it to the tester, as shown in Fig. 26-4. Ground
can also move the breaker plate to change the timing.
the electrode of the tester that gives 0.166-inch [4.22-
mm] gap, and crank the engine. If a good spark jumps
the gap, the ignition system is working properly. 026-3 CHECKING INTERNAL-MAGNETO POINTS
If the engine runs but misses, check the ignition On many engines, to check the breaker points in a
system by inserting the tester between the spark-plug flywheel magneto, you must remove the flywheel. On
lead and the spark plug. Run the engine and care- other engines, the breaker points are mounted in an
fully watch the spark at the tester gap. If the spark is external breaker box, as discussed later.
not regular and steady, there is trouble in the ignition
system. The points, wiring, and coil should be
CAUTION: To prevent accidental starting, always
checked.
disconnect the spark-plug wire from the spark plug
when working on the engine.

First, if the engine has a rope-rewind or a windup

starter, remove the starter assembly. On some en-
gines with an electric starter-generator, the flywheel
will have a stub shaft on which the drive pulley
mounts. This stub shaft must be removed. Then the
flywheel shroud must be removed so you can get at
the flywheel.
Next, remove the flywheel attaching nut. Some of
these nuts have right-hand threads, and some have
left-hand threads. You can usually determine which
is which by considering the normal rotation of the
engine. If the flywheel turns clockwise while you are
SPARK
PLUG
cranking it, then the nut has a right-hand thread.
FIG. 26-2 Checking the plug for a spark. Hold the plug by
Cranking the engine tends to tighten the nut. If the
the rubber boot. Do not hold the plug. (Lawn Boy Division a nut has a left-hand thread, then turning the flywheel
Outboard Marine Corporation) will tend to loosen the nut.

240
 SPLASHED DEPOSITS

Spotted deposits. Occurs shortly

NORMAL after long-delayed tune-up. After
a long period of misfiring, deposits
Brown to grayish tan color and may be loosened when normal
slight electrode wear. Correct heat combustion temperatures are
range for engine and operating restored by tune-up. During a
conditions. high-speed run, these materials
shed off the piston and head and
are thrown against the hot
insulator.

RECOMMENDATION: Clean and service the plugs properly

and reinstall.

HIGH-SPEED GLAZING

CARBON DEPOSITS Insulator has yellowish, varnish-

like color. Indicates combustion
Dry soot. chamber temperatures have
risen suddenly during hard, fast
acceleration. Normal deposits
do not get a chance to blow off,
instead they melt to forma
conductive coating.

RECOMMENDATION: Dry deposits indicate rich mixture or

weak ignition. Check for clogged air cleaner, high float level,
sticky choke,or worn breaker contacts. Hotter plugs will RECOMMENDATION: If condition recurs, use plug type one
temporarily provide additional fouling protection. step colder.

MODIFIER DEPOSITS

Powdery white or yellow

OIL DEPOSITS deposits that build up on shell,
insulator, and electrodes. This is
Oily coating. a normal appearance with certain
branded fuels. These materials
are used to modify the chemical
nature of the deposits to lessen
misfire tendencies.

RECOMMENDATION: Caused by poor oil control. Oil is leaking

past worn valve guides or piston rings into the combustion
chamber. Hotter spark plug may temporarily relieve problem, RECOMMENDATION: Plugs can be cleaned or, if replaced,
but positive cure is to correct the condition with necessary repairs. use same heat range.

PREIGNITION
TOO HOT
Melted electrodes. Center
Blistered, white insulator, eroded electrode generally melts first
electrodes and absence of deposits. and ground electrode follows.
Normally, insulators are white,
but may be dirty due to mis-
firing or flying debris in combus-
tion chamber

RECOMMENDATION: Check for correct plug heat range,

overadvanced ignition timing, cooling system level and/or
stoppages, lean air-fuel mixtures, leaking intake manifold, RECOMMENDATION: Check for correct plug heat range,
sticking valves, and if car is driven at high speeds most of overadvanced ignition timing, lean fuel mixtures, clogged cooling
the time. system, leaking intake manifold, and lack of lubrication.

FIG. 26-3 Appearance of spark plugs related to causes of

spark-plug conditions. (Champion Spark Plug Company) Next, remove the flywheel from the crankshaft.
There are several ways of doing this. If the shaft is
tapered, you can install a nut on the threads, turning
You will need a wrench to fit the nut and some it down so that the threads on the end of the shaft are
means of holding the flywheel. Figure 26-5 shows one almost exposed. Then rap the nut with a soft hammer,
holder in use while the nut is being loosened. Other as shown in Fig. 26-7. The nut takes the blow and
types of holders are available. You also can use a protects the threads on the shaft. Some manufactur-
wooden block, as shown in Fig. 26-6. The engine must ers supply a special puller which serves the same
be solidly mounted when a wood block is used. On purpose as the nut but provides better protection for
some engines, it is possible to loosen the flywheel nut the threads. Figure 26-8 shows this puller in use. It is
by tapping the wrench sharply with a soft hammer turned down on the threads until it is about !/16 inch
(plastic, lead, or brass-headed). [1.6 mm] from the flywheel. Then the puller is given a

241
 0.008 INCH [0.20 mm]
SPARK-PLUG

0.166 INCH
[4.22 mm]

CYLINDER-HEAD
FIN

FIG. 26-7 One way to loosen the flywheel from a tapered

shaft.
FIG. 26-4 Checking the spark with a special spark-gap
tester. (Briggs & Stratton Corporation)

SOCKET WRENCH

FIG. 26-8 Using a special flywheel knockout puller to

loosen the flywheel from the shaft. (Tecumseh Products
Company)

FLYWHEEL
HOLDER sharp rap with a soft hammer. One or two raps with
the hammer on the nut or puller should loosen the
flywheel. However, too much hammering can weaken
FIG. 26-5 Removing the flywheel attaching nut while the permanent magnets and also might damage the
holding the flywheel with a special holder. (Tecumseh crankshaft bearings.
Products Company) If the shaft is not tapered, then you will need to use
a different sort of flywheel puller. A pressure-screw
puller has threads which gradually pull the flywheel
off the shaft (Fig. 26-9). Attach the puller with screws.
Then turn the handle. The pressure screw rests on the
end of the shaft. As the screw is turned down in the
puller, the flywheel is pulled loose from the shaft.
There are other kinds of pullers. Figure 26-10 shows
another type that uses self-tapping screws.
When removing the flywheel, do not drop it or han-
dle it roughly. You can knock most of the magnetism
WOOD _,| !
out of the permanent magnets with rough treatment.
BLOCK
TO TIGHTEN—
CS =)
Heat from a welder or cutting torch also can take the
magnetism out of magnets.
FIG. 26-6 The nuts on larger flywheels can be loosened by
holding the flywheel with a block of wood, as shown. On some engines with internal points, the points
(Briggs & Stratton Corporation) are protected by a breaker-point dust cover, as shown

242
 HANDLE 026-4 BREAKER-POINT SERVICE The breaker
points have a stationary point and a movable point
PRESSURE- _ on a contact arm. The design and arrangement of the
SCREW points vary with different engines. On some engines,
PULLER the stationary point is on the end of the condenser.
On others, it is mounted on a bracket. The breaker
arm, on which the movable point is mounted, is piv-
oted so that it can move the point up against or away
from the stationary point. There are various arrange-
ments to move the contact arm. Figures 26-12 to 26-14
show three arrangements. Regardless of the method,
when the high point, or lobe, of the cam comes
FIG. 26-9 Using a screw-thread puller to remove the fly-
wheel from the shaft. (Tecumseh Products Company)
RUBBING
BLOCK

1. FASTEN FLYWHEEL PULLER TO FLYWHEEL CAM LOBE

WITH TWO SELF-TAPPING SCREWS

2. TURN DOWN THESE TWO NUTS TO

LOOSEN FLYWHEEL
BREAKER-POINT
SPRING CRANKSHAFT

PIVOT POST
BREAKER
POINTS OPEN
FIG. 26-12 Arrangement with breaker points being opened
by a cam working directly on the breaker lever.

FIG. 26-10 Using self-tapping screws to remove the fly-

wheel from the crankshaft. (Briggs & Stratton Corporation)

ies
Ze aw ff /SEALER

YZ
CLOSING

0|
SPRING
nae REAKER- PUSH ROD
: a CD FIG. 26-13 With this arrangement, the cam works a push
COVER @ rod which actuates the lever to open the points.

TRIP LEVER

FIG. 26-11 The breaker-point cover, also called the dust

cover. (Briggs & Stratton Corporation)

in Fig. 26-11. Remove this cover carefully. If it is bent

during removal, it will not seal on reassembly and a
new cover will be required. Note that the place where
the leads come out from under the cover is sealed.
This seal is made with nonhardening Permatex or a
similar sealer when the cover is replaced. A poor seal
around the rim of the cover or at the leads will allow FIG. 26-14 With this arrangement, the cam operates a trip
dirt to get on the contact points. The points will burn lever which actuates the lever on which one contact is
and require early replacement. mounted.

243
around under the rubbing block (as shown in Fig. 26-
BREAKER
12), the push rod or plunger (shown in Fig. 26-13), or
the trip lever (shown in Fig. 26-14), the contact arm is
moved and the contact points separate. The cam is on
the crankshaft on two-cycle engines. On some four-
cycle engines, the cam is on the camshaft.

Cleaning Points Once the contact points are exposed

by removal of the flywheel and the dust cover (where
present), examine them for oxidation or pits. If they
are only slightly burned or pitted, they can be
cleaned with an ignition file, as shown in Fig..26-15.
It is not necessary to file the points until they are
smooth. Just remove the worst of the high spots. Blow
out all dust after cleaning the contacts. Pull a strip of FIG. 26-16 On this design, the breaker-point assembly is
clean bond paper between the points (with points removed by loosening the screw holding the post. The con-
closed) to remove the last traces of filings. denser, with stationary point, is removed separately by
Never use emery cloth or sandpaper to clean the loosening the condenser-clamp screw. (Briggs & Stratton
Corporation)
points. Particles of emery or sand will embed in the
points and cause erratic operation and possible point
burning. plunger should be checked for wear. If the plunger is
worn and too short, replace it with a new plunger. Be
Installing New Points If the points are badly burned, sure the plunger is installed correctly. _
worn, or pitted, they should be replaced. Severe On the type of breaker arm that uses a rubbing
burning of the points could be due to a defective block, as shown in Fig. 26-12, check for rubbing-block
condenser, improper adjustment, or oil on the contact wear. As the rubbing block wears, it changes the
surfaces. Check for these conditions before replacing breaker-point opening and also can change the
the points. Various methods of attaching the station- timing.
ary point and breaker arm are used. On one type, the Examine the breaker cam for wear. Some cams on
point assembly is removed by removing the con- two-cycle engines are integral with the crankshatt. If
denser wire from the breaker-point clip and then they are badly worn, the crankshaft must be re-
loosening the adjusting lock screw so the assembly placed. On other engines, the cam is a separate col-
can be slipped off. On the type shown in Fig. 26-16, lar locked to the crankshaft by a key. On these, the
the breaker arm is removed by loosening the screw cam can be replaced if it is worn.
holding the post in position. The stationary contact is Check for a leaky crankshaft seal. A leaky seal will
on the condenser and is removed along with the allow oil to get on the breaker points so that they
condenser by loosening the condenser-clamp screw. would burn rapidly. It should be replaced.
On engines which use a push rod or plunger to After removing the old points, install the new
operate the breaker arm, the engine manufacturer points, carefully noting the proper relationship, as
recommends a check of the plunger and plunger hole shown in Figs. 26-12 to 26-16. Then check the point
whenever the contact points are removed. A plug opening and adjust it as necessary. Finally, check the
gauge is used to check the hole for wear. If the hole is ignition timing.
enlarged, it will allow oil to enter the breaker-point
compartment where it will get on the points and Adjusting Points To adjust the breaker points, first
cause them to burn. If the hole is worn, it must be make sure that they are properly aligned. Figure
reamed out and a special bushing installed. The 26-17 shows the right and wrong ways to align points.
Usually, the points are properly aligned and no ad-
justment is required. However, if new points are mis-
aligned, adjust them by slightly bending the bracket
supporting the stationary point.
The point opening is a critical adjustment. If it is
excessive, ignition timing can be too advanced. This
can cause engine backfiring on starting, as well as
detonation when the engine is running.
To adjust the point opening, turn the crankshaft in
the direction of normal rotation until the cam opens
FIG. 26-15 The breaker points can be cleaned with a con- the points to the widest position. Then use a feeler
tact file. gauge of the proper thickness to measure the gap

244
 SCREWDRIVER
HERE TO MOVE
CONTACT CONDENSER
AREA BACKWARD
CENTERED
KEYWAY IN CRANKSHAFT

CORRECT
Ye
SCREWDRIVER
ALIGNMENT HERE TO MOVE
CONDENSER
FORWARD
CONTACT
AREA NOT CONDENSER
CENTERED
CONDENSER
CLAMP SCREW

MISALIGNMENT
OF CENTERS

@Eé
®
CONTACT POINT BRACKET
FIG. 26-19 With this arrangement, the point opening is
adjusted by shifting the condenser one way or the other.
CONTACT (Briggs & Stratton Corporation)
AREA NOT
CENTERED
the proper point opening. Then the lock screw is
tightened.
MISALIGNMENT
OF POINT FACES Another point arrangement is shown in Fig. 26-19.
FIG. 26-17 Correct and incorrect alignment of breaker With this arrangement, the stationary point is
points. mounted on the end of the condenser. To make the
adjustment, the condenser-clamp screw is loosened
slightly. Then the condenser is shifted one way or the
between the points (Fig. 26-18). Make sure the feeler
other with the screwdriver to get the proper point
gauge is clean so you do not get oil or dirt on the
opening.
points. The thickness of the feeler gauge selected to
In the arrangement shown in Fig. 26-20, the sta-
make the measurement varies with different engines.
tionary point is mounted on a bracket. The lock screw
Always check the specifications for the engine being
must be loosened to shift the bracket as necessary to
checked.
get the proper point opening. Then the lock screw is
Adjustments are made in different ways according
tightened.
to the method of point attachment. On some magne-
tos, the adjustment is made as shown in Fig. 26-18.
O26-5 TIMING THE IGNITION To time the igni-
The lock screw holding the bracket on which the sta-
tion means to make an adjustment that will cause the
tionary point is mounted is loosened slightly. Then a
spark to occur at exactly the right time before the
screwdriver is inserted into the slot and twisted to
piston reaches TDC on compression. This starts the
move the stationary point the correct amount to get
ignition process at the correct moment so that maxi-
mum power will be realized on the power stroke. If
the timing is early, the engine will backfire on start-

EFEEERER contact |_|

GAUGE BRACKET
ASSEMBLY

CONTACT
BRACKET
ADJUSTING

FIG. 26-20 In this magneto, the point opening is adjusted

FIG. 26-18 Typical magneto breaker-point adjustment. by loosening the lock screw and shifting the bracket on
(Tecumseh Products Company) which the stationary point is mounted.

245
ing and detonate when running. If the timing is late, engines. After installing the points (1), align them
the power stroke will be weak, because ignition will using the special tool shown to bend the stationary-
not start until after the piston has begun to move point support (2). Then measure the point opening
down on the power stroke. and adjust it as required (3). Next, clean the points
Various methods of timing the ignition are used. On with lint-free paper (4), and use a timing tool or rule to
many engines, ignition can be timed either with the locate the TDC position of the piston, as shown at (5)
engine not running (static timing) or with the engine and (6). Back off the piston by turning the crankshaft
running. backwards (7). Find the timing dimensions in the
The sequence shown in Fig. 26-21 shows the static manufacturer's specifications, and adjust the tool to
ignition-timing procedure for many small two-cycle that dimension. Then tighten the thumb screw to lock

POINT-
ALIGNING

ae

LINT-FREE PAPER

of PS
7. BACK OFF ROTATION 8. FIND BTDC (TIMING DIMENSION 9. APPLY DIMENSION TO TOOL
(OPPOSITE NORMAL SPECIFICATIONS)
RUNNING ROTATION)

UNTIL PISTON
HEAD JUST
TOUCHES
PLUNGER

10. BRING UP ON STROKE 11. INSTALL TIMING LIGHT 12. ROTATE STATOR UNTIL
(NORMAL RUNNING (OR USE CELLOPHANE) POINTS JUST OPEN
ROTATION)
FIG. 26-21 The complete sequence of actions to time one line of
two-cycle engines. (Tecumseh Products Company)

246
 ARMATURE
9,010 TO 0.014 INCH

&
TIMING [0.25 TO 0.36 mm]
LIGHT MOUNTING
BRACKET a,
ye

FIG. 26-24 The correct armature air gap is set on this

TIMING model by shifting the armature up or down as necessary.
MARK (Briggs & Stratton Corporation)
FIG. 26-22 Using a stroboscopic timing light to time the
ignition. (Kohler Company)
Some engines have timing marks on the armature
mounting bracket and flywheel, as shown in Fig. 26-
the dimension, as shown in (8) and (9). Next, slowly 23. To time the ignition on these engines, remove the
rotate the crankshaft in the normal running direction flywheel, set the points to the proper opening, install
until the piston touches the bottom of the tool (10). the flywheel, and run the nut on finger-tight. Then
Then install a test light, connected across the contact rotate the flywheel in the running direction until the
points (11). With the stator hold-down screws loos- points are just opening. Next, take off the flywheel,
ened slightly, shift the stator as shown in (12) until the being very careful not to move the crankshaft. Note
points just open. When this occurs, the light goes out. the positions of the arrows. If they do not align,
Tighten the hold-down screws. As an alternative, you slightly loosen the mounting screws holding the ar-
can use a strip of thin cellophane between the points, mature bracket to the engine cylinder. Slip the fly-
and this will fall out as the points separate. After wheel back on the crankshaft, using the key to get
completing the timing, install lead, cover, flywheel, correct alignment. Install the flywheel nut finger-
and lower housing. tight.
Figure 26-22 shows how to time a running engine by Now move the armature and bracket assembly to
using a timing light. The timing light is connected to align the arrows. Remove the flywheel and tighten
the spark-plug cable. Each time the plug fires, a the armature-bracket mounting screws. Install the
momentary flash of light is produced by the timing flywheel, with the key, and tighten the nut to the
light. During the timing operation, the light is di- specified torque. Finally, set the armature air gap to
rected to a hole in the engine case through which the the proper specifications, as shown in Fig. 26-24.
flywheel can be seen. The flywheel has a timing Loosen the two armature attaching screws, and move
mark on it that should align with a mark on the case the armature up or down as necessary. A simple way
when the timing is correct. If the marks do not align, to set the proper air gap is to put a postcard between
adjustment is made by loosening the point-opening the armature and the flywheel. Set the armature
adjusting screw. Then shift the breaker plate with a down against the postcard. Then tighten the attach-
screwdriver, as shown to the right in Fig. 26-22. When ing screws and remove the postcard.
the marks align, tighten the breaker-plate screw.
Ignition timing is checked and set with the engine ©26-6 CHECKING MAGNETO PARTS _ Besides the
running at a specified speed. For the engine shown in breaker points, other components of the magneto
Fig. 26-22, the specified speed is 1200 to 1800 revolu- which need to be checked are the magnets on the
tions per minute (rpm). flywheel, the magneto coil, and the condenser. A
coil-condenser tester used to test automotive-type
ARMATURE MOUNTING ignition coils will also test magneto coils. The con-
BRACKET denser is checked for capacity, insulation resistance,
shorts or grounds, and high series resistance. If the
condenser does not meet specifications on any of
these tests, it should be replaced.
The magneto coil should be inspected for damage
and tested on a coil tester. If the coil fails to meet
specifications, it should be replaced.
The magnets on the flywheel can be tested to see
FLYWHEEL SY®2 MOUNTING SCREWS whether they are still strong enough to produce ade-
["
quate magnetism. One test is to lay the flywheel on a
FIG. 26-23 The timing marks or arrows on the armature
mounting bracket and flywheel. (Briggs & Stratton Corpora-
flat wooden surface and hold a screwdriver about 1
tion) inch [25 mm] from the magnets, as shown in Fig. 26-

247
 must travel is long, then the plug will run hot. If it is
short, the plug will run cool.
Spark plugs have a tough job. They take ie re-
peated high-voltage surges that produce the sparks,
as well as the tremendous heat and pressure pulses
when ignition takes place. Yet they will work satis-
factorily for many hours. Plugs in small engines
should be checked and serviced or replaced periodic-
MAGNETS
ally in order to maintain top engine performance.
There are spark-plug cleaners which will clean the
plug with a blast of abrasive sand against the elec-
trodes and porcelain interior (Fig. 26-27). The spark
plug is put into the cleaner. The cleaner sends a blast
of grit against the electrodes and insulator to clean
them. Some manufacturers, however, warn against
FIG. 26-25 Testing the strength of the flywheel magnets. using a sand-blast spark-plug cleaner and void the
(Tecumseh Products Company) warranty on their engine if a sand-blasted spark plug
is installed in it. Their reasoning is that it is difficult
25. The magnets should be strong enough to pull the to remove all traces of sand and that an engine can
tip of the screwdriver into them. If the magnets are be ruined by only a little sand in it.
weak, they should be replaced or remagnetized on a You can also clean deposits out of the plug with a
special magnetizer. Alnico magnets cannot be re- small-bladed knife, as shown in Fig. 26-28. Be careful
charged and must be replaced with new magnets if to avoid damaging the porcelain insulator surround-
the old ones have lost strength. Never store flywheels ing the center electrode and to remove all traces of
in nested piles. This can cause the magnets to lose sand or loosened deposits.
their strength. You can tell from its appearance whether a plug is
of the correct heat range for the application. Figure
© 26-7 SPARK-PLUG SERVICE Spark plugs may 26-3 illustrates several spark-plug conditions and ex-
fail for a variety of reasons. They are subjected to plains their causes. If a plug is operating too cold,
high temperatures, high pressures, and high volt- there will be a sooty deposit on the insulator around
ages. Spark plugs must withstand these conditions the center electrode. If the plug is not hot enough, it
and must also operate at the proper temperature. Ifa cannot keep this deposit burned away. Even with a
plug becomes too hot, it will wear rapidly and may plug of the heat range specified for the engine, a
burn. If it does not become hot enough, it may foul, deposit may form if (1) the air-fuel mixture is exces-
since oil and fuel soot or carbon may deposit on it. If sively rich (from excessive choking, worn carburetor
enough material is deposited, then the high-voltage jets, and so on) or (2) excessive amounts of oil enter
current will leak to ground through the deposit in- the combustion chamber (due to such conditions as
stead of jumping the spark gap. Then the plug will worn rings or cylinder walls, excessive intake-
not fire and the engine will miss. valve-stem clearance, and incorrect oil-fuel mixture).
The temperature the plug reaches is governed by In such cases, a hotter plug would help prevent for-
the heat range of the plug. Heat range is a function of mation of excessive deposits on the plug. But it would
the shape of the plug and the distance heat must not cure the basic trouble with the engine.
travel from the center electrode of the plug to reach If the plug runs too hot, a white or grayish cast will
the cylinder head (Fig. 26-26). If the path that the heat appear on the insulator, and the insulator may also
appear blistered. A plug that runs hot will wear more
rapidly. The electrodes will burn away more rapidly.
One cause of high plug temperature, aside from im-
proper heat range, is incorrect installation of the plug
in the engine. If the plug is not tightened to the cor-
rect torque, the plug gasket will not be sufficiently
compressed. When this happens, the heat path is
restricted. Therefore, the plug will run hotter. High
temperature may result also if the plug seat in the
cylinder head is not cleaned before the plug is in-
HOT PLUG COLD PLUG stalled. Dirt could block off the heat path and cause a
FIG. 26-26 The heat range of spark plugs. The longer the hot-running plug. On some engines, the plugs do not
heat path (indicated by the arrows), the hotter the plug runs. use gaskets. The seating faces (on plug and head)
(AC Spark Plug Division of General Motors Corporation) must be clean and smooth to form a good seal and

248
FIG. 26-27 Spark-plug cleaner and tester. (Champion
Spark Plug Company) clue as to what causes various kinds of plug trouble
so that you can make corrections. If the old plug is in
doubtful condition, however, the high cost of labor
heat path. Cracked insulators usually are caused by
and the relatively low cost of spark plugs has caused
careless installation or by improper adjustment of the
many service technicians to recommend installing a
plug gap. new plug, rather than trying to service the old plug.
After cleaning the plug, regap it. Measure the gap
between the electrodes. Do not use a flat gauge, be-
©O26-8 SERVICE OF EXTERNALLY MOUNTED MAG-
cause this would result in too great a gap. Figure
NETOS In normal service, magnetos should not
26-29 shows how to check and adjust the spark-plug
need adjustment. They are properly adjusted before
gap.
the engine is shipped from the factory. However, the
If you are having plug trouble, refer to Fig. 26-3 to
magneto is often blamed for almost any engine prob-
diagnose the cause. This illustration will give you a
lem. Before the magneto is condemned and steps are
undertaken to adjust or repair it, be sure that the
problem really is with the magneto.

ROUND WIRE GAUGE

A DJUSTING SPARK-
PLUG GAP

FIG. 26-28 Cleaning carbon from the spark-plug shell with FIG. 26-29 Using a round wire gauge and adjusting tool to
a sharp knife. adjust the spark-plug gap.

249
 COIL
If the points are slightly pitted, clean the points with
an ignition file. Severely pitted points must be re-
CONDENSER placed.
Any time the contact points are filed, the point
MEASURE BREAKER opening must be reset. Check the specifications for
POINT GAP WHEN
OPEN. ADJUST TO the engine you are servicing. Many externally
0.015 INCH [0.38 mm] mounted magnetos for small engines use a 0.015-inch
[0.38-mm] point opening. To set the point opening,
BREAKER ARM crank the engine until the points are wide open on the
high part of the magneto cam lobe. Then loosen the
lock screws with a screwdriver until the contact plate
can be moved. Place the blade of the screwdriver in
CONTACT PLATE
LOCKING SCREWS
the adjusting slot, shown in Fig. 26-30. Move the con-
ADJUSTING SLOT tact plate until the proper clearance can be measured
FIG. 26-30 The end view of an externally mounted mag- with a feeler gauge between the open contact points.
neto with the end cap removed. (Wisconsin Motor Corpora- Then tighten the locking screws. After tightening the
tion) plate, make a quick check of the point opening to
make certain that it did not change as the plate was
A quick check of a magneto is to perform the spark tightened.
test. Remove the spark-plug cable from the spark When the contact points are badly pitted or worn,
plug, and hold the metal terminal about 3/16 inch they must be replaced. Contact points should be re-
[5 mm] from the cylinder head. Then crank the engine placed as a set. Replace both the movable point and
at least two complete revolutions and watch for a the stationary point at the same time. To replace
strong spark. Most externally mounted magnetos use the points, first remove the spring-contact screw
an impulse coupling, so the spark should occur at the (Fig. 26-31). Then remove the breaker-arm lock and
instant the impulse coupling snaps. On a multicylin- washer, and lift the breaker arm off of the pivot post.
der engine, repeat this test with each spark-plug With a screwdriver, remove the two lock screws from
cable. If there is no spark or a weak spark, the the breaker plate. Remove the stationary point, and
breaker points in the magneto must be checked. wipe the distributor plate clean with a cloth.
To check the breaker points, first remove the mag- Install the points and adjust the point opening, as
neto end cover, or cap. See Fig. 26-30. If the contact discussed earlier. In many magnetos a wick is used
points are dirty, clean them with solvent and a cloth. to lubricate the cam. Replace the cam wick with a

GASKET MAGNETO
SURFACE FRAME

WICK
COVER NO. 1 NO. 2 SPRING-
HIGH- HIGH- CONTACT
VOLTAGE VOLTAGE SCREW
CONTACT CONTACT

POINT
GAP
(a) END CAP 0.015 INCH
[0.38 mm] BREAKER-ARM
LOCK
TIMING
SLOT

(b) MAGNETO
FIG. 26-31 The magneto for a two-cylinder four-cycle engine, with end
cap removed. (Kohler Company)

250
new one. Lubricate the wick with the recommended magneto, insert the spark-plug cable in the No. 1
type of oil or grease if specified in the operator's tower of the magneto cap. Then hold the metal clip at
manual. the other end of the spark-plug wire close to the metal
When the magneto end cap or cover has been re- frame of the magneto. Turn the magneto gear in its
moved, it must be replaced carefully. The magneto is normal direction of rotation until a spark jumps from
a sealed unit. This is one reason for its reputation as the No. 1 spark-plug cable to the magneto. This is the
having a long, trouble-free life. To properly reseal the No. 1 cylinder firing position. Holding the magneto
end cover, clean the surface on the cover and on the drive gear in this position, install the magneto, mak-
magneto frame. Then install the end cover, using a ing sure that the magneto flange gasket is in place.
new gasket. Some manufacturers recommend sealing Be sure to mesh the gears so that the marked tooth is
the end cover with a gasket sealer such as Permatex. properly positioned. Then tighten the magneto to the
Do not overtighten the cover screws, as the cover may gear cover. Check the ignition system by turning the
crack. No other service of the magneto is recom- crankshaft and checking for a spark by making a
mended. However, the coil and condenser can be spark test. Then start the engine. On some engines,
checked with a coil-condenser tester. after the magneto is installed and the engine is run-
ning, the timing and the spark advance are checked
026-9 TIMING THE MAGNETO Many externally with a timing light (Fig. 26-22). If required, the timing
mounted magnetos have the drive gear mounted at is adjusted to specifications.
the end of the rotor shaft on the impulse coupling To change the timing, loosen the bolts holding the
(Fig. 26-32). To replace the drive gear on certain mag- magneto to the engine. Then shift the position of the
netos, the following procedure must be followed to magneto until the timing mark is properly positioned.
avoid installing the gear 180° off. Remove the end In Fig. 26-33, there is a timing slot in the magneto for
cover and turn the rotor until it is in the No. 1 cylinder this purpose. Shifting the magneto in the direction
firing position. This is shown in the right part of that the drive gear and shaft are rotating retards the
Fig. 26-32. Notice that the drive gear has a punch timing. Moving the magneto in the opposite direction
mark on one gear tooth. Place the drive gear on the to its rotation advances the timing. When the timing
impulse-coupling lugs with the punch mark located is correct, tighten the mounting bolts.
as shown in the left part of Fig. 26-32.
When the magneto has been removed from the 026-10 TROUBLESHOOTING THE BATTERY IGNI-
engine, the magneto must be properly timed during TION SYSTEM In this part of the chapter, you will
installation. Remove the screws holding the flywheel learn the various causes of battery-ignition-system
air-intake screen in place, and remove the screen troubles.
from the engine. With the screen off, you can see the Ignition system failures can be grouped into three
timing marks on the flywheel and shroud. Remove categories as follows:
the spark plug from the No. 1 cylinder. Slowly crank
the engine while holding a finger over the spark-plug
1. Loss of energy in the primary circuit. This, in
hole. When you feel air blowing from the hole, stop
turn, may be caused by several conditions:
turning the engine. Now, very slowly, turn the engine
a. Resistance in the primary circuit due to de-
until the timing marks align. Then reinstall the spark
fective leads, bad connections, burned distrib-
plug. utor contact points or switch, or open-coil
To determine the No. 1 cylinder firing position of the
primary winding
b. Points not properly set
PLACE DISTRIBUTOR ROTOR IN c. Discharged battery or defective alternator
FIRING d. Defective condenser (shorted, low insulation
POSITION resistance, or high series resistance)
FOR
NO. 1 e. Grounded primary circuit in coil, wiring, or
CYLINDER distributor
f. Defective electronic control unit or pickup-
THEN
coil circuit
MOUNT GEAR
2. Loss of energy in the secondary circuit. Possible
causes areas follows:
a. Plugs fouled, broken, or out of adjustment
b. Defective high-voltage wiring which allows
POSITION high-voltage leaks
DRIVE
GEAR
c. High-voltage leakage across coil head, dis-
The marking and position of the drive gear on
tributor cap, or rotor
FIG. 26-32
the magneto rotor shaft. (Wisconsin Motor Corporation) d. Defective connections in high-voltage circuits

251
 SIMULTANEOUS- DISTRIBUTOR-
FIRING-TYPE MAGNETO TYPE MAGNETO

DIRECTION
OF SHAFT
ROTATION

DIRECTION
OF SHAFT
ROTATION

RETARD TIMING
ADVANCE TIMING
FIG. 26-33 (a) Shift the magneto opposite the direction of
its rotor rotation to advance the timing. (b) Shift the mag-
Engine Cranks Normally but Will Not Start If the
neto in the direction of rotor rotation to retard the timing.
(Kohler Company) engine can be cranked at normal cranking speed but
will not start, the trouble is probably in the ignition
system or the fuel system. First, test the ignition sys-
3. Out-of-time ignition. Possible causes are as fol- tem by trying the spark test. Disconnect the lead from
lows: one spark plug. Hold the lead clip about 3/16 inch
a. Timing not set properly [5 mm] from the engine block while cranking the en-
b. Distributor bearing or shaft worn, or shaft gine, as shown in Fig. 26-34. Another way is to pull
bent the lead from the center terminal of the distributor
c. Centrifugal advance defective cap and hold it close to the engine block. If a good
d. Preignition, due to spark plugs of wrong heat spark jumps to the block, the chances are that the
range, fouled spark plugs, etc. primary and secondary circuits are in good condition.
These circuits must both function normally to produce
Table 26-1 is a troubleshooting chart which lists a good spark. If they do, then failure to start could be
(1) various ignition-system troubles and possible en- due to badly fouled spark plugs or out-of-time igni-
gine troubles that might originate in the ignition sys- tion. However, many other conditions including
tem, (2) possible causes of these various troubles, and faulty fuel-system action, malfunctioning valves, and
(3) checks or corrections to be made. loss of engine compression could prevent normal
There are several quick checks that can be made starting. Failure to start with normal cranking usu-
when certain types of troubles occur. These quick ally is due to trouble in the ignition or fuel
checks often immediately indicate the cause of trou- system.
ble. However, it may be necessary to use special test One condition that sometimes prevents starting on
instruments to find the cause. If an oscilloscope is humid or rainy days is that of moisture collecting on
available and the engine can be started, the oscillo- the spark-plug insulators. The moisture allows the
scope can pinpoint many trouble causes in the igni-
tion system. Often the first step in finding the source
HIGH-VOLTAGE CABLE FROM COIL
of the problem will be to recharge the battery, since
the operator may have run it down in a vain attempt
to start. Quick checks to be made and causes and
corrections of various ignition troubles are described
below.
ENGINE BLOCK

© 26-11 FINDING SOME BATTERY-IGNITION- ae /

TROUBLE CAUSES Now let us examine in detail
the various troubles and their causes listed in the
troubleshooting chart. Some of these troubles can FIG. 26-34 Make a spark test by holding the high-voltage
occur only in multicylinder engines. cable about 3/16 inch [5 mm] from the engine block.

252
TABLE 26-1 BATTERY-IGNITION-SYSTEM TROUBLESHOOTING CHART
Condition Possible Cause Check or Correction

1. Engine cranks normally but will . Open primary circuit Check connections, coil, contact
not start points, and switch for open
. Coil primary grounded Replace coil
. Points not opening Adjust
. Points burned Clean or replace
Out of time Check and adjust timing
Condensor defective Replace
. Coil secondary open or grounded Replace coil
roan
ra. High-voltage leakage Check coil head, distributor cap,
rotor, and leads
Spark plugs fouled Clean and adjust or replace
Nola,
beda Defects in electronic control unit or Replace defective part
pickup-coil circuit
. Fuel system faulty Check
Engine faulty Repair engine
2. Engine runs but misses—one . Defective spark plug Clean or replace
cylinder . Distributor cap or lead defective Replace
. Engine defects such as stuck Repair engine
valve, defective rings, piston, gas-
ket
3. Engine runs but misses— . Points dirty, worn, or out of adjust- Clean, replace, or adjust as necessary
different cylinders ment
. Condenser defective Replace
Advance mechanism defective Repair or replace distributor
. Defective high-voltage wiring Replace
. Defective (weak) coil Replace
Bad connections Clean and tighten connections
a . High-voltage leakage
OL
aie
OF
ma,
Qroaacn Check coil head, distributor cap,
rotor, and leads
. Defective spark plugs Clean, adjust, or replace
Defective fuel system Check
ar Defects in engine such as loss of
Ge Repair engine
compression or faulty valve action
4. Engine lacks power . Timing off Retime ignition
. Exhaust system clogged Clear
. Excessive load resistance Check load
Heavy engine oil Use correct oil
Wrong fuel Use correct fuel
Engine overheats See item 5
. Other defects listed under item 3
5. Engine overheats . Late ignition timing Retime ignition
Qito
gals
sa. Lack of coolant or other trouble in See previous chapter on cooling sys-
cooling system tems
Q . Late valve timing or other engine Repair engine
conditions
6. Engine backfires . Ignition timing off Retime ignition
. Ignition cross-firing Check high-voltage wiring, cap, and
rotor for leakage points
. Spark plugs of wrong heat range Install correct plugs
. Engine overheating See item 5
. Fuel system not supplying proper Check as explained in previous les-
air-fuel ratio son
Engine defects such as hot valves Repair engine
or carbon

253
a LE

TABLE 26-1 BATTERY-IGNITION-SYSTEM TROUBLESHOOTING CHART (Continued)

ee

Condition Possible Cause Check or Correction

7. Engine detonates or pings a. Improper timing Retime engine

b. Advance mechanisms faulty Rebuild or replace distributor
c. Points out of adjustment Readjust
d. Distributor bearing worn or shaft Rebuild or replace distributor
bent
e. Spark plugs of wrong heat range Replace with correct plugs
f. Low-octane fuel Use fuel of proper octane
g. Conditions listed under item 6
8. Rapid wear of centrifugal- a. Loose or. worn valve-timing gears Repair
advance mechanism b. Worn oil pump Repair
9. Pitted contact points a. Transfer of point Buildup on positive point: install new
condenser with higher capacity;
separate leads or move closer to
ground; shorten condenser lead.
Buildup on negative point: install
new condenser with lower capacity;
move leads closer together or away
from ground; lengthen condenser
lead
10. Burned or oxidized contact points a. Excessive resistance in condenser Tighten condenser mounting and con-
circuit nection; replace condenser if bad
b. High voltage Readjust voltage regulator
c. Excessive dwell, too little gap Reset contact points
d. Weak spring tension Adjust contact-spring tension
e. Oil or crankcase vapors entering Check engine PCV system; avoid
distributor overlubricating distributor
11. Spark plug defective a. Cracked insulator Install new plug
b. Spark plug sooty Install hotter plug; correct condition in
fuel system or engine causing high
fuel consumption
c. Spark white or gray, with blistered Install cooler plug
insulator

high-voltage current to leak to ground instead of most likely is in the secondary and is due toa
jumping the spark gap. No ignition occurs, and the defective coil secondary, defective secondary
engine will not start. However, if the moisture is connections or leads, or high-voltage leakage
wiped from the spark-plug insulators, a normal start across the coil head, cap, or rotor. Also, an open
usually can be made. or “weak” condenser could be preventing high-
Another way of checking for a spark is to remove voltage buildup in the secondary.
the distributor cap and snap the contact points open If the ammeter shows a fairly high and steady
and closed. The ignition switch should be on, and the discharge reading with no fluctuations during
lead from the coil high-voltage terminal should be cranking, then the trouble is probably in the
held close to the engine block. This check does not primary circuit. Either the points are not opening
test the distributor drive or the secondary wiring. because they are out of adjustment or the con-
If a spark does not occur when the spark test is denser is grounded, or else the primary circuit is
made, it means the ignition system is not doing its job grounded in the coil or primary winding.
of producing high voltage. Make the following addi- If there is no ammeter reading, the primary cir-
tional test, watching the instrument-panel ammeter cuit is open. The open could be due to a loose
while cranking. If the engine does not have an am- connection, defective wiring or switch, distribu-
meter, connect a test ammeter into the ignition pri- tor contact points out of adjustment or burned, or
mary circuit to make this test. an open coil primary. A voltmeter can be used to
find the open by checking from various termi-
1. If there is a small reading which fluctuates nals in the primary to ground to see where volt-
somewhat during cranking, then the primary age is available. If there is voltage here, the
circuit is probably in good condition. The trouble trouble is inside the distributor. If there is no

254
 voltage at the distributor primary-lead terminal could be due to defective cable insulation or to a
on the coil, check from the other ignition-coil cracked or burned distributor cap. Either of these
primary terminal to ground. If you now get a conditions could allow high-voltage leakage to
reading, the trouble is in the coil primary wind- ground. But, if a good spark occurs, then it could be
ing. If you get no reading, the trouble is in the that the spark plug is defective. Install a new plug. If
wiring or the switch. Disassemble the switch the cylinder now performs normally, the trouble was
extension if the coil has one, so that the coil and a defective plug. If changing the plug does not help,
switch may be checked separately. then the trouble is in the engine cylinder (stuck valve,
defective rings, piston, head gasket, and so on).
Engine Runs but Misses—One Cylinder You can lo-
cate a missing cylinder on a multicylinder engine. Engine Runs but Misses—Different Cylinders If the
Use a screwdriver to short out each cylinder spark miss seems to jump around and you cannot pin it
plug in turn with the engine running at various down to any particular cylinder, the trouble could be
speeds (Fig. 26-35). The screwdriver should have an due to any of several conditions in the ignition sys-
insulated handle so that you do not get shocked. tem, fuel system, or engine. The distributor contact
Short out the spark plug by putting the screwdriver points could be worn, dirty, or out of adjustment. The
from the spark-plug terminal to the cylinder block. condenser or ignition coil could be “weak,” so that the
This prevents a spark from occurring in the spark spark would not be uniform and erratic missing
plug and causes the cylinder to miss. would occur. The advance mechanisms might be er-
On some engines, the spark plugs have neoprene ratic in action and thus cause uneven timing and
boots over the spark-plug terminals. It is difficult to missing. Distributors with the breaker plate sup-
short out these plugs. Instead, remove the cables ported by balls running in a ball track in the distribu-
from the distributor cap one by one and note any tor housing may have the following troubles: the ball
change in engine speed. If the engine rhythm or track may wear, or the balls may get dirty or worn.
speed changes when the plug is shorted out or its This causes the breaker plate to hang up or tilt when
circuit is opened, then that cylinder was delivering the vacuum-advance mechanism operates, which
power before being shorted out. However, if no then causes a momentary erratic miss.
change in the operation of the engine is noted when a Bad ignition-circuit connections or defective wiring
spark plug is shorted out or its circuit is opened, then can also cause missing. If high-voltage leakage oc-
the cylinder is not delivering power. It is missing. curs across the coil head, distributor cap, or rotor, or
If you locate a missing cylinder, remove the lead if there is leakage through secondary-wiring insula-
from the spark plug, with the other cylinders operat- tion, missing may occur. Long-continued leakage
ing, and hold it close to the engine block to see if a across the coil head or the rotor will etch a visible
good spark occurs. If it does not, the cause of trouble path. If this occurs, the part will require replacement.
is in the secondary circuit of the ignition system. It Otherwise, wiping dirt from the part and keeping it
clean and dry will prevent such leakage. If the insu-
lation on the secondary wiring has deteriorated or is

CUA cracked or rotting, it may allow high-voltage leak-

age. This condition requires replacement of the wir-

J
ing.
TOUCH SCREWDRIVER Installing a coil with incorrect connections so that

Ly}
SHANK ON ENGINE
AND SPARK-PLUG the secondary polarity is reversed could increase the
TERMINAL voltage requirements so much that missing would
result. The reversed connections mean that the elec-
trons must jump from the relatively cool outer elec-
HIGH-VOLTAGE CABLE
trode to the center electrode. This requires a consid-
erably higher secondary voltage and increases the
possibility of engine missing, especially at high
speeds. Normally, the coil is connected so that the
electrons jump from the hot center electrode to the
SPARK PLUG
cooler outer electrode. With the emitting electrode
hot, voltage requirements are considerably lower.
To test for reversed polarity, hold an ordinary pen-
cil tip between the high-voltage-wire clip and the
spark-plug terminal, as shown in Fig. 26-36. The
ENGINE
CYLINDER HEAD spark should flare out between the pencil tip and the
FIG. 26-35 Use a screwdriver to short out each spark plug spark plug. If the spark flares out between the pencil
in turn. tip and the wire clip, the polarity is reversed. Another

259
 there are many other conditions that will cause deto-
PENCIL
Via
nation in the engine. These include excessively ad-
vanced timing, faulty advance mechanisms which
cause excessive advance, out-of-adjustment points,
SPAR K- distributor bearing worn or shaft bent which causes
PLUG excessive advance to some cylinders, spark plugs of
CABLE wrong heat range which glow and cause preignition,
and so on. Other causes of detonation or ping include
fuel with an octane rating too low for the engine and
type of operation, excessive carbon in the engine
CORRECT INCORRECT combustion chambers, and conditions listed previ-
POLARITY POLARITY ously under “Engine Backfires.” Of all these condi-
FIG. 26-36 Using a pencil tip to check the polarity of the tions, the most usual causes of pinging are excessive
ignition coil. If the flare is between the pencil tip and the ignition advance and gasoline with an octane rating
high-voltage-lead clip, and not as shown, the coil is con-
nected backwards. (Champion Spark Plug Company)
too low for the engine and operating conditions.
There are other kinds of engine knock, not caused
by ignition problems. For example, worn bearings,
test is to connect a neon bulb (NE-2 or similar)
cylinders, and pistons can cause various kinds of
between the spark-plug terminal and ground. With
mechanical knock in an engine.
the engine running, the end of the neon bulb con-
nected to the spark-plug terminal should glow. If the
end connected to ground glows, the polarity is re- Rapid Wear of Centrifugal-Advance Mechanism
versed. Rapid wear of the centrifugal-advance mechanism
Worn or fouled spark plugs will miss, especially will occur on certain engines as a result of loose or
during a heavy load or on acceleration. Many other worn valve-timing gears or a worn oil pump. Either of
conditions in the engine and fuel system could cause these conditions causes backlash and torsional vi-
missing. If the fuel system fails to deliver an air-fuel bration in the distributor drive. This, in turn, wears
mixture of.the proper proportions, or if the engine has the centrifugal-advance mechanism rapidly.
faulty valve action or loss of compression, missing
will occur. Pitted Contact Points Some arcing across the contact
points will occur in spite of condenser action. Under
Engine Lacks Power Many conditions can cause lack some conditions, this arcing may cause point pitting.
of power. With the timing off or with any of the condi- Pitting is due to the transfer of point material from
tions discussed previously under “Engine Runs but one contact to the other. A pit is left in one contact,
Misses,” the engine will not deliver normal power. In and there is a matching buildup of material on the
addition, if the exhaust system is clogged, if heavy other contact. Normally, the system is balanced, so
engine oil or the wrong fuel is being used, or if there pitting is at a minimum. But, under certain unusual
is excessive load resistance due to a dragging gener- conditions, it will occur. To correct point pitting if the
ator-set armature, then the engine will seem sluggish negative point loses material with the buildup on the
and lacking in power. positive point, one or more of the following steps
should be taken:
Engine Overheats Engine overheating may be
caused by many conditions in the engine cooling
1. Install a new condenser with a higher capacity.
system or in the engine itself. It can also be caused
by late ignition timing. 2. Separate the low- and high-voltage leads or
move these leads closer to ground. This reduces
Engine Backfires Backfiring can be caused by sev- the capacity effect between these leads.
eral conditions in the ignition system. If the ignition
3. Shorten the condenser lead if possible.
timing is considerably off or if ignition cross-firing
occurs as a result of spark jumpover from one termi-
nal or spark-plug lead to another, ignition may result If the positive point loses material, the buildup is
before the intake valve closes. This causes a back- on the negative point. To correct this condition, install
fire. a new condenser with a lower capacity, move the
If a spark plug runs too hot, it may glow enough to leads closer together or away from ground, or
ignite the air-fuel mixture before the intake valve lengthen the condenser lead.
closes. Install a colder spark plug.
Burned or Oxidized Contact Points Burning or oxidiz-
Engine Detonates or Pings Spark knock (detonation ing of contact points can be caused by several condi-
or ping) often is blamed on the ignition system. But tions: .

256
 . Excessive resistance in the condenser circuit. 8. Explain how to set the timing on a two-cycle
This is detectable with a high-frequency con- engine.
denser tester. The condition is corrected by ei-
. Why is the armature air gap important?
oo
ther tightening the condenser mounting and
connections or replacing the condenser, accord- 10. What is the typical armature air gap specifica-
ing to where the resistance is. tion?
. High voltage, which causes excessive current 11. How can you make a quick check of the mag-
draw through the points. This can be detected by nets in the flywheel?
making a voltmeter check with the engine oper-
12. What is a timing light?
ating at medium speed. Correction may require
adjustment of the voltage-regulator setting or 13. Explain how to connect a timing light to a small
reduction of alternator output. engine.

. Dwell too large, point opening too small. If 14, What is spark-plug heat range?
points remain closed for too long a period of total
15. What could happen to a two-cycle engine if too
operating time, they burn rapidly. This possibil-
hot a spark plug is run in it?
ity requires checking the dwell or point opening,
and adjusting as necessary. 16. Explain the steps in cleaning a spark plug.
. Weak point-spring tension, which causes the Wes Explain how to gap a spark plug.
points to flutter, bounce, and arc at high speeds.
18. What is an externally-mounted magneto?
Measure the spring tension and adjust or re-
place the points. 19. How is the timing adjusted on an engine with
an externally mounted magneto?
. Oil or crankcase vapors entering the distributor
housing and depositing on the point surfaces, 20. What are the three categories of battery-
causing them to burn rapidly. A look at the ignition-system failures?
breaker plate usually discloses this condition.
2l. What is dwell?
The oil on the point surfaces (as it burns) causes
a black smudge on the breaker plate under the 22. What happens to dwell when the breaker-point
point. A clogged engine crankcase ventilating gap is changed?
system which forces oil into the distributor, ex-
23. What happens to the ignition timing when the
cessive oiling of the distributor, or worn distrib-
breaker-point gap is changed?
utor bearings will produce this trouble.
24. How can you check the ignition system to de-
Spark Plug Defective Spark plugs may fail for a termine if the ignition coil has been connected
variety of reasons. Should you find a spark-plug backwards?
problem, review © 26-7, which concerns spark-plug
25. What is the usual cause of a cracked insulator
service. The diagnosis of spark-plug troubles is
on a spark plug?
shown in Fig. 26-3.

SELF PROJECTS
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Ie You should know how to use different kinds of
iF How do you make a spark test? ignition-system testing instruments. Here is one
2. What is the next step if no spark occurs on the way to learn more about them: Get hold of the
spark test? instruction sheet or booklet that accompanies
each testing instrument in the shop. For exam-
. Where are the points located on an engine that
ple, the oscilloscope has a comprehensive in-
has an internal magneto?
struction booklet. Study these booklets.
. Describe the various ways that a flywheel can
After studying each booklet, write brief summa-
be removed from a tapered shaft.
ries of how each test instrument is used. Note
. Why should only a soft hammer be used to especially the cautions and the various test re-
strike the flywheel nut? sults, along with their meanings. File all your
summaries in your notebook. You will then have
. What happens when the rubbing block on the a permanent record that tells you how to use the
breaker points wears? different test instruments. Furthermore, because
. Describe the procedure to adjust the breaker- you wrote these summaries yourself, you will
point gap. understand the instructions better.

297
 21
Chapter
Charging Systems

© 27-1 AC COMPARED TODC The difference be-

tween alternating current (ac) and direct current (dc)
is discussed in Chap. 20. Alternating current alter-
nates in its direction of flow. In a conductor, it flows
After studying this chapter, you should be first in one direction and then in the other. This is
able to: shown in Fig. 20-7. Direct current flows in one direc-
tion only. All the devices in the small-engine electri-
l. Explain why a charging system is needed cal system require dc. (The exception is the ignition
system, which was discussed in Chap. 25.) The bat-
2. Describe the difference between a generator tery requires dc for charging, for example. Since the
and an alternator current induced in the charging system (in the gener-
ator or alternator) is ac, it must be rectified or
. Describe the construction and operation of a changed to dc.
generator
© 27-2 GENERATORS AND ALTERNATORS Gen-
. Describe the construction and operation of erators and alternators are two different devices that
the starter-generator do the same job: producing electric current. You will
recall from Chap. 20 on basic electricity that electric
. Explain how generators are regulated current is a flow of electrons. When electrons are
moving in one direction in a conductor, there is a flow
. Describe the construction and operation of of dc. When electrons flow first in one direction and
the flywheel alternator then in the other in a conductor, there is a flow of ac.
In both the generator and alternator, ac is induced
in the conductors. In the generator, one arrangement
. Discuss how alternators are regulated
is used to rectify this ac, or change it to dc. In the
alternator, a different arrangement is used to rectify
the ac, or change it to dc. Some generators and alter-
nators are built into the flywheel magneto. Others are
separate units.
The two terms “generator” and “alternator” are
sometimes used interchangeably. However, in this
book, we will follow the style of the factory service
manual: The generator uses brushes and a commuta-
tor. The alternator uses diodes. These terms are ex-
plained later in the chapter.

027-3 GENERATOR PRINCIPLES The generator

produces electricity by mechanical means. Mechani-
cal motion is delivered to the generator by the en-
gine. This motion causes conductors to cut through a

258
 In Fig. 27-2, the commutator segments are physi-
cally attached to the loop. The brushes are stationary
so that sliding contact is made between the brushes
and the commutator segments. Current produced by
the moving conductor will flow through the bulb and
cause it to light. When the loop is revolved in a clock-
DIRECTION OF wise direction, current will flow around the loop and
CONDUCTOR through the commutator bars, brushes, and lamp.
MOTION When the loop is rotated 180 degrees, the two sides of
the loop change positions but the current induced still
goes through the lamp in the same direction. This is
because the commutator segments also change posi-
tions.

027-4 SMALL-ENGINE STARTER-GENERATORS

Some small engines use a charging system that is
DIRECTION OF part of a combination starter-generator. Figure 27-3
CURRENT shows a basic wiring diagram of the starter-genera-
FIG. 27-1 Aconductor moving through a magnetic field, as tor. It cranks the engine for starting and acts as a
shown, has a flow of current induced in it. generator after the engine has started. The com-
bination unit has two fields: a shunt field and a series
magnetic field. The cutting of the magnetic field field. Armature current flows in the series winding.
forces current to flow in the conductors. During cranking, both fields work together to develop
For example, look at Fig. 27-1, which shows a con- torque. During operation as a generator, the shunt
ductor being moved through a magnetic field. Cur- winding produces the effective field. The series field
rent is being induced in the conductor in the direction acts only as a bucking field to prevent excessive
shown by the arrow. The dot in the end of the conduc- output. A variation of this arrangement, shown in
tor means that the current is moving toward you. If it Fig. 27-4, includes another terminal so that the motor
were moving away from you, there would be a cross field or series field can be connected separately to the
in the end of the conductor. In the generator, many starting switch. With this arrangement, the series
conductors are moved through a magnetic field. This field has no effect during the operation of the unit as
produces a strong current. The faster the conductors a generator. The unit shown in Fig. 27-3 is used with
move and the stronger the magnetic field, the a voltage regulator. The unit in Fig. 27-4 requires a
stronger the current. In the generator, the conductors current and a voltage regulator. Figure 27-5 shows
move in a circle throughout the magnetic field. the complete wiring system for a starter-generator.
If two conductors in a magnetic field were moving The starter-generator cranks the engine to start it.
in opposite directions, the current induced would be Then, when the engine is running, it produces current
in opposite directions. Figure 27-2 shows these two that puts back into the battery the current taken out
conductors formed into a loop, with the ends con- by the starter.
nected to two segments of a commutator and with a
pair of brushes to take off the current induced or TO BATTERY THROUGH
CUTOUT RELAY
generated in the loop. A light bulb, which is the elec-
trical load, is connected between the brushes. wwe eee
we ey

TO BATTERY
THROUGH
MOTOR
SWITCH

DIRECTION LOOP
IS ROTATED
SERIES
BIEED
De

FIG. 27-2 Simple generator showing direction of induced FIG. 27-3 Wiring diagram of a starter-generator. (Delco-
current. Remy Division of General Motors Corporation)

299
 SS oS SS ee ee,
engine comes up to speed and drives the starter-
generator, the generator begins to produce current. A
magnetic field is produced in the generator by the
generator field windings, which are made up of rela-
tively light copper wire. These windings are shunted,
or connected across, the armature. They use up a
small amount of the current that the armature pro-
duces. This creates a magnetic field in which the
armature spins. The armature windings that have
served as starter windings now begin to serve as
current producers.
Now let us examine more closely how the armature
FIG. 27-4 Wiring diagram of a starter-generator with inde-
spinning in the magnetic field produces current and
pendent generator and motor coils. (Delco-Remy Division of how this current is taken out of the starter-generator.
General Motors Corporation) Whenever a wire is moved in a magnetic field, cur-
rent is produced in the wire. Figure 27-1 illustrates this
principle. As the wire moves through the magnetic
The wiring system shown in Fig. 27-5 includes a field, the wire cuts through the lines of force. This
voltage regulator. Its purpose is to prevent the gener- action forces electrons in the conductor to move to-
ator from producing excessive voltage and current. ward you as shown in Fig. 27-1. When the two ends of
Excessive voltage could burn out any lights or other the conductor are connected to a complete circuit, the
electrical devices connected into the circuit. Exces- electrons (or current) move through the circuit. The
sive current would overcharge the battery, shortening stronger the magnetic field and the faster the con-
its life. ductor moves through it, the more current will flow.
The starter-generator shown in Fig. 27-5 is con- Figure 27-6 shows two variations of the starter-
nected by a belt to the engine for both starting and generator charging system, one using a starter sole-
generating. The starter-generator has two sets of noid. The purpose of the solenoid is to make it possi-
field windings: one for cranking the engine and the ble to locate the starter switch some distance from the
other for producing current. When the starter switch battery and starter. This reduced the length of heavy
is closed, battery current flows through the starter cable needed to complete. the circuit between the
field windings. These windings are made of heavy battery and starter. Only a light wire is needed be-
copper wire so that a heavy current can flow through tween the switch and solenoid, because the solenoid
them. This produces a strong magnetic field, which needs only a small amount of current to make it work.
results in a strong cranking effort. The armature is When the switch is turned to SOLENOID for starting,
spun and the crankshaft turns, and so the engine the solenoid is connected to the battery and a mag-
starts. netic field is produced. This magnetic field pulls in
Then the operator opens the starter circuit by open- an iron plunger which forces heavy contacts to close.
ing the starter switch. This opens the starter field These heavy contacts connect the battery to the
windings, and so starter action is ended. Now, as the starter, and so the engine is cranked.

GENERATOR
REGULATOR
/s
‘ B-BATTERY
L-LOAD
(LIGHTS, ETC.)
A-ARMATURE
G-GENERATOR

FIG. 27-5 Wiring circuit of a typical starter-generator system. The

starter-generator not only starts the engine, but also generates current
to charge the battery. The system includes a regulator to control the
generator.

260
 WITHOUT SOLENOID

HIGH-VOLTAGE WIRE

GROUND BAT. GENERATOR

REGULATOR
\
IGNITION
1 br ee
ea ak CanCae (Gy ana fae
SWITCH

ha
START AMMETER |” { (:
BATTERY SLI BE | SPARK
PLUG eat
ARN

( CONDENSER
34
| x) = IGNITION
Ul COIL
STARTER- SO oh
GENERATOR BREAKER LOW-VOLTAGE WIRE
POINTS

GROUND

BATTERY
GENERATOR &
REGULATOR

WITH SOLENOID
FIG. 27-6 Wiring diagrams of two types of starter- large number of conductors in it. The field-frame as-
generator systems, one without a solenoid and the other sembly produces the magnetic field through which
with a solenoid. (Kohler Company) the armature conductors move. Therefore, current is
induced to flow in the conductors.
A wiring diagram of a starter-generator charging Figure 27-9 shows a disassembled generator. Note
system is shown in Fig. 27-5. The current, as it comes the appearance of the armature. As the loops or
from the generator, passes through the generator windings in the armature cut through the magnetic
regulator. The functions of this unit are to prevent field, current is produced. This current flows through
excessive generator voltage and current and to pro- the commutator and brushes and passes on to the
tect the system from battery discharge through the load, or electrical device being powered.
generator when the engine is not running. There are
three separate devices in the generator regulator.
HINGE-
These are a cutout relay, a voltage regulator, and a , CAP OILER GROUND
current regulator. These devices are described later SCREW TERMINALS

in © 27-10. HINGE -
CAP OILER

©O27-5 GENERATOR CONSTRUCTION AND OPERA-

TION Generators have not been installed in new
automobiles for many years. But you will often see
generators on small engines and garden tractors. A
typical dc generator looks like the one shown in
Fig. 27-7. In contrast, the alternator is shorter and
bigger around.
The generator has two main parts, the armature \ FIELD FRAME aa
DRIVE COMMUTATOR
and the field-frame assembly, as shown in Fig. 27-8. END FRAME END FRAME
The field-frame assembly includes the field coils or FIG. 27-7 A dc generator. (Delco-Remy Division of General
windings and the field frame. The armature has a Motors Corporation)

261
 field so that current will be induced in them. The
LAMINATION
magnetic field from a permanent magnet could be
used in the generator, but the magnetic field and the
current would not be very great. No control of the
output could be obtained except by varying the gen-
erator speed. To obtain a strong magnetic field that
can be controlled to regulate generator output, field
coils are used. These coils are wound and connected
CONDUCTOR COMMUTATOR to the generator brushes so that part of the current
ARMATURE FIELD-FRAME from the armature flows through them. This causes
ASSEMBLY the field coils to create a powerful electromagnetic
FIG. 27-8 The generator armature and field-frame assem- field through which the armature must carry the con-
bly. (Delco-Remy Division of General Motors Corporation) ductors.
When the generator is at rest, no current flows in
the generator armature or field winding. However,
The fan is attached to the front end of the shaft so when the generator is producing current, part of the
that it pulls air through openings in the housing, current flows through the field winding and creates a
cooling the wiring and other internal parts. This is strong magnetic field.
necessary because the generator runs continuously. Initially, there is only a small amount of magne-
In doing so, it gets hot. Without adequate cooling, it tism in the field pole shoes. This small amount of
would overheat and burn out. magnetism is called the residual magnetism, be-
The dc armature has many loops or coils which cause it is the residue of magnetism remaining after
rotate in the magnetic field. These loops are con- current stops flowing. However, this is enough to
nected so that current flows in all the loops. induce some voltage in the armature windings as
The amount of current induced in the conductors is they start to rotate. This armature voltage causes
based on the number of lines of force that the conduc- some current flow through the generator field wind-
tors cut per second. As the armature speed is in- ings to reinforce the residual magnetism and produce
creased, the conductors cut through more lines of a stronger magnetic field. The stronger field permits
force each second and this induces more current in the generator to produce an even higher voltage,
each conductor. Increasing the strength of the mag- which increases the field current. This process of the
netic field (adding lines of force) also produces more output’s reinforcing the field magnetism (which then
current from the generator. increases the voltage) continues until the generator
reaches its maximum output voltage, as determined
©O27-6 PRODUCING THE MAGNETIC FIELD The by the armature speed and the resistance of the field
armature conductors must move through a magnetic winding. The period of time required for the voltage

COMMUTATOR —
END FRAME 4 ARMATURE BEARING
RETAINER BALL
BEARING THRU BOLT

GASKET PULLEY
FIELD Simm 99006
FRAME aa
DRIVE-END
TERMINAL PARTS
SHOE FRAME

FIG. 27-9 Disassembled view of a typical dc generator.

(Delco-Remy Division of General Motors Corporation)

262
to reach maximum is called the buildup time. In
low-output generators, such as those used with small
engines, the buildup time is very short.

027-7 DRIVING THE GENERATOR _ The generator

is usually driven by a V-belt from a pulley on the
engine crankshaft. Figure 23-31 shows one arrange-
ment for a starter-generator. These units are de-
scribed in © 23-21. On many liquid-cooled engines,
such as those used in automobiles, the belt also
drives the water pump and fan (Fig. 19-6).

O27-8 GENERATOR REGULATORS Generators

require regulation. Regulation is achieved by con-
trolling the amount of current flowing in the genera- DIRECTION OF ARMATURE
ROTATION
tor field windings. Regulation means preventing the
FIG. 27-10 Wiring circuit of a third-brush generator.
generator from producing excessive voltage and cur-
rent. Without regulation, a generator would continue
to increase its output as its speed increases. Eventu- let us look at a generator used for many years which
ally, the generator would be producing so much cur- is self-limiting and needs no external regulator. This
rent that it would overheat and burn up. It is all right is the third-brush generator. In this generator, the
for the conductors in an electric toaster to get red hot. field windings are fed from a third brush (Fig. 27-10).
But if the conductors in a generator become red hot, In this position, the brush cannot pick up full arma-
the generator will be badly damaged or ruined. ture voltage. The two main brushes, A and B, are
As generator armature speed increases, the gen- placed to take off full armature voltage. The field
erator produces increasing voltage and more current. windings being fed from the third brush do not get
This is because the conductors are cutting more lines full armature voltage. However, they get enough
of force per second. The increased voltage not only voltage to provide them with sufficient current to do
sends more current to the load, but also sends more their job of producing a good magnetic field. Third-
current through the generator field windings. This, in brush generators are used on some farm tractors and
turn, causes the magnetic field to become stronger. small-engine installations.
The stronger magnetic field, providing more lines of As generator output goes up, the magnetic field of
force, further increases the number of lines of force the armature causes a shift of the total magnetic
that the conductors cut per second. This sends the field. In effect, the magnetic field shifts past the third
voltage still higher, and again there is a further in- brush. The voltage at the third brush is reduced. This
crease in generator output and field current. The reduces the strength of the magnetic field from the
voltage and current would continue to rise with in- field windings. Then the generator output cannot
creasing generator speed until so much current increase further. Therefore, the generator is self-
would be produced that the resulting heat would limiting. It cannot increase its output beyond a safe
destroy the generator. In addition, if the generator maximum. In many third-brush generators, the third
were connected into a charging system, the battery brush can be adjusted to change the maximum out-
would be badly overcharged. The electrical devices put.
turned on would be damaged or ruined. Conse- Shifting the third brush toward the adjacent main
quently, some means of limiting the generator volt- brush (in the direction of armature rotation) will in-
age and output must be used so that overheating of crease maximum generator output. In adjusting these
the generator and damage to the electrical equip- generators, be careful not to set the third brush ahead
ment will not occur. so much that the generator exceeds its safe maximum
In all charging systems, a regulating device is used rated output.
to limit or regulate generator output so that the gen-
erator will not damage itself or other components of 027-10 THE UNITS IN GENERATOR REGULATORS
the electrical system. The regulating device usually Most generators have only two brushes. They are not
connects a resistance into the generator field circuit. self-limiting. Without some form of external regula-
This cuts down the field current and weakens the tion, their output will go up as speed increases until
magnetic field. As a result, any further rise in gener- they overheat and burn up. The most common regu-
ator voltage and current output is prevented. lator used with generators has contact points in par-
allel with a resistance (Fig. 27-11). When the current
©O27-9 THIRD-BRUSH GENERATORS Before we or voltage starts to go too high, the points open. This
continue with our discussion of generator regulators, puts the resistance in series with the field windings,

263
 CONTACT generator current output goes to high, the gener-
LOAD POINTS
ator load approaches the danger point. The con-
tact points open. When the contact points open,
the resistance goes into the generator field cir-
cuit and reduces the current. Actually, the points
vibrate—open and close—hundreds of times a
second. This keeps the resistance in the field
circuit just the right amount of time to prevent
RESISTANCE the output of too much generator current.
3. Voltage Regulator. The voltage regulator works
on voltage. Voltage is electric pressure. The
higher the pressure, or voltage, the more current
it pushes through electrical equipment.
FIG. 27-11 Simplified wiring diagram for a de generator When a battery is low, it will accept a lot of
with an externally grounded field circuit. (Delco-Remy Divi- current. But when a battery is fully charged, it
sion of General Motors Corporation) will take only a very small current. The small
current requires a high pressure, or voltage.
Therefore, when the generator is working
thereby cutting down the field current and magne-
against a fully charged battery, it keeps pushing
tism. The output is reduced. The typical regulator
its voltage up and up to get current through the
used with generators has three units (Fig. 27-12). Here
battery.
is the way they work:
If this voltage were allowed to increase, the battery
would be overcharged and therefore ruined. At the
1. Cutout Relay. The cutout relay closes the circuit
same time, all the electrical equipment would have
to the battery when the generator is running.
too much current pushed through it by the high volt-
This allows the generator to charge the battery.
age. Excessively high current could ruin the electrical
The cutout relay opens the circuit when the gen-
equipment. For example, high voltage will burn out
erator stops. This prevents the battery from dis-
the lights.
charging back through the generator.
To guard against excessively high generator volt-
2. Current Regulator. The current regulator uses a age, the voltage regulator has a pair of contact points
pair of contact points and a resistance. When the and a resistance. When the voltage gets too high, the

CURRENT
REGULATOR

VOLTAGE
REGULATOR

CUTOUT
RELAY

Fig. 27-12 Current and voltage regulator

for a dc generator, with the cover re-
BATTERY GENERATOR FIELD moved. (Delco-Remy Division of General
TERMINAL TERMINAL TERMINAL Motors Corporation)

264
points open. The resistance goes into the generator
field circuit. The magnetic field is weakened, and the
generator voltage is held to a safe amount. Actually,
the points vibrate, just as in the current regulator.
This keeps the resistance in the field circuit just the
right amount of time to prevent the generator voltage
from going too high.
4. Combined Actions. The current regulator pre-
vents the generator from exceeding its rated
output. For example, if the generator is rated at
40 amperes, the current regulator keeps the out-
put from going above this amount. The voltage
regulator prevents too much voltage. When it
operates, it cuts down the generator output to
suit the requirements of the battery and the con-
nected electric load. For example, suppose the
battery is charged and nothing is turned on but
the ignition. In this case the voltage regulator
will cut output down to a few amperes. In the
FIG. 27-13 Simplified alternator consisting of a single sta-
three-unit generator regulator, either the current
tionary loop or wire and a rotating bar magnet. The distor-
regulator is working, holding output to a safe tion of moving lines of force around a leg of the loop (con-
maximum, or the voltage regulator is working, ductor) and the direction of current (electron) flow are shown
holding the voltage down and thereby cutting at right.
output down. They do not both work at the same
time.
(electron flow) is induced in the loop in the direction
shown by the arrows. At the bottom, the magnet has
© 27-11 GENERATORS COMPARED WITH ALTER- rotated half a turn. Its south pole is now passing the
NATORS In the generator, conductors are moved upper leg of the loop, and its north pole is passing the
so that they cut through a magnetic field. This pro- lower leg. Now magnetic lines of force are being cut
duces current in the conductors. The current is alter- in the opposite direction by the two legs of the loop.
nating. It flows in one direction through a loop, and So current (electron flow) is induced in the loop in the
then, when the loop moves half a complete turn, the opposite direction. As the magnet spins and the two
current flows in the opposite direction in the loop. The poles alternately pass the two legs of the loop, elec-
commutator and brushes change this alternating cur- trons in the loop are pushed first in one direction and
rent (ac) to direct current (dc). then in the other. Alternating current flows.
In the ac generator (called the alternator), the con- Three things will increase the current moving in the
ductors are stationary and a magnetic field is moved. loop. These are increasing the strength of the mag-
through them. Alternating current is induced in the netic field, increasing the speed with which the mag-
conductors as the north and south poles of the mag- netic field rotates, and increasing the number of
netic field move past them. However, since the alter- loops, or conductors, cutting the magnetic field.
nator has no commutator to change the ac to dc, some On some small engines, motorcycles, and automo-
other type of rectifier is required. In most alternator biles, the alternator is a separate unit. It is mounted
charging systems, this is done with electric valves on the engine and driven by a belt. The type of alter-
called diodes. nator used in many small engines is built-in. Usually,
To summarize, the generator moves conductors it is combined with the flywheel magneto and uses
through a stationary magnetic field and uses a com- the same magnets. This type of alternator is called a
mutator to change the ac to dc. The alternator moves flywheel alternator. The magneto is a part of the
a magnetic field through stationary conductors and ignition system used on many small engines and
uses diodes to change the ac to de. motorcycle engines. We described magneto ignition
systems in an earlier chapter (Chap. 25).
027-12 ALTERNATOR PRINCIPLES Let us look at
a simple alternator which will show the alternator 027-138 FLYWHEEL ALTERNATOR Let us review
principle. In the simple one-loop alternator shown in briefly how the small-engine magneto works. The
Fig. 27-13, the rotating bar magnet supplies the mov- flywheel has a series of magnets which are whirled
ing magnetic field. At the top, the north pole of the past windings in the stator, or stationary part of the
bar magnet passes the upper leg of the loop and the magneto. This produces voltage and current flow
south pole passes the lower leg of the loop. Current from the stator windings. The current flows through a

265
 CHARGING COIL bled. This means that the magnetic field is constantly
RECTIFIER moving through the windings. Therefore, current is
FLYWHEEL
ALTERNATOR
being induced in the windings. The current induced
BATTERY FUSE
is alternating, just like the magnetic field. Since ac
7.5 AMP cannot be used to charge a battery, it must be
CONDENSER changed to dc, which flows in one direction only. The
1.5 AMP
(FUSE INSIDE)
device which produces this action is called a rectifier.
RECTIFIER The rectifier uses several diodes, which are elec-
Fa) bos. tronic devices that will allow current to flow through
them in one direction only.

4 (© KE O27-14 RECTIFYINGAC Theac from the alterna-

FIG. 27-14 An electric starter system using a battery-
tor must be rectified, or changed to dc. Since ac can-
powered starter and an alternator mounted on the engine not be used by the battery or other electrical devices,
under the flywheel to charge the battery. diodes are used to rectify it. The diode is a one-way
electric valve for electric current. It allows current to
flow through in one direction but not in the other. See
set of contacts and the primary winding of the coil. Fig. 25-17. Figure 27-16 shows how four diodes can be
When the contact points are separated, the current used to rectify ac. The four diodes are numbered | to 4
stops flowing and the magnetic field in the coil col- in the illustration. Look at the top drawing in Fig. 27-
lapses. This collapse produces the high voltage in the 16. The current from the stator primary winding fol-
coil secondary which fires the spark plug. lows the conductors, shown solid. Diodes 2 and 4
The alternator operates on a similar principle and allow the current to flow through. But diodes 1 and 3
can use the flywheel and the same stator assembly as do not, since the current is flowing in the wrong di-
the magneto. But the stator assembly has different rection for them. However, when the direction of the
coils for the magneto and the alternator. Figure 27-14 current reverses, as shown in the bottom drawing,
shows a typical installation. The engine has been then diodes 2 and 3 will pass the current, but diodes 2
partly cut away in the illustration to reveal the alter- and 4 will not. Therefore, the current can flow in only
nator coils and rectifiers. Figure 27-15 shows how the one direction as it passes through the set of diodes
flywheel alternator works. The magnet ring mounted that make up the bridge rectifier.
on the flywheel is made up of permanent magnets.
When the magnets spin past the coils on the stator, 027-15 »THREE-PHASE AC The circuit shown in
they produce a constantly changing magnetic field in Fig. 27-16 is called a single-phase circuit because
the cores on which the stator windings are assem- there is only a single ac source. Such a source would
result in a pulsating current. This is characteristic of
a single-cylinder engine. It does not provide a smooth
flow of power, but rather a series of peaks between
SS

POLE PIECES NY
a YE a MAGNET RING

MAGNETS

PRIMARY
WINDINGS

FIG. 27-15 Schematic diagram showing how the alternator

produces ac in the stator windings. (Kohler Company)

266
 AC ——> +TO—

eg

ALTERNATOR

PRIMARY RECTIFIER
WINDING

BATTERY

BRIDGE
RECTIFIER

BATTERY
FIG. 27-16 Four diodes connected to an ac source such as
an alternator. The diodes rectify the ac and change it to de
to charge the battery. (Kohler Company)
© 27-16 DIODE HEAT SINKS Diodes are some-
which no power is delivered. To provide a smoother times mounted in the slip-ring end of the alternator,
flow of current, alternators are wired with more than in a metal bracket called a heat sink. The heat sink
one winding in the stator so that they deliver over- takes heat from the diodes, which can become rather
lapping pulses of ac. A typical example is the alter- hot in operation. The heat sink has large fined sur-
nator used on some small engines and motorcycles faces. They transfer the heat into the air surrounding
and on all automobiles. This type of alternator has the alternator. This keeps the diodes from overheat-
three stator circuits, interconnected as shown in ing.
Fig. 27-17. The ac produced in the three circuits is
rectified by the six-diode rectifier. 027-17 TYPES OF ALTERNATORS In addition to
the flywheel alternator, several types of alternators
6-DIODE are in use. Figure 27-18 shows an alternator of the
STATOR RECTIFIER

BATTERY GROUND
TERMINAL TERMINAL

DC OUTPUT

BATTERY
FIG. 27-17. Wiring diagram for an alternator with a six- FIG. 27-18 External view of an alternator. (Delco-Remy
diode rectifier and a Y-connected stator. Division of General Motors Corporation)

267
 DRIVE
END-FRAME SLIP-RING
END FRAME END FRAME
DIODES BEARING

BRUSH-AND-
TERMINAL
ASSEMBLY

SLIP RINGS

HEAT-SINK
HEAT SINK DIODES —i(i«é‘i
DIODES ‘EEE ASSEMBLY
ROTOR Gia
FIG. 27-19 End and sectional views of an alternator with
integral diodes and an integral solid-state voltage regula- Basically, the regulator limits the alternator field
tor. (Delco-Remy Division of General Motors Corporation) current as necessary to prevent excess alternator
voltage. The stator remains permanently connected
to the battery. The diodes prevent the battery from
type that requires a separate external regulator. Fig-
discharging back through the stator when the alter-
ure 27-19 shows an alternator with built-in voltage
nator is not operating. The field (rotor) is connected to
regulator.
the battery only when the alternator is operating. The
connection is made through either the field relay or
© 27-18 ALTERNATOR REGULATORS _ A variety of
the ignition switch.
devices have been used to regulate alternators.
When alternators were first introduced, many of the
027-19 REGULATING THE FLYWHEEL ALTERNA-
regulators were very complex. They included a field
TOR Figure 27-22 shows the regulating system
relay, an indicator-light relay, and a voltage regula-
that one manufacturer uses with the flywheel alter-
tor. Now alternator-regulator systems have been sim-
nator. In this system, the alternator output is con-
plified. Figure 27-20 shows one type of voltage regu-
trolled by the actions of four electric devices. These
lator used with alternators. The latest types have the
devices, shown in Fig. 27-22, are a zener diode, an
regulator built into the alternator, so that the circuit
SCR (silicon-controlled rectifier), a regulator winding
looks like that shown in Fig. 27-21.
in the stator, and a variable resistor. Except for the
zener diodes, these devices have been discussed in
earlier chapters.

SOLENOID

VOLTAGE
~ REGULATOR
SWITCH CHARGE
INDICATOR
LIGHT

ALTERNATOR
FIG. 27-21 Wiring diagram for a charging system using an
alternator with an integral voltage regulator and a charge-
FIG. 27-20 An ac voltage regulator with the cover removed. indicator light. (Delco-Remy Division of General Motors
(Delco-Remy Division of General Motors Corporation) Corporation)

268
 REGULATOR WINDING SCR-SWITCH OPEN cussed earlier in this chapter. They use current and
voltage regulators to measure the generator output
and then change it as necessary.
VARIABLE
RESISTOR
In the system shown in Fig. 27-22a, when the bat-
ZENER DIODE tery voltage is low, there is no regulation of alternator
output. The alternator produces its maximum output,
and this current is used to charge the battery. As
LOW
CURRENT
BATTERY
CAPACITOR shown in Fig. 27-22a, the zener diode prevents any
BLOCKED VOLTAGE current from passing through it and entering the reg-
NO CURRENT FLOW ulating circuit. However, as the battery charges, its
voltage increases. When the battery voltage gets
high enough, the zener diode reaches its “break-
down” point. When this happens, current suddenly
passes through the zener diode, as shown in Fig. 27-
22b. Current flows through the zener diode to the
variable resistor and into the capacitor. This voltage
also is applied to the gate of the SCR. The SCR
switches on electronically, and current flows through
it.
With the SCR on, current now flows through the
regulator winding and a magnetic field builds up
a around it, as shown in Fig. 27-22b. The strength of
HIGH this magnetic field acts to control the alternator out-
CURRENT PASSES BATTERY
VOLTAGE put. Any increase in current through the regulator
winding brings a corresponding decrease in current
through the primary winding of the alternator. When
a high charging rate is needed, little or no current
flows in the regulator winding. When no charging is
(b) ALTERNATOR REGULATION-NO OUTPUT
needed, maximum current will flow in the regulator
FIG. 27-22 Operation of the regulator for a flywheel alter- winding. Then little or no current flows in the primary
nator. (Kohler Company)
winding.
By adjusting the variable resistor in the regulator,
A zener diode is a special type of diode that will the charging voltage can be increased or decreased
conduct current in its normally blocked (or reverse) slightly. The voltage adjusting screw can be seen in
direction under certain conditions. When the voltage
across the zener diode is below a certain level that is
designed into it, the zener diode will not conduct
current in the reverse direction. Under this condition,
shown in Fig. 27-22a, the zener diode acts like the FULL WAVE
conventional type of diode that we discussed in O 25- RECTIFIER
8. However, as soon as the voltage increases above a
certain level, the zener diode suddenly begins to con-
duct current in reverse, as shown in Fig. 27-22b. This
characteristic makes the zener diode very useful in
various types of control circuits, such as alternator-
regulator circuits.
Now here is how the system shown in Fig. 27-22
controls alternator output: In operation, you can think
of the zener diode as the voltage regulator, the SCR
as the switch or contact points, and the variable re-
sistor as the adjustable contact-point return spring. VOLTAGE
ADJUSTMENT + BATT.
The solid-state devices are assembled into the rec- SCREW
tifier-regulator (or simply regulator) as shown in
Fig. 27-23. It controls the alternator output by using
the zener diode to sense the battery voltage. Then, REGULATOR
according to the battery voltage, the regulator acts to COVER
increase or decrease alternator output if necessary. FIG. 27-23 One type of solid-state regulator used to control
This system differs from the other regulators dis- the flywheel alternator. (Kohler Company)

269
Fig. 27-23, which shows the rectifier-regulator with 17. How does the current regulator prevent exces-
the cover removed. Notice the fins that are part of the sive current output?
regulator. They are needed because the heat pro-
18. How many units in the generator regulator op-
duced by the resistor and zener diode must be carried
erate at the same time?
away. To carry away the heat most effectively, the
fins must be mounted in a vertical position. This will 19. What is the basic difference between a
provide maximum cooling of the electronic devices in generator and an alternator?
the regulator. Other types of regulators have finned’
20. What does the alternator use to change the ac
covers.
to dc?
REVIEW QUESTIONS 21. What is the name of the electronic device that
permits current to flow through it in only one
1. Name the four characteristics of all charging
direction?
systems.
22. Describe the operation of the flywheel alterna-
What is the job of the generator and alternator?
tor.
In the generator, what job is done by the com-
23. Why can't ac be used to charge a battery?
mutator and brushes?
24. What is a three-phase alternator?
Explain the basic operation of a_ starter-
generator when it operates as a generator. 25. Why do diodes need to be mounted in a heat
sink?
Why would an engine have a starter-generator
instead of a separate electric starter and a sep-
arate generator? pELE PROJECTS
What is the purpose of the generator regulator?
1. If you are able to get discarded generators and
What are the two main parts of the generator?
alternators, disassemble them. Examine the in-
. Which part of the generator is composed of ternal parts and note how the connections are
many loops of wire that are rotated through a made to the generator brushes and to the alter-
magnetic field? nator brushes and diodes. See if you can trace
the connections between the diodes and the sta-
. What determines the amount of current induced
tor of the alternator.
in a rotating conductor?
. Write a short explanation of the differences in
10. What creates the magnetic field in a generator?
design and construction between the generator
ll. How are most generators driven? and alternator. Explain why, in your opinion,
many manufacturers have switched to alter-
2. What is a third-brush generator?
nators in recent years.
13. Explain how a third-brush generator can be
. Refer to manufacturers’ shop manuals and find
self-limiting.
the wiring diagrams they show for the charging
14. Name the three units in a generator regulator. systems on their engines. Copy these diagrams
for your notebook. Use colored pencils to show |
15. What is the job of the cutout relay?
the circuits. For example, you could use a red
16. How does the voltage regulator prevent exces- pencil to show the rotor circuit, then a blue pen-
sively high voltage? cil to show the stator and diode circuit.

270
 Chapter
Servicing
Small-Engine
Charging Systems

GENERATORS

028-1 TROUBLESHOOTING DC CHARGING SYS-

TEMS The typical dc charging system consists of a
After studying this chapter, you should be battery, regulator, generator, and connecting wiring,
able to: as shown in Fig. 28-1. Normally, the regulator limits
the generator output so that it produces enough cur-
1. Discuss how to troubleshoot a dc charging rent at the proper voltage to keep the battery fully
system charged, while preventing excessive voltage. It also
is normal for the charging system to charge at a high
2. Demonstrate how to polarize a dc generator rate when the battery is weak or discharged and to
reduce the charging rate as the battery becomes
3. Demonstrate how to test and adjust a gener- charged.
ator regulator When you receive a complaint about a weak bat-
tery or generator trouble, you must make tests to
4. Demonstrate how to rebuild and test a gen- determine if there is trouble, and if there is, whether
erator it is in the battery, generator, regulator, or wiring. A
few checks will indicate whether the generator-
5. Explain how to troubleshoot a_ starter- regulator system is operating normally and what
could be causing any abnormal conditions.
generator
The four general charging-system complaints are
high charging rate, low charging rate, no ammeter
6. List the cautions for alternator service
reading, and faulty charge-indicator light operation.
In addition to these conditions, a generator may be-
7. Demonstrate how to service the flywheel
come noisy because of mechanical trouble.
alternator

028-2 USING THE TROUBLESHOOTING CHART

Table 28-1 (on page 272) is a troubleshooting chart
listing the various types of charging-system troubles
and their causes and checks or corrections. Each con-
dition and its causes are discussed later.

High Charging Rate The typical engine operator

does not know when the generator has too high a
charging rate. Instead, the operator usually notices
that the ammeter needle does not drop back to near
zero, the lights flare up as engine speed is increased,
the light bulbs burn out too often, or the battery needs
water frequently. All these symptoms are caused by

271
 BATTERY REGULATOR Before you suspect the charging system, check the
battery and the battery connections, as covered in
Chap. 22. A bad battery connection can limit the
charging current and give an indication of a weak
battery. A bad battery connection also can reduce the
charging rate so that the battery never becomes fully
charged.
Table 28-1 shows that a low charging rate may be
TO LIGHTS due to loose connections, a loose generator drive belt,
AND OTHER
ELECTRICAL a regulator which has a defective or misadjusted
EQUIPMENT voltage regulator, cutout relay, or current regulator,
or a defective generator.
Vf
GENERATOR
No Ammeter Reading The ammeter is connected in
FIG. 28-1 A dc-charging-circuit wiring diagram.
series with the charging circuit as shown in Fig. 28-1.
Current entering or leaving the battery flows through
failure of the voltage regulator to keep the generator the ammeter. If there is current flow and no meter
voltage down to normal values. indication, the meter is defective.
As shown in Table 28-1, overcharging can be There is always a chance that the charging system
caused by a defective or misadjusted voltage regula- is not working and so there is no charging current. To
tor or a defect in the field circuit of the generator. A check the ammeter in this case, turn on the lights, or
battery with one or more bad cells would cause a other electrical device, with the engine not running
high charging rate, because it would never become and watch the ammeter. It should indicate discharge.
fully charged. If it does, the ammeter is working and you should
check the charging system. If the meter does not show
Low Charging Rate A lowcharging rate will produce discharge, check the ammeter.
a discharged battery or an indication of no charging
on the ammeter or charge indicator light. The actual Charging Indicator-Light Failure Many engines
rate of charging can vary from no charging at all to have an indicator light to show whether or not the
an output which is slightly below the level needed for generator is charging when the ignition switch is on.
normal use. There are two potential troubles: The light can fail to

TABLE 28-1 DC GENERATOR-REGULATOR TROUBLESHOOTING CHART

Condition Possible Cause Check or Correction

1. High charging rate . High voltage-regulator setting Reduce setting

Q
a7.High temperature Reduce voltage-regulator setting; re-
duce battery specific gravity
c. Defective battery Replace battery
d. Generator field windings grounded Repair or replace generator
or shorted
oO . Short, ground, or open in regulator Repair or replace regulator
2. Low charging rate a. Defective wires or connections Replace wires; clean and tighten con-
nections
b. Low voltage-regulator setting Adjust or replace regulator
c. Dirty regulator contact points Clean and replace points or regulator
d. Open in regulator Repair or replace regulator
e. Defective generator Repair or replace generator
f. Cutout relay not closing Adjust, repair, or replace regulator
g. Drive belt loose Tighten or replace if necessary
3. No ammeter reading a. Ammeter defective Replace
b. No generator output See item 2
4. Charging indicator-light failure a. Bulb burned out Replace bulb
b. Bad connection Repair connection
c. No generator output See item 2
5. Noisy generator a. Generator mounting loose Tighten
b. Pulley or fan loose Tighten
c. Worn brushes or bearings Repair or replace generator

272
 setting. A variable resistance in the generator
REGULATOR field circuit will accomplish the same results.
BATTERY
a Replace the regulator cover after every voltage
regulator adjustment, and then check the set-
tings.

6. Make the meter connections according to the

IGNITION markings on the regulator terminals and not
SWITCH according to the wiring circuits shown in this
book.
7. Never connect a radio bypass condenser from
the field terminal of the generator or regulator to
INDICATOR ground. This will burn the regulator contacts.
LIGHT

GENERATOR #4 8. Repolarize the generator after every check or

adjustment.
FIG. 28-2 A dc charging circuit which includes a charge
indicator light. 9. Never operate the generator on open circuit,
with the circuit to the battery or other electrical
units disconnected.
glow at all, or it can stay on during charging. Figure
28-2 shows how the indicator light is wired on many
engines. If the bulb does not light, there could be a © 28-4 POLARITY OF DC GENERATORS After any
bad bulb or connection. If the bulb stays on when the wires have been reconnected to the regulator or the
engine is running at a medium speed, check the generator, you should repolarize the generator. This
charging rate. is to make sure that the generator has the correct
polarity with respect to the battery it is to charge.
Reversed polarity may be caused by any disconnect-
O 28-3 CAUTIONS FOR GENERATOR AND REGULA-
ing and reconnecting of wiring. This can produce a
TOR TESTING Certain basic cautions apply to all
momentary reverse flow of current through the field
dc generator-regulator systems. Keep these instruc-
windings. Reversed polarity reverses the residual
tions in mind during any service work on dc charging
magnetism in the pole shoes so that the generator
systems:
voltage builds up backward with respect to the bat-
tery. This produces arcing and burning of the cutout-
1. Be sure the correct regulator is being used. The
relay points and failure to charge the battery.
wrong regulator in a charging system will usu-
Polarizing the generator is easy. On standard
ally lead to trouble. For example, if a regulator
Autolite and Delco-Remy dc generators, the generator
is of the wrong polarity, the current will flow
field winding is grounded externally. The ground is
through the regulator contacts in the wrong di-
not in the generator, but through the regulator. This
rection. The contact points will then wear away
type of generator circuit is often called an A circuit
rapidly, and defective regulator action will re-
generator. To polarize it, before starting the engine,
sult.
momentarily connect a jumper wire from the insu-
2. Never close the cutout relay or circuit-breaker lated or positive side of the battery to the armature or
contact points by hand with the regulator con- A terminal of the generator. On some engines, this
nected to the battery. This may damage the con- may more easily be done at the regulator by touching
tact points. On many regulators, enough current a short jumper wire momentarily between the BAT, or
could flow to cause the points to weld together, battery, terminal of the regulator and the GEN or
resulting in damage to the generator and regu- armature terminal of the regulator.
lator. Some dc generators have the generator field
grounded internally or inside the generator. This type
3. The regulator must be at operating temperature
of generator circuit is known as aB circuit generator.
and in the normal operating position when elec-
It is polarized by disconnecting the F, or field, termi-
trical tests are made. Some manufacturers sup-
nal wire from the regulator and momentarily touch-
ply or recommend use of a special thermometer
ing the wire to the B, or BAT or battery, terminal of the
to check the temperature to make sure that it is
regulator. Either way, the action permits a flash of
correct when the electrical settings are checked.
current to flow from the battery to the generator field
4, Cycle the generator after every voltage adjust- windings. The current flows through the field wind-
ment by slowing the engine to idle and then ings in the right direction to polarize the pole shoes
bringing it back to speed before checking the correctly. When the generator begins to operate, volt-

273
age will build up in the right direction with respect to grounded fields, bypass the regulator by connecting
the battery. You can expect to see a spark when you a jumper lead between the field and armature termi-
remove the jumper wire. nals of the generator.
Never try to polarize an alternator. The connections Start the engine and gradually increase its speed
for polarizing a dc generator will ruin an alternator. until the ammeter indicates the rated generator out-
put current or until the engine reaches operating
028-5 TESTING THE DC CHARGING SYSTEM An speed. While the generator is operating under these
analysis of the charging system includes testing the conditions, check the brushes to see if there is exces-
generator output current, testing the operation of the sive arcing. If there is, then the brushes or commuta-
voltage and current regulators, and testing the action tor should be serviced. If the generator does not pro-
of the cutout relay. A typical testing procedure is duce its rated output, it should be checked to find the
given here. While the procedures vary somewhat cause of low output.
among manufacturers, the basic methods are the If the test ammeter reads no output current, deter-
same. Before performing these tests, check the gener- mine if the generator or the cutout relay is at fault. To
ator belt for proper tension. Also, if a radio suppres- isolate the trouble, connect a voltmeter between the
sor condenser is used on the generator, be sure the armature or output terminal of the generator and
condenser is connected to the armature terminal and ground. The voltmeter should be capable of reading
not to the field terminal. Operate the engine for 10 to at least 16 volts (on a 12-volt system). If the voltage is
20 minutes to bring the generator and regulator up to 12 volts or less, the generator probably is defective. A
operating temperature. Check the engine tempera- voltage reading of 13 volts or more and no output
ture, being sure not to let the engine overheat. current usually indicates that the cutout relay in the
regulator is not closing properly, because of a defect
© 28-6 THE GENERATOR CURRENT-OUTPUT TEST
or misadjustment.
For this test, bypass the current regulator and test the
generator to see if it can produce its rated current as
given in the manufacturer's specifications. A typical © 28-7 GENERATOR VOLTAGE TEST A test of the
test setup is shown in Fig. 28-3. This particular generator voltage will indicate whether the wiring
charging system has the generator field circuit inside the generator is properly insulated. Stop the
grounded through the regulator. If the engine is not engine, disconnect the test ammeter (if used), and
equipped with an ammeter, stop the engine and con- reconnect the battery lead to the B terminal of the
nect a test ammeter as shown in Fig. 28-3. Disconnect regulator. Then connect a voltmeter, which can read
the lead from the battery terminal of the regulator up to 16 volts, between ground and the A terminal of
and connect the ammeter in series with the terminal the generator, as shown in Fig. 28-4.
and the lead. Disconnect and ground the field termi- Start the engine and increase the speed until the
nal lead from the field terminal of the regulator. This voltmeter indicates at least 16 volts. This reading
bypasses the current regulator in charging systems should occur with the engine running at, or below, its
using anA circuit generator. normal operating speed. Immediately slow the en-
For B circuit generators which have internally gine to prevent damage to the generator.

27.
= DISCONNECHANDIC ROU
‘4 DISCONNECT AND GROUND

BATTERY LEAD
&

AMMETER VOLTMETER
FIG. 28-3 Testing generator current output. (Delco-Remy FIG. 28-4 Generator-voltage test. (Delco-Remy Division of
Division of General Motors Corporation) General Motors Corporation)

274
 If the voltmeter reading does not reach 16 volts, crease speed and make sure that the relay points
stop the engine and test the battery. The battery open.
should be fully charged. If it is not, substitute a fully A second method of making a closing-voltage test
charged battery or charge the battery and repeat the is to use a variable resistance connected into the
test. If you obtain a reading of 16 volts or more, the generator field circuit (Fig. 28-5). The variable resistor
generator insulation is adequate. If not, there is is used to control the current flow through the field
probably trouble in the generator, regulator, or wir- coils in the generator. Use a 15-ohm 25-watt variable
ing. resistor for 6-volt systems or a 25-ohm 25-watt varia-
ble resistor for 12-volt and 24-volt systems.
028-8 CUTOUT-RELAY TESTS AND ADJUSTMENTS Adjust the generator field control, or variable resis-
The cutout relay in the regulator (which also is called tor, for minimum field current (maximum resistance),
a circuit breaker) should close only when the genera- and start the engine. Run the engine at operating
tor voltage rises high enough to charge the battery. speed and slowly decrease the field resistance,
The closing voltage and opening reverse current which increases the field current, until the cutout-
should be checked whenever the charging system is relay contact points close. Note the voltage at which
being tested. the contacts close. It should be between 12.6 and 13.6
Standard Delco-Remy regulator electrical settings volts. Then increase the resistance until the points
are adjusted by turning a Phillips-head screw. Me- open.
chanical settings of air gaps and point openings are
adjusted by loosening screws or by bending an ar- © 28-10 CLOSING-VOLTAGE ADJUSTMENT If the
mature stop. Details of these adjustments follow. closing voltage is too high, the cutout-relay spring
While all settings are checked and adjusted in the tension is excessive. If the closing voltage is too low,
same general manner, there are certain important there is too little spring tension. In either case, you
variations in the different models. Always check the will have to adjust the spring tension for the closing
manufacturer's specifications before making any voltage specified by the manufacturer.
check or adjustment of a generator or regulator. On many generator regulators, adjust the closing
voltage by turning the Phillips-head adjustment
© 28-9 CLOSING-VOLTAGE TEST Connect a volt- screw as shown in Fig. 28-6. Recheck the setting after
meter between the GEN terminal of the regulator and each adjustment. If the correct setting cannot be
ground (Fig. 28-5). There should be no test ammeter in made, remove the regulator from the engine for fur-
the circuit. An extra ammeter would add undesirable ther checks and adjustment.
resistance and affect the test result. Slowly increase
the generator speed, and note the voltage at which
the cutout relay closes on the voltmeter scale. De- ADJUSTING SCREW
TURN TO ADJUST CLOSING VOLTAGE

REGULATOR
CONNECT
TO GROUND VARIABLE
RESISTANCE

Ue 1
)) We
USSASALEE ELD OMA TO Te
*

|ay LSP P TTT Oe. CZIZIII III ZIT Py

v
9
y]
y)
4
s
4 Sens
4
4
‘6
a
=

VOLTMETER
S
GENERATOR

FIG. 28-5 Voltmeter connections to check cutout-relay clos- |#

ing voltage. Variable resistance may be connected in the
field circuit, as shown, to cycle the generator or to control FIG. 28-6 Cutout-relay closing-voltage adjustment on the
generator output. (Delco-Remy Division of General Motors type with a Phillips-head adjustment screw. (Delco-Remy
Corporation) Division of General Motors Corporation)

275
O 28-11 OPENING-CURRENT TEST Whenever the REGULATOR
CONNECT TO
generator output voltage falls below the battery volt- GROUND
age, the battery discharges into the generator. This
reverse (battery-to-generator) current should cause
the cutout-relay contacts to open. The opening-
current test is a check of the amount of reverse current
required to open the cutout relay. Disconnect the lead
from the battery terminal of the regulator and connect
a test ammeter in series with this connection, as
shown in Fig. 28-3. (You may still have the generator
field control and voltmeter connected as shown in
Fig. 28-5.)
Turn the generator field control to the maximum
resistance position and start the engine. Increase the
engine speed. Rotate the generator field control to
obtain an output current reading of about one-quarter
of the rated current. Slowly increase the field resis- VARIABLE rT)
tance to thereby decrease the field current while ob- RESISTANCE AMMETER VOLTMETER GENERATOR
serving the output current of the test ammeter. Note FIG. 28-8 Voltmeter, ammeter, and variable-resistance
how far the ammeter pointer will move below zero connections for checking voltage-regulator setting by the
variable-resistance method. (Delco-Remy Division of Gen-
before the relay opens and causes the pointer to re-
eral Motors Corporation)
turn to zero. The maximum negative reading is the
amount of reverse current required to open the relay
contacts. The value can usually be estimated from charging voltage as the operating temperature goes
the meter indication with reasonable accuracy. higher.
Check the specifications. If the reverse current is Two different methods of checking the voltage-
incorrect, remove the regulator and adjust the air gap regulator setting can be used, according to the type of
of the cutout relay. regulator. For all regulators except the double-
contact type, either a fixed or a variable resistance
028-12 VOLTAGE-REGULATOR TESTS AND AD- connected into the charging circuit is used. With the
JUSTMENTS The voltage regulator should be fixed-resistance method, the resistance and the voit-.
checked to see that it maintains the proper generator meter are connected as shown in Fig. 28-7. Run the
voltage under varying load conditions. The voltage engine for 15 minutes. Then cycle the generator by
required to properly charge a battery varies with slowing it until the voltage drops to one-quarter of the
temperature. The typical voltage regulator is temper- rated value. Then increase generator speed and note
ature-compensated so that the regulator reduces the the voltage rating.
With the variable-resistance method, connect the
variable resistor, ammeter, and voltmeter as shown
REGULATOR in Fig. 28-8. Operate the engine for 15 minutes with
% - OHM FIXED RESISTANCE the variable resistor adjusted to allow a generator
output of not more than 10 amps. Then cycle the gen-
erator as described above. Note the voltmeter read-
ing.
Connections for double-contact regulators are the
same as shown in Fig. 28-7 except that a variable
resistor is connected into the generator field circuit.
This resistance is used to control and cycle the gener-
ator (Fig. 28-5). With the variable resistor turned to
minimum resistance, operate the generator at me-
dium speed so that the regulator will operate on the
CONNECT TO
upper contacts. Run the engine for 15 minutes with
GROUND
the regulator cover in place. Cycle the generator by
TO BATTERY turning the variable resistor first to the open or maxi-
mum_-resistance position. Then turn the resistor to the
VOLTMETER GENERATOR closed or minimum-resistance position again. Check
FIG. 28-7 Voltmeter and fixed-resistance connections to the voltage with the voltage regulator operating on
check voltage-regulator setting. (Delco-Remy Division of its upper contacts. Note the voltage. Increase the
General Motors Corporation) resistance slowly until the voltage regulator begins

276
to operate on the lower contacts. Note the voltage.
The lower contacts should operate at 0.1 to 0.3 volts
lower than the upper contacts.
All Delco-Remy voltage regulators, except for the
double-contact regulators, are adjusted by turning an
BENDING
adjusting screw (Fig. 28-9). Turn the adjusting screw
clockwise to increase the voltage and counterclock-
ARMATURE
wise to lower the voltage. Always make the final
adjustment by increasing, not lowering, the screw
setting. Reduce the setting slightly below the speci- CONTACTS
fied value, and then bring it back up to the specifica-
tion.
If the screw is turned down too far when the voltage
regulator is adjusted, the spring support will not fol-
low the screw back up when it is turned out. In such
a case, turn the screw out to get clearance. Then BS SPRING
bend the spring support up and make the adjustment.
On double-contact regulators, voltage adjustment
is made with the voltage regulator operating on the
upper set of contacts. The difference in voltage be-
tween operation on the upper set and operation on
the lower set can be increased by slightly increasing
the air gap. The difference can be decreased by
slightly reducing the air gap. _SPRING HANGER
The voltage-regulator adjustment procedure varies FIG. 28-10 Bending the spring hanger to change the volt-
with the particular type of regulator. On some regu- age setting. (Chrysler Corporation)
lators, you increase the voltage by increasing the
spring tension or air gap. The spring tension is facturer's specification to see if the voltage regulation
changed by bending the spring hanger, as shown in is correct for the temperature. Proper voltage-regula-
Fig. 28-10. To change the air gap, remove the regula- tion settings vary widely with temperature. For ex-
tor from the engine and reposition the fixed contact ample, on the typical Delco-Remy single-contact volt-
point. age regulator, the correct voltage can vary from 15.6
The regulated voltage changes with the tempera- volts to 13.1 volts over a temperature range of 45 to
ture of some generator regulators. Check the manu- 165oFs(742.16.7.3297C].

028-13 CURRENT-REGULATOR TESTS AND AD-

JUSTMENTS A properly adjusted current regulator
will permit the generator to produce up to its maxi-
ADJUSTING SCREW mum rated current under heavy load. Two methods of
(TURN TO ADJUST SETTING) checking the current-regulator setting can be used.
With one method, an additional load is placed across
the generator to assure current-regulator operation.
With the second method, the voltage-regulator con-
tacts are shorted out with a jumper lead. This method
must not be used for current regulators with tempera-
ture compensation.
On current regulators with temperature compensa-
tion, connect an ammeter into the charging circuit.
Connect an additional load (carbon pile resistor or
extra lights) as shown in Fig. 28-11. Turn on all elec-
trical equipment. Operate the generator for 15 min-
utes with the cover on. Then cycle the generator, and
note the current setting. On current regulators with-
out temperature compensation, connect an ammeter
into the charging circuit. Remove the regulator cover,
and connect a jumper lead across the voltage-regu-
FIG. 28-9 Adjusting voltage-regulator setting by means of
an adjusting screw. (Delco-Remy Division of General Motors
lator contacts. Turn on all lights and other electrical
Corporation) equipment, or load the battery as discussed earlier.

204
 REGULATOR tors, this can be time-consuming. There may be times
CONNECT TO when you make one adjustment only to find that an-
other adjustment is needed. Because time is valuable
in the service business, the procedure in most shops
is to replace defective generator regulators rather
than take the time to repair them. Usually, a new or
rebuilt regulator can be obtained for less than the
labor cost of repairing a defective regulator.
Always try to obtain the manufacturer's specifica-
tions before you attempt to service a regulator. This
step is important, because the electrical settings,
methods of measuring temperature, and the manner
in which adjustments are made vary considerably
among regulators.
The checks and adjustments on regulators can be
divided into two parts: those performed on the engine
and those performed after the regulator has been
TO BATTERY AMMETER VOLTMETER GENERATOR removed from the engine. Air gaps and point open-
FIG. 28-11 Ammeter and jumper-lead connections for ings change little in normal operation. However,
checking the current regulator using a jumper lead on regu- electrical settings sometimes do require adjustment
lators without temperature compensation. (Delco-Remy Di-
vision of General Motors Corporation)
to meet changed operating conditions. Electrical set-
tings can be made without removing the regulator. If
the electrical adjustments cannot be made properly,
Operate the generator at the specified speed, and
the regulator should be removed so that air gaps and
note the output current on the ammeter.
point openings can be checked and adjusted. Then
The current setting of the current regulator is ad-
the electrical setting can be checked, either off or on
justed in the same manner as the voltage setting of
the engine. Many regulators which are discarded as
the voltage regulator on Delco-Remy regulators. See
defective would operate satisfactorily if only some
Fig. 28-9. The maximum current reading will depend
slight adjustment were made.
in part on the temperature of the regulator. At the
temperature of 80°F [26.7°C] measured at the regula-
tor cover, the current reading should usually be 028-15. SERVICING REGULATOR CONTACTS
within 10 percent of the generator rated output. Too Clean contact points are essential if the regulator is
high a reading would indicate that the regulator is to operate properly. Dirty or pitted contact points will
not limiting the output. Too low a reading indicates cause unsteady or erratic charging. The contacts can
that the regulator is operating on too low a current. If be reconditioned if they are not badly pitted.
the maximum current reading is too low, check to find The contact points on many regulators can be
out if the generator is defective. A generator current- cleaned with a special file. A flat file should not be
output test was discussed in © 28-6. If the generator is used to clean the flat contact points, because it may
all right, the current-regulator setting, or the current not touch the center of the contact, where most wear
required to open the contacts, will have to be in- occurs. The contact points should be filed in the di-
creased. To increase the setting, increase the relay rection of the length of the armature.
spring tension or air gap. You can clean the cutout-relay contact points with
If the maximum current reading is too high, de- crocus cloth or flexible abrasive material. All oxide
crease the current-regulator setting. For this adjust- should be removed so that there will be no resistance
ment, you should decrease the spring tension. The between the contacts. As a final step, the contact
generator must be cycled by reducing the engine surface should be washed with a nontoxic chemical
speed or field current enough to open the cutout-relay cleaner to remove all foreign matter.
contact after each adjustment. Retest the new setting Never use emery cloth or sandpaper on regulator
after each adjustment with the regulator cover in contacts. Particles of the abrasive may become em-
place. bedded in the contact surfaces and cause them to
burn.
© 28-14 GENERATOR-REGULATOR SERVICE Many
charging-system problems can be corrected by O 28-16 CUTOUT-RELAY SERVICE The cutout
changing the spring tension and air gap on the indi- relay should close when the generator voltage rises
vidual relays in the generator regulator. Also, it may from 12.6 to 13.6 volts, so that the circuit is complete
be necessary to clean the relay contact points. to the battery and charging can take place. However,
Although it is possible to recondition most regula- specifications vary. The relay should open usually

278
when the generator output voltage falls enough for a measured with the lower contacts closed. Using the
reverse current of about 1 amp to flow. special tool shown in Fig. 28-10, bend the upper con-
The closing voltage can be varied by changing the tact arm to obtain the proper opening.
relay spring tension. Some relays have coil springs
and adjustable spring hangers as shown in Fig. 28- © 28-19 GENERATOR SERVICE _ Troubles that can
10. The cutout relay used on some other regulators be traced to dc generators include no output, un-
has a flat spring attached to the armature as shown steady or low output, excessive output, and excessive
in Fig. 28-6. The end of the spring bears against a noise. The majority of generator troubles can be
screw. To increase or decrease the spring tension, cured by tightening the drive belt, replacing the
turn the screw out or into the threaded hole in the brushes, repairing obviously bad connections, or lu-
relay frame. brication. Other defects may require overhaul proce-
To adjust the air gap, the regulator should be re- dures, such ‘as reconditioning the commutator, re-
moved from the engine. The procedure for making placing field windings, or replacing bearings.
this adjustment varies. On some regulators, it is rec- It is uneconomical, under some conditions, for a
ommended that you lightly close the contacts with technician to overhaul a generator. If the trouble can-
your fingers. Measure the spacing between the arma- not be corrected quickly, either obtain a rebuilt gen-
ture and relay core with a flat feeler gauge. Check the erator or send the defective generator to an automo-
specifications. If the spacing is incorrect, loosen the tive electrical shop for rebuilding.
screw and make the adjustment by raising or lower-
ing the armature. © 28-20 GENERATOR TROUBLESHOOTING Table
The contact point opening also should be checked. 28-2 (on page 280) lists the typical generator troubles
Use a flat feeler gauge to measure the spacing with and their probable causes and the checks or correc-
the contacts fully open. Compare your reading with tions to be made. Each trouble is discussed at the end
the manufacturer's specifications. To adjust the spac- of the table.
ing, bend the armature stop. On other regulators, the
contact spacing is adjusted by moving the stationary No Output The most likely causes of complete gen-
contact. Upon completion of these mechanical ad- erator failure are listed in the table. To track down the
justments, the regulator should be installed on the defect, first make a visual inspection of the genera-
engine and tested under actual operating conditions. tor. Check the drive belt, making sure that it is tight
and not badly worn. Check the wiring connections at
© 28-17 CURRENT-REGULATOR ADJUSTMENTS the generator and regulator for tightness and corro-
The current regulator may require bench adjustment. sion. Clean and tighten as necessary.
If you are unable to obtain proper operation by ad- Next, check the brushes and commutator for good
justing the spring tension with the regulator on the electrical contact. If the generator has a cover band,
engine while it is running, stop the engine and re- remove it or look through the windows in the housing
move the regulator. to inspect these parts. Look for sticking or worn
The air gap between the relay armature and core is brushes and gummed, dirty, or worn commutator.
measured with a round or wire feeler gauge. On the Figure 28-12 shows a badly worn and rough commu-
typical regulator, the spacing should be measured tator. Check also for loose connections and frayed or
with the contacts barely touching. Adjust the spacing broken wires.
by loosening the stationary contact support and mov- Sticking brushes can sometimes be released by
ing it up or down. Tighten the mounting screws. Re- moving them in and out slightly with a screwdriver or
install and test the regulator after adjustment. other long, thin tool. Badly worn brushes, as well as
any broken or frayed leads, should be replaced. Any
028-18 VOLTAGE-REGULATOR ADJUSTMENTS loose screws should be tightened. If you cannot lo-
Standard voltage regulators are adjusted in the same cate and correct the trouble easily, the generator
way as the current regulator. Push down on the ar- must be removed and either disassembled for further
mature until the contacts are barely touching, and tests or replaced.
measure the spacing with a round or wire feeler If the commutator is dirty, it is often possible to
gauge. Loosen the screws and move the stationary clean it by using fine sandpaper. Hold the sandpaper
contacts up or down as necessary. against the rotating commutator with a piece of wood
To adjust the spacing, loosen the screw and insert a as shown in Fig. 24-35. Then blow out all the dust. If
screwdriver in the slot provided. Move the screw- the commutator is worn or rough, it will have to be
driver handle up or down to adjust the air gap and refinished or the armature will have to be replaced.
tighten the screw. The screw should be loosened
enough to allow for the adjustment while maintain- Unsteady or Low Output The causes of this condition
ing a slight drag on the contact support. are similar to the causes of no output. Begin with a
The spacing between the upper contacts should be good visual inspection and correct the things which

279
TABLE 28-2 dc GENERATOR TROUBLESHOOTING CHART

Condition Possible Cause Check or Correction

1. No output a. Sticking brushes Free; replace brushes and springs as

necessary
b. Gummy or dirty commutator Clean; turn commutator and undercut
mica if needed
c. Burned commutator Service commutator, and check the
current-regulator setting
d. Loose connections or broken heads Tighten or solder connections; replace
leads
. Grounded armature Check with test light; repair or replace
Open armature Repair or replace
. Shorted armature Check on growler; repair or replace
. Grounded field Check with test light; repair or replace
Open field Check with test light; repair or replace
Shorted field Check with ammeter; repair or replace
. Grounded
Key
beer
Pom
eo) terminal Replace insulation or terminal as
needed
l. Broken drive belt Replace belt
2. Unsteady or low output . Loose or worn drive belt Tighten or replace
a.
a Sticking brushes Free; replace brushes and springs as
needed
c. Low brush-spring tension Retension or replace springs
d. Dirty, gummy, or burned commutator Clean; turn commutator, and undercut
mica as needed; check armature for
opens
e. Out-of-round, dirty, worn, or rough Clean; turn commutator, and undercut
commutator mica as needed
f. Partial short, ground, or open in ar- Repair or replace armature
mature
g. Partial short, ground, or open in field Repair or replace fields
3. Excessive output a. Grounded field circuit—type with Check with test light; repair or replace
field grounded in regulator
b. Shorted field circuit—type with field Test with ammeter; repair or replace
grounded in generator
4. Noisy generator . Loose mounting or pulley Tighten
2
ao. Worn or dirty bearings Clean or replace
c. Improperly seated brushes Seat brushes properly

are easily accessible, such as the drive belt, electri- quickly and easily by making resistance tests in the
cal connections, and leads. If necessary, check and field circuit. In most cases, it will be necessary to
service the commutator to improve the electrical con- remove the generator and disassemble it to make the
tact between it and brushes. When these steps do not repair.
correct the trouble, remove the generator for further
work or replacement. Generator Noise There is some noise in any genera-
tor. However, noise may become excessive from such
Excessive Output Excessive generator output is conditions as a loose mounting, a loose drive pulley
caused by a short circuit in the field winding or circuit or fan, worn or dry bearings, and improperly seated
which causes the field current to bypass the regula- brushes.
tor. As a result, the regulator cannot control the out- To locate the cause of noise, remove the drive belt
put. In a generator which has the field grounded and rotate the pulley on the generator by hand while
through the regulator, this short circuit can result listening closely. A loose pulley or fan should show
from a grounded field circuit within the generator. In up immediately. You would be able to feel it wobble
a generator in which the field is grounded directly on the shaft. In this case, the nut on the front of the
and the regulator is the ungrounded side of the field shaft should be tightened.
winding, a short circuit between the field and arma- In many cases, excessive generator noise is due to
ture lead could produce the same results. worn or dry bearings, and the condition will become
The causes of excessive output can be detected progressively worse with use. Try lubricating the

280
 COMMUTATOR WORN THROWN
ARMATURE AND GROOVED SOLDER

hs
Be 4

FIG. 28-18 Thrown solder on the cover band indicates the

generator has been overloaded.
SHOULDERS

thrown solder, the current-regulator setting must be

MICA INSULATION BETWEEN checked and adjusted. Thrown solder may be the
COMMUTATOR BARS HIGH OR
PROTRUDING
result of too high a current-regulator setting.
FIG. 28-12 A worn, grooved, and rough commutator with
high mica. A commutator in this condition requires turning © 28-22 GENERATOR REBUILDING The proce-
and undercutting of the mica. dures for generator removal, disassembly, reassem-
bly, and reinstallation vary with different applica-
tions and generator types.
bearings if this can be done easily. However, some
generators have sealed bearings, which should not
© 28-23 GENERATOR WIRING, INSULATION, AND
be lubricated.
FUSES Fuses of the proper current-carrying ca-
New brushes may produce excessive noise until
pacity should be installed in charging and electrical
they become seated. Check to see if the contours of
circuits wherever required. The fuses will protect
the brushes match the commutator. If not, the brushes
electrical equipment against damage from excessive
should be seated. If the brushes are improperly posi-
overloading or from accidental short circuits or
tioned, remove and reinstall them correctly.
grounds.
All connections in the charging circuit must be
© 28-21 MECHANICAL INSPECTION OF GENERA- clean and tight. Loose or corroded connections cause
TORS The brushes, commutator, and wiring high resistance and may result in serious damage to
should be examined and the generator should be equipment owing to excessive voltage. All soldered
lubricated as needed. The cover band should be re- connections should be made with rosin-core solder.
moved (on generators so equipped) so that the Never use acid-core solder on electrical connections.
brushes and commutator can be checked. Acid-core solder may cause corrosion to form on the
The brushes should be free in their holders, and connection. Rosin is a hard yellow substance made
they should make good clean contact with the com- from the sap of pine trees and will not cause corrosion
mutator. The pigtail lead connections should be tight. and faulty connections.
There should be enough brush left to last until the In wiring small engines, stranded wire (cable) must
next inspection. be used to minimize breakage due to vibration. All
If particles of solder, called “thrown solder,” are wiring should be supported at enough points to pre-
found on the inside of the cover band in line with the vent any motion, since looseness would cause chaf-
bars of the commutator, it is an indication that the ing and wear of the insulation.
generator has been overloaded (Fig. 28-13). The sol- For 24-volt systems, wire with thicker insulation
der connecting the armature wires to the commutator must be used to protect against the higher voltage.
bars has melted from the heat of excessive current Failure to insulate the wiring properly may result in
flow. The generator must then be removed and disas- serious damage because of the great amount of
sembled. Usually, a new armature is installed. power available from the battery.
Sometimes the leads can be resoldered to the bars, Terminals at the ends of wires must have ample
and the commutator reconditioned. In all cases of current-carrying capacity and be sufficiently strong

281
’ to withstand vibration. Wires should be supported as surrounding machinery —all these make it necessary
close to terminals as possible. for the starter-generator to be checked frequently. In
Whenever generator wiring is installed, wire of checking, you should look at the brushes, commuta-
sufficiently large size must be used to carry the maxi- tor, drive belt, and electrical wiring and connections.
mum current the length of the circuit without exces- Following are typical recommendations from a man-
sive voltage drop. In two-wire insulated systems, the ufacturer.
total length of wire in the circuit must be taken into
account. Smaller wire can be used in the generator Brushes Brushes should be checked after about
field circuit, since the current carried is compara- every 200 hours of operation. On the unit shown in
tively small. It is only about 1 to 3 amps, depending Fig. 28-14, this requires removal of the two through
upon the voltage of the system. bolts and the commutator end frame. Some starter-
generators have windows in the brush end of the
STARTER-GENERATORS frame; these can be exposed for inspection of the
brushes by removal of a cover band. Brushes should
© 28-24 STARTER-GENERATORSERVICE InChap. be in good condition and making good contact with
24, we covered the servicing of the starter-generator, the commutator. If they are worn down to less than
emphasizing the starter. Now let us consider the ser- one-half of their original length, they should be re-
vicing of the generator part of the combination unit. placed. Proper brush-spring tension is important and
Figure 28-14 is a sectional view of the starter-gen- can be measured with a spring scale. If the tension is
erator. not correct or if the springs appear blued or burned,
If generator output is low or zero, first check the replace them.
ground strap between the voltage regulator and
frame to make sure it is not disconnected or broken. Commutator The commutator should be examined
Then check the commutator, brushes, and internal for glaze or dirt. It can be cleaned with #00 sandpa-
connections of the generator. Sticking brushes, a per. One way to do this is to put the armature in a
dirty or gummy commutator, or poor connections may lathe and, while it is rotating, hold the sandpaper
prevent generator output. If everything appears to be against the commutator. On starter-generators with a
in good condition in the generator, it is possible that cover band or windows in the end frame, stick the
the trouble is in the regulator. The regulator should sandpaper through the window, as shown in Fig. 24-
be checked as explained later. 35, while the engine is driving the starter-generator.
Because the starter-generator is in continuous op- If the commutator is rough, is out-of-round, or has
eration all the time that the engine is running, the high mica, the commutator should be turned down in
starter-generator should be checked periodically. The a lathe. See Fig. 24-38. Then the mica should be un-
tougher the operating conditions, the more frequently dercut, as shown in Fig. 24-39.
the starter-generator should be checked. Frequent Never use emery cloth to clean the commutator.
starts and stops, excessively long cranking periods Particles of emery can become embedded in the com-
due to hard starting, excessively dirty or moist oper- mutator and cause rapid brush wear.
ating conditions, heavy vibration from the engine or
Drive Belt Make sure the drive belt is in good condi-
BALL BEARING POLE SHOE FIELD COIL tion and is adjusted to the proper tension. Low belt
OILER (Early
tension will allow the belt to slip so that poor crank-
models only) ing and low generator output will result. Belt slip-
page will quickly wear out the belt. On some instal-
lations, belt tension is correct if you can push the belt
in 4/e inch [12.7 mm] halfway between the pulleys.
Adjust the belt by loosening the bolt that holds the
starter-generator tight, and swing the unit in or out to
get the correct tension. Then tighten the bolt.

Lubrication Some starter-generators are equipped

with sealed ball bearings and require no lubrication.
Other units have hinge-cap oilers which require 8 to
COMMUTATOR
10 drops of light engine oil after every 100 hours of
ARMATURE operation. Whenever a starter-generator is disas-
sembled, the bearings should be examined for wear.
COMMUTATOR-END FRAME DRIVE-END FRAME If worn, they should be discarded and new bearings
FIG. 28-14 Sectional view of a starter-generator. (Kohler installed. Sealed ball bearings should not be washed
Company) in solvent. This will wash out the lubricant and

282
thereby ruin the bearing. However, unsealed ball AIR GAP 0.075 INCH [1.95 mm]
(Measured between ;
bearings should be washed in lubricant, dried,- re- UPPER CONTACT SUPPORT armature and core
lubricated, and tested to see if they are in good (Disassemble to clean points) with points touching)
enough condition to be reused. Never spin a bear-
ing with compressed air to dry it. This will ruin the
bearing.

© 28-25 STARTER-GENERATOR REGULATOR SER-

VICE Figure 28-15 shows one model of starter-gen-
erator regulator with the cover removed so the two
units inside can be seen. Several models of this
type of regulator are used. When you have the job of
checking and adjusting these regulators, refer to the
manufacturer's instructions. The procedures required VOLTAGE
and the specifications to which the regulator should ADJUSTMENT
(Bend hanger down
be set vary with different models. As a typical ex- or turn screw in
ample of how to check and adjust a starter-generator to increase voltage)
regulator, let us look at the procedures for checking
and adjusting the regulator shown in Fig. 28-15. ADJUSTING SCREWS
The connections to the regulator, including the (Loosen and shift support
to adjust air gap)
ground connection, must be tight and clean. A loose
ground connection, for example, will cause poor reg- FIG. 28-16 Current-voltage regulator unit, showing adjust-
ments. (Kohler Company)
ulator operation.
If the regulator contact points become dirty and
burned, there will be excessive resistance in the gen-
Cutout Relay The cutout relay requires three checks
erator field circuit. The result is that generator output
and adjustments: those of air gap, point opening, and
will be low. This could lead to a run-down battery.
closing voltage. To make the air-gap and point-
You can clean the contacts with a fine-cut file. This
opening checks, disconnect the battery.
requires loosening of the screws holding the upper
contact assembly in place so the assembly can be
temporarily moved to one side or removed (Fig. 28-16). Air Gap See Fig. 28-17. Put a finger on the armature
Never use sandpaper or emery cloth to clean con- directly above the center of the winding, and press
tacts. Particles of sand or emery can become embed- down on the armature until the points just close.
ded in the contact and prevent normal regulator Measure the air gap between the armature and the
action. center of the winding core. On the model shown, this
ARMATURE (Raise or lower
COVER to adjust air gap)
CURRENT air gap (Armature
CUTOUT-RELAY VOLTAGE to core) 0.020 INCH [0.51 mm]
CLOSING REGULATOR ARMATURE STOP
VOLTAGE (Bend to adjust
ADJUSTMENT VOLTAGE point opening)
SCREW ADJUSTMENT
SCREW

POINT OPENING
AIR GAP
po—
<(ep
0.020 INCH [0.51 mm]
ADJUSTING
SCREWS
CUTOUT
RELAY

LOAD OR pm
LIGHTING
TERMINAL SHOCK MOUNTING

BATTERY
(+) TERMINAL
GENERATOR ARMATURE
GENERATOR FIELD (A) TERMINAL
(F) TERMINAL (Not shown — On underside) CLOSING VOLTAGE
FIG. 28-15 Current-voltage regulator with cover removed ADJUSTING SCREW
to show adjustment required. (Kohler Company) FIG. 28-17 Cutout-relay adjustments. (Kohler Company)

283
should be 0.020 inch [0.51 mm]. Adjust by loosening ALTERNATORS
the two screws attaching the armature hinge to the
frame and by raising or lowering the armature as- O 28-26 SERVICING FLYWHEEL ALTERNATORS
sembly. Many small engines use alternators to furnish current
for charging the battery and handling external elec-
Point Opening Release the armature and measure trical loads, such as lights. These alternators often
the point opening, as shown in Fig. 28-17. On the are built into the engine itself. They are called fly-
model shown, this should be 0.020 inch [0.51 mm]. wheel alternators, because they use the flywheel as
Adjust by bending the upper armature stop. part of the alternator. Figure 28-18 shows a typical
flywheel-alternator charging system. The flywheel
Closing Voltage Connect the battery. Then connect a has a series of magnets which whirl past the station-
voltmeter from the generator terminal to ground. Start ary coils (the stator coils) located around the outside
the engine and slowly increase its speed, noting the of the flywheel. We explained how flywheel alter-
increase in voltage. Watch for the points to close, and nators work in Chap. 27. Now we will describe proce-
read the voltage at this instant. The voltage should dures for diagnosing and correcting troubles in
be adjusted, if it is not correct, by turning the clos- small-engine flywheel alternators.
ing-voltage adjusting screw (Fig. 28-17). Turning it to Because the flywheel alternator has no separate
increase the tension of the flat spring increases the moving parts, it rarely requires service and seldom
closing voltage. Recheck the closing voltage after causes trouble. We will see what possible troubles
each adjustment by slowing the engine until the might occur with flywheel alternators and how to find
points open and then increasing the speed again. out what is causing the trouble.

Current-Voltage Regulator This regulator requires

O 28-27 CAUTIONS FOR ALTERNATOR SERVICE
two adjustments: those of the air gap and the operat-
There are certain cautions to observe when working
ing voltage.
on alternator charging systems.
Air Gap See Fig. 28-16. Adjust by loosening the two
1. Keep all electrical connections clean and tight,
adjusting screws and raising or lowering the upper-
and keep wires intact. High resistance due to
contact-point assembly. Adjustment is correct when
poor battery connections will cause excessively
the specified air gap is attained with the contact
high charging rates and cause the battery to
points just touching. Tighten the screws and recheck
use too much water.
the air gap.
2. All regulator checks and adjustments must be
Operating Voltage This regulator operates on both made under specified conditions.
generator voltage and generator output current. The
regulator must be at operating temperature before 3. Do not connect the battery backwards. Re-
the operating voltage is checked. This requires that versed battery connections may damage the
the engine be operated for about 20 minutes so the rectifiers, wiring, or other components of the
regulator can warm up. Make the operating-voltage charging system. Battery polarity should be
check with the regulator cover on. Because the volt- checked with a voltmeter to be sure which ter-
age varies greatly with the current output, you must minal post is connected to ground before rein-
measure the operating voltage at a specified current stalling battery.
output. For example, one model regulator, with a 4. If booster batteries are used for starting the
3-amp current output, will regulate at 14.4 volts. engine, they must be connected properly to
However, with a 6-amp current output, it will regulate prevent damage to the electrical system.
at only 13.2 volts.
Refer to the manufacturer's instructions for the spe- 5. Anything that affects the battery or regulator
cific regulator under test so you will know how to affects voltage regulation.
connect the meters to make the test. Adjust by bend-
6. Do not use batteries of higher-than-system volt-
ing the lower spring hanger down to increase the
age either to boost a battery of lower voltage or
voltage setting or up to lower the voltage setting.
in starting. For example, do not jump-start an
Some regulators have a screw adjustment, similar to
engine that uses a 6-volt battery with a 12-volt
that shown in Fig. 28-17, for the cutout relay. Turning
battery.
the screw in or out changes the voltage setting.
After each adjustment, put the regulator cover back 7. Alternators must not be operated on open cir-
into place. Slow the engine until the contact points of cuit with the field winding energized. High
the cutout relay open, and bring the engine back up voltages will result, causing possible rectifier
to speed. Then recheck the voltage setting. failure. Make sure all connections are tight.

284
 AC LEADS HIGH-
VOLTAGE
LEAD SPARK PLUG

3
=
=
aiF

MAGNETO
COIL —

RECTIFIER-
REGULATOR =-
GROUND

ALTERNATOR
STATOR

CONDENSER

LOW-
VOLTAGE
LEADS

ea
is
BREAKER 7 b&b
POINTS

FIG. 28-18 A typical flywheel-alternator charging system.

nents even when the system is not in operation.
(Kohler Company)
A short circuit between the stator leads to the
rectifier will show a discharge on the ammeter,
8. Do not attempt to polarize the alternator. No and an undercharged battery will result.
polarization is required. Any attempt to polar-
ize may result in damage to the alternator, reg- © 28-28 SERVICING THE FLYWHEEL-ALTERNATOR
ulator, or electrical circuits. CHARGING SYSTEM The following procedures are
used to check a flywheel-alternator charging system
9. The field circuit must not be grounded at any
that uses a rectifier-regulator. There are many differ-
point. Grounding of the field will damage the
ent arrangements. You should look up the specifica-
regulator. If the field lead from the regulator to
tions and specific procedures to use for any alternator
the alternator is grounded, the battery will
in the manufacturer's service manual. With the cor-
charge excessively.
rect information, you will be able to make the checks
10. Grounding the alternator output terminal may quickly and in the correct way. Incorrect checking
damage the alternator and/or circuit compo- procedures can damage equipment.

285
 RECTIFIER- VOLTMETER
REGULATOR

SWITCH

oe Neary

FIG. 28-21 Checking voltage at the battery. (Tecumseh

HEAVY-DUTY Products Company)
STARTER SWITCH (KEY
OR PUSH BUTTON)

STARTER Isolate the trouble by reconnecting the battery and

MOTOR Y #6 WIRE SIZE checking the voltage between the two battery termi-
12 VOLT nals, as shown in Fig. 28-21, with the engine operat-
ing near full throttle. If the voltage is 13.8 volts or
FIG. 28-19 Wiring circuits for a 7-amp flywheel alternator.
(Tecumseh Products Company) higher, turn on a load such as the lights to reduce the
voltage below 13.6 volts. If the charging rate in-
creases, the system is in good condition. If the charg-
The system for which the following checks are to be ing rate does not increase, the stator or rectifier-regu-
made is shown in Fig. 28-19. There are two basic lator is at fault and a further check must be made.
conditions that require checking: no charging current If the system has no ammeter, connect a test am-
to the battery and battery overcharging. meter into the circuit when making the above test.
Disconnect the plug from the rectifier-regulator and
No Charge to Battery If no charging current is going test the ac voltage (use an alternating-current volt-
to the battery and the battery is weak or discharged meter) as shown in Fig. 28-22, with the engine run-
(check battery to be sure), disconnect the B+ terminal ning near full throttle. If the voltage reads less than
wire. Connect a dc voltmeter from this lead to the 20 volts, the stator is defective. If the voltage reads
case of the rectifier-regulator as shown in Fig. 28-20. more than 20 volts, the rectifier-regulator is defective.
Run the engine near full throttle, and read the volt- If tests indicate the rectifier-regulator is at fault, it
age. If it is above 14 volts, the charging system is should be replaced. This is a sealed unit and cannot
satisfactory. The trouble may be in the ammeter or be serviced in the field. If tests show the stator is at
connections in the circuit. fault, the trouble probably is due to an open or
If the voltage is less than 14 volts but greater than ground. The coils must be replaced. This requires
zero, there probably is some defect in the rectifier- partial disassembly oi the engine. There also is the
regulator. You can try another rectifier-regulator to possibility that the flywheel magnets have weak-
see if this clears up the trouble, or you can check ened. However, this is a rare occurrence. The mag-
further. If there is no voltage at all, then the trouble nets can be tested with a screwdriver as shown in
can be in either the stator or the rectifier-regulator. Fig. 26-25. Procedures vary for the disassembly of

B+ TERMINAL WIRE

DC VOLTMETER AC
LEADS VOLTMETER
LEADS

____ REGULATOR-
RECTIFIER

FIG. 28-20 Connecting voltmeter leads to check system FIG. 28-22 Checking voltage of stator winding with an ac
voltage. (Tecumseh Products Company) voltmeter. (Tecumseh Products Company)

286
different engines, so refer to the shop manual cover- 15. Describe how to perform a mechanical inspec-
ing the engine being serviced. A general disassem- tion of the generator.
bly procedure for small engines is covered in later
chapters.
16. How do you check a fuse?
17. Explain how to clean the commutator of a
Battery Overcharging This condition is probably due starter-generator.
to a defective rectifier-regulator. You can check with a 18. What two adjustments are made on the regula-
dc voltmeter connected as shown in Fig. 28-21 with tor for the starter-generator?
the engine operating at nearly full throttle. If the
voltage goes over 14.7 volts, the regulator is not func- 19. What is the danger of grounding the field cir-
tioning and the rectifier-regulator must be replaced. cuit of an alternator?
If the voltage remains under 14.7 volts, the system is 20. What can happen if the alternator output circuit
functioning satisfactorily. There may be some trouble is open while the field winding is energized?
in the battery, such as a shorted cell, which causes
the charging rate to remain high. Battery checking is 21. When the engine is running at full speed and
described in Chap. 22. the voltage of the flywheel alternator is above
14 volts, what is the condition of the charging
REVIEW QUESTIONS system?
22. What is most likely to fail in the flywheel alter-
1. What are the four general types of complaints
nator?
made about charging systems?
23. What parts must be removed from the engine to
What can cause a high charging rate?
install a new stator coil?
. What are the causes of a low charging rate?
24. Can new magnets be installed in the flywheel
. What is the meaning of no ammeter reading? of a flywheel alternator?
N.
Oo
fF
ao What can be wrong if the charging indicator 25. How can you test the strength of the flywheel
light does not work? magnets?
. How do you polarize a generator? SELEsPROJECT
. How do you make a generator output test?
Many different types of charging systems are used
. Describe how to make a generator voltage test. on small engines. For example, there is the
starter-generator, the dc generator, the flywheel
op
on
o . Explain how to test the cutout relay.
alternator, and the separate alternator. Get several
10. Explain how to adjust the cutout relay. manufacturers’ shop manuals on late-model en-
gines. Study the charging-system checks for the
11. What is a closing-voltage test?
different makes of engines. Write out the specific
12. Explain how to test the voltage regulator. checking procedures for the various types of charg-
ing systems. Put your sheets of paper with the
13. Describe how to clean the contact points in the
checking procedure into your notebook. This will
generator regulator.
help you understand the various procedures and
14. What can cause a generator to be noisy? give you a permanent record of the procedures.

287
five
ENGINE SERVICE

Part 5 of this book describes service operations

on small engines. Included in Part 5 are servic-
ing details on engine valves and valve trains,
pistons and related parts, crankshafts, cylinder
blocks, and cylinders. The servicing procedures
discussed are aimed at correcting specific en-
gine troubles.
There is another method of engine service
called engine rebuilding. It involves bringing in
old, worn engines and disassembling them
completely. All worn parts are repaired or re-
placed, and the engine is completely rebuilt.
Only those old parts that are still in good condi-
tion are reused. This results in an engine that is
just about “as good as new.”
Another way to service an engine is to
purchase a “short block” from the manufac-
turer. This includes the cylinder block with all
related parts such as pistons, piston pins,
rings, connecting rods and bearings, crankshaft
and main bearings.
There are four chapters in Part 5. These are as
follows:

Chapter 29: Troubleshooting Small Engines

Chapter 30: Operating and Maintaining
Small Engines
Chapter 31: Servicing Two-Cycle Engines
Chapter 32: Servicing Four-Cycle Engines
289
 29ter
Chap
Troubleshooting
Small Engines

029-1 SAFETY Before we discuss small-engine

troubleshooting, let us review engine safety. Every
year people are injured by small engines and small-
engine-powered equipment. When the operator or
After studying this chapter, you should be service technician observes basic safety precautions,
able to: the chances of injury are much less. Anyone operat-
ing or working on small engines and power equip-
1. List the safety cautions to follow while ment should always think about safety.
troubleshooting small engines Power mowers, garden tractors, snowblowers, and
other machines powered by small engines have be-
2. List the operating cautions to follow while come so commonplace that we may forget the poten-
troubleshooting small engines tial dangers involved in servicing and operating such
equipment. In the interest of safety, some general
3. Explain what troubleshooting is and how precautions are listed below as safety reminders. The
analysis of a specific trouble can point to the best safeguard against accidents is to try to prevent
them.
possible causes and cures
1. Batteries: Be careful when handling storage
4. Demonstrate how to troubleshoot a problem
batteries. They contain acid that can eat through
in a small engine
clothing and burn skin and cause blindness. A
battery gives off highly flammable hydrogen gas
while being charged. Avoid starting an engine
until this gas is cleared from the area.
2. Heat: Keep away from hot exhaust parts and
allow an ample cooling-off period before placing
equipment in storage. Never cover a hot engine
with flammable materials, such as rags, plastic
sheeting, or the cover. They may catch fire.
3. Electrical Shock: While electrical energy from
the ignition system may not be strong enough to
cause actual injury, reaction to shock could
cause you to pull away and come into contact
with hot or moving parts. Keep hands away from
the ignition system.
4. Noise: Keep the sound level as low as possible.
Do not operate the engine without a muffler or
with a faulty exhaust system. Exposure to exces-
sive noise not only is tiring but also can lead to
impairment of hearing.

290
O 29-2 OPERATING CAUTIONS Improper opera- inhaled for a short time. Always observe the follow-
tion of power equipment creates hazards that can ing precautions:
lead to personal injury and property damage. To pre-
vent accidents, become thoroughly familiar with a 1. Never operate an engine inside a closed build-
machine before operating it. Always wear safety ing or in any area where exhaust gases can
glasses if appropriate. Read the instructions, know accumulate.
how to make emergency stops, practice driving the
machine before putting it to work, and always use 2. Be careful not to breathe exhaust fumes when
good common sense. Keep the following general op- working in the vicinity of an engine.
erating precautions in mind: 3. Keep the exhaust system tight and components
in good condition at all times. Noise also can be
1. Never allow children or other inexperienced harmful.
persons to operate power equipment.
4, If the engine must be operated inside a shop for
_ 2. Never wear loose clothing such as scarves that test purposes, make sure the exhaust gases are
could become entangled in the machine, chok- piped safely outside.
ing you or pulling you into moving parts.
5. Exhaust-system parts get very hot. Keep your
3. Make sure all guards and shields are in place hands, feet, and clothing away from these parts
and secure before starting. while the engine is running and for a long time
afterward.
4, To prevent unintentional starting when working
on the equipment, always disconnect the 6. Never operate an engine near a building where
spark-plug wire first. exhaust gases could seep inside—for example,
through an open window or door.
5. Make sure hands, feet, and clothing are safely
away from movable parts when starting.
O29-4 FUEL HAZARDS Gasoline is such a com-
6. Never attempt to start with drive engaged.
mon fuel that we easily forget that it is highly vola-
Make sure it is shifted into neutral and the
tile, extremely flammable, and explosive as a vapor.
brakes are set.
Keep the following in mind when storing, handling,
7. Never tamper with the governor setting to gain and using gasoline:
more power. The governor establishes safe op-
erating limits. Overspeed not only shortens the 1. Store gasoline only in an approved red container
life of the equipment but also is extremely haz- on which “GASOLINE” is clearly marked in large
ardous. letters. Never store gasoline in a glass or house-
hold type of plastic container. The container
8. Keep people safely away from the operating
could be broken and a disastrous explosion and
area. Be especially watchful for children.
fire could result (Fig. 29-1).
9. Watch for and avoid items such as stones and
2. Store gasoline only in well-ventilated areas
metal objects that could be picked up and
where escaping vapors can be safely dissipated.
thrown by blades. Clear the area of debris be-
fore operating. 3. Store gasoline containers safely out of reach of
children.
10. Never attempt to unclog discharge chutes or to
free stuck blades or any moving parts while the
unit is operating. Stop the engine and discon-
nect the spark-plug wire first.
11. Never let a machine idle unattended even for a
brief moment. Stop the engine whenever you
leave the machine.

12. Watch out for and avoid steep inclines that

could cause the machine to tip over.

029-3 DEADLY EXHAUST GASES ~~ When operat-

ing, internal-combustion engines discharge carbon
monoxide as part of the exhaust gases. Carbon mon-
oxide is very dangerous, because it is odorless and
hard to detect. Exhaust gases can cause death if FIG. 29-1 Never store gasoline in a glass container.

291
 4. Never store gasoline inside a home or in any early failure. Improper lubrication means either
area occupied by people. This can be extremely that the proper amount of oil is not put into the
hazardous. gasoline for engines using the fuel-oil mix or
that straight gasoline is used by mistake. On
5. Do not store or pour gasoline near potential
engines with an oil-injection system, failure of
spark- or flame-producing equipment. Upon
the system to deliver oil to the intake port or to
starting, appliances such as refrigerators and
the bearings will cause rapid engine wear and
freezers can produce electrical sparks that will
early engine failure.
ignite gasoline vapors. Even a spark from a light
switch can ignite gasoline vapors. 4, Overloading the Engine. Trying to make a
small engine do a big engine's job is a sure way
6. Never use gasoline as a cleaning fluid. Observe
to shorten engine life. If you change the gover-
“no smoking” rules whenever in the vicinity of a
nor setting on a lawn mower so the engine will
gasoline storage area or gasoline-fueled equip-
run faster and handle heavier loads, you will
ment.
shorten the life of the engine. It will wear out
7. Never add gasoline to the fuel tank while the rapidly. Overspeeding and overloading an en-
engine is running. Stop the engine and allow it gine are two ways to shorten engine life.
to cool first, to prevent spilled gasoline from
5. Failure to Properly Store the Engine. Many en-
igniting on contact with hot parts or ignition
- gines power machines that are in use only part
sparks.
of the year. When they are not to be used for
8. Make sure fuel lines and connections are tight several weeks or months, engines should be
and in good condition. This will prevent gaso- prepared for the idle period. Failure to do this
line leakage and the resulting possibility of fire. can lead to early engine failure.
9. Avoid overfilling the fuel tank. To prevent the
As a small-engine technician, you cannot see to it
fuel from spilling and igniting on contact with
that all your customers give their small engines
the hot engine or an ignition spark, do not fill the
proper treatment. But when they bring their small
tank completely.
engines to you for repair, you should know the vari-
ous things that could cause rapid engine wear and
© 29-5 COMMON SMALL-ENGINE ABUSES Small early engine failure.
engines are built to “take it.” They have compara-
tively large crankshafts and bearings, for example, O29-6 TROUBLE DIAGNOSIS OF SMALL EN-
considering the horsepower they produce. A mini- GINES When you are trying to fix an engine that
mum requirement to meet government specifications will not start or will not operate properly, there are
is that these small engines should operate at full load certain checks to make to locate the cause of the
and top speed for 1000 hours. This may not seem like trouble. The two most common complaints people
many hours of operation, but consider this: Suppose have about small engines is that they will not start
you used a power lawn mower four hours a week for and that they lack power. In addition, the engine may
six months. This is only about 100 hours of operation surge, repeatedly increasing in speed and then slow-
a year. At this rate, the engine should last about 10 ing down. Also, it may gradually lose power as it is
years. Whether it lasts this long, or longer, depends operated, or it may misfire.
largely on how well the engine is maintained. Some There are different ways to study this chapter. You
abuses that shorten engine life include the following: can go through it page by page, just as you have
studied the previous chapters. Perhaps a better way
1. Allowing Dirt to Get into the Engine. This will would be to take one complaint at a time. Read
result from inadequate servicing of the air through the possible causes and checks or correc-
cleaner and fuel strainer, from improperly re- tions, and then study the section later in the lesson
placing spark plugs, and from contamination of that discusses the complaint.
the fuel. Since a knowledge of trouble causes and correc-
tions is particularly helpful, you will probably be
2. Failure to Check the Crankcase Oil Level on
referring to Table 29-1 many times. One way to help
Four-cycle Engines. This failure can allow the
yourself remember the complaints, causes, and
oil to drop too low. The result is inadequate
checks or corrections is to write each complaint, with
lubrication of the engine, which causes rapid
its list of causes and corrections, on a separate 3 by 5-
engine wear and early engine failure.
inch card. Carry the cards around with you. When
3. Failure to Feed the Two-Cycle Engine a Fuel-Oil you have any free time, you can take out a card and
Mixture. Without oil, the engine is inade- study it. Soon you will know the troubles, their
quately lubricated, resulting in rapid wear and causes, and their checks or corrections.

292
029-7 NEED FOR LOGICAL PROCEDURE After a
trouble has been located in an engine, usually it is
easy to eliminate the conditions causing the trouble.
In other chapters, and later in this chapter, we dis-
cuss the various engine services and explain the
corrections to be made to eliminate different causes
of engine trouble.
This part of the chapter covers troubleshooting, the
detective work that a skilled technician must do with
a case of engine trouble. Careful analysis and think-
ing often are needed to find the cause of trouble. If a r=)

logical procedure is followed, the cause of the trouble

ie iioo =
pall a

can usually be found quickly. But haphazard guess- FIG. 29-2 Check engine compression by slowly pulling the
work wastes time and may cause you to overlook engine through the compression stroke with the starter
entirely the real cause of the trouble. Unless the real rope. (Lawn Boy Division of Outboard Marine Corporation)
cause of trouble is found and corrected, the trouble
will soon occur again. gine spins very easily, then there is little compres-
A variety of complaints will bring a sick engine to sion. This can be due to a loose cylinder head, defec-
you. Seldom does the owner have a clear idea of what tive head gasket, loose spark plug, cracked head or
is causing the trouble. Most complaints can be cylinder, broken piston rings, or broken piston. On
grouped under a few basic headings. These include four-cycle engines, loss of compression may be due to
engine will not crank, engine cranks but will not a defective valve that sticks open. First, check the
start, engine runs but misses, engine lacks power, spark plug. If it is tight, then look for other causes of
engine overheats, engine uses excessive oil or gaso- trouble. Disassemble the engine only as necessary to
line, or engine is noisy. find the trouble.
Table 29-1 (on pages 294-296) lists the various en- An accurate check of the cylinder compression pres-
gine troubles, together with their possible causes, sure can be made with a compression gauge, as
checks to be made, and corrections needed. The trou- shown in Fig. 29-3. To check the compression with the
bles and possible causes are not listed in the chart in gauge, remove the spark plug and install the com-
the order of frequency of occurrence. Item 1 (or item a pression gauge in the cylinder in its place. Some
under “Possible Cause”) does not necessarily occur gauges screw into the spark-plug hole. Others must
more frequently than item 2 (or item b). Also, note that be held there. Next, crank the engine for at least six
the chart covers all types of engines. The cause listed revolutions, or until the compression-gauge needle
for each complaint may not apply to the particular stops rising. Compare the reading on the compres-
engine you are servicing. At the end of the chart we sion gauge with the engine manufacturer's specifica-
discuss in detail several of the complaints and what tions. This is important, because the specifications
to do about them. vary among different engine manufacturers.
If you cannot locate the manufacturer’s specifica-
© 29-8 ENGINE WILL NOT START Failure of the tions, here are a couple of general rules to use that
engine to start could be due to lack of fuel, failure of indicate when an engine has good compression:
the fuel to feed to the carburetor, failure of the carbu-
retor to feed fuel to the air passing through the air COMPRESSION
horn to the engine, clogged air filter, clogged exhaust GAUGE

ports, defective ignition system, or internal engine

damage. To check out the engine and locate the trou-
ble, first make sure there is clean gasoline in the fuel
tank. Next, make sure the vent in the fuel-tank cap is
clear. If it is clogged, the engine may start but soon
stop. This is because a clogged vent does not permit
gasoline to flow rapidly enough from the fuel tank to
the carburetor.

029-8 COMPRESSION CHECK Check the engine

compression by slowly pulling the engine through the
compression stroke with the starter as shown in Fig.
29-2. Be sure the ON-OFF switch is off. If the starter is
of the rope-wind or rope-rewind type, you can judge FIG. 29-3 Checking cylinder compression pressure with a
the compression by the feel. For example, if the en- compression gauge. (Tecumseh Products Company)

293
TABLE 29-1 ENGINE TROUBLESHOOTING CHART

Complaint Possible Cause Check or Correction

1. Engine will not crank a. Run-down battery Recharge or replace battery; start en-
gine with jumper battery and cables
iD: Starting circuit open Find and eliminate the open; check for
dirty or loose cables
. Starter drive jammed Remove starter and free drive
. Starter jammed Remove starter for teardown and cor-
rection
. Engine jammed Check engine to find trouble
. Transmission not in neutral, or Check and adjust neutral switch if nec-
safety-interlock switch out of adjust- essary
ment
. (See also causes listed under item 3;
operator may have run battery down
trying to start)
. Engine cranks slowly but does not . Run-down battery Recharge or replace battery; start en-
start gine with jumper battery and cables
. Defective starter Repair or replace
Bad connections in starting circuit Check for loose or dirty cables; clean
and tighten
. (See also causes listed under item 3;
operator may have run battery down
trying to start)
. Engine cranks at normal speed but . Defective ignition system Make spark test; check timing, ignition
does not start system
. Defective fuel pump, no fuel, or Prime engine; check accelerator-pump
overchoking discharge, fuel pump, fuel line,
choke, carburetor
Air leaks in intake manifold or car- Tighten mounting; replace gaskets as
buretor needed
. Defect in engine Check compression or leakage, valve
action, timing
. Ignition coil or resistor burned out Replace
Plugged fuel filter Clean or replace
. Plugged or collapsed muffler or ex- Clean or replace parts
haust system
4. Engine runs but misses—one cy]l- a. Defective spark plug Clean or replace
inder . Defective distributor cap or spark- Replace
plug cable
Valve stuck open Free valve; service valve guide
. Broken valve spring Replace
. Burned valve Replace
Bent push rod Replace
. Flat cam lobe Replace camshaft
s>Qrogaa
o . Defective piston or rings Replace; service cylinder wall as nec-
essary
Defective head gasket Replace
—
ee Intake-manifold leak Replace gasket; tighten manifold bolts
5. Engine runs but misses—different . Defective distributor advance, coil, Check distributor, coil, condenser
cylinders condenser
. Defective fuel system Check fuel pump, flex line, carburetor
. Cross-firing plug wires Replace or relocate
. Loss of compression Check compression or leakage
. Defective valve action Check compression, leakage, vacuum
Worn pistons and rings Check compression, leakage, vacuum
. Overheated engine Check cooling system
fer. Restricted exhaust
te)
(ol
Gy
is
oe}
aR Check exhaust, ports, muffler; elimi-
nate restriction
ee SSSSSSSSSSSSssssesessee
TABLE 29-1 ENGINE TROUBLESHOOTING CHART (Continued)
Complaint Possible Cause Check or Correction

6. Engine lacks power—hot or cold a. Defective ignition Check timing, distributor, wiring, con-
denser, coil, and plugs
. Defective fuel system Check carburetor, choke, filter, air
cleaner, and fuel pump
7. Engine lacks power—hot only . Engine overheats Check cooling system
Q
ao. Choke stuck partly closed Repair or replace
Q . Vapor lock Use different fuel or shield fuel line
8. Engine lacks power—cold only . Choke stuck open Repair or replace
Qa
ao . Cooling-system thermostat stuck Repair or replace
open
Qa . Engine valve stuck open Free valve; service valve stem and
guide as needed
9. Engine overheats . Lack of coolant Add coolant; look for leak
. Ignition timing late Adjust timing
. Loose or broken fan belt Tighten or replace
Thermostat stuck closed Replace
Clogged water jackets Clean
Defective radiator hose Replace
. Defective water pump Repair or replace
. Insufficient oil Add oil
@sg
pt
orate
FOR High-altitude, hot-climate operation Adjust carburetor, ignition timing; keep
radiator filled
aa Valve timing late; slack timing chain Retime, adjust, or replace
has allowed chain to jump a tooth
10. Rough idle . Incorrect carburetor idle adjustment Readjust idle mixture and speed
. (See also other causes listed under
items 6 to 8)
11. Engine stalls cold or as it warms . Choke valve stuck closed or will not Open choke valve; free or repair choke
up close
. Fuel not getting to or through carbu- Check fuel pump, lines, filter, float, and
retor idle systems
. Idling speed set too low Increase idling speed to specifications
12. Engine stalls after idling or slow- . Defective fuel pump Repair or replace fuel pump
speed operation . Overheating (See item 9)
. High carburetor float level Adjust
. Incorrect idling adjustment Adjust
13. Engine stalls after high-speed op- . Vapor lock Use different fuel or shield fuel line
eration . Carburetor venting or idle-compen- Check and repair
sator valve defective
Engine overheats (See item 9)
. Fuel-tank vent plugged Clear vent
14. Engine backfires . Ignition timing off Adjust timing
. Spark plugs of wrong heat range Install correct plugs
8.4
2
852)
2A
oong Excessively rich or lean mixture Repair or readjust fuel pump or carbu-
retor
Engine overheats (See item 9)
. Carbon in engine Clean
Valves hot or stuck Adjust, free, clean. Replace if bad
. Cracked distributor cap Replace
. Cross-firing plug wires Replace
15. Engine run-on, or dieseling . Incorrect idle adjustment Adjust
. Engine overheats (See item 9)
oo:
EGur
a0"
. Hotspots in cylinders Check plugs, pistons, cylinders for
carbon
Q . Timing advanced Adjust

295
a

TABLE 29-1 ENGINE TROUBLESHOOTING CHART (Continued)

Complaint Possible Cause Check or Correction

16. Too much HC and CO in exhaust a. Ignition miss Check spark plug, wiring, cap, coil, etc.
gas b. Incorrect ignition timing Check choke, float level, idle-mixture
screw, etc., as listed in item’20
17. Smoky exhaust
a. Blue smoke Excessive oil consumption (See item 18)
b. Black smoke Excessively rich mixture (See item 20)
c. White smoke Steam in exhaust Replace cylinder-head gasket; tighten
cylinder-head bolts to eliminate cool-
ant leakage into combustion chamber
18. Excessive oil consumption . External leaks Correct seals; replace gaskets
{2}.
oy Burning oil in combustion chamber Check valve-stem clearance, piston
rings, cylinder walls, rod bearings
. High-speed operation Operate engine slower
19. Low oil pressure . Worn engine bearings Replace
. Engine overheating (See item 9)
. Oil dilution or foaming Replace oil
. Lubricating-system defects Check oil lines, oil pump, relief valve
20. Excessive fuel consumption . High-speed operation Operate engine slower
fe}.
top
@F
[ok
fo}
lop Excessive fuel-pump pressure or Reduce pressure; repair pump
fuel-pump leakage
Choke partly closed after warm-up Open; repair or replace choke
. Clogged air cleaner Clean or replace
. High carburetor float level Adjust
Stuck or dirty float needle valve Free and clean
. Worn carburetor jets Replace
. Carburetor leaks Replace gaskets; tighten screws
(oh
te
(om
eer
dan) Cylinder not firing Check coil, condenser, timing, spark
plug, contact points, wiring
Loss of engine compression Check compression or leakage
ae .
(ar Defective valve action (worn cam- Check with compression, leakage, or
shaft, chain slack, or jumped tooth) vacuum tester
l. Excessive resistance from con- Correct defects causing resistance
nected equipment
m. Clutch slippage Adjust or repair
21. Engine noises
(Ol Regular clicking Valve and tappet Readjust valve clearance, replace noisy
valve
b. Ping, or spark knock, on load or Detonation due to low-octane fuel, car- Use higher-octane fuel; remove carbon;
acceleration bon, advanced ignition timing, or adjust ignition timing
causes listed under item 14
. Light knock or pound with en- Worn connecting-rod bearings or crank- Replace bearings service crankpins,
gine floating pin, misaligned rod, lack of oil replace rod; add oil
. Light, metallic double knock, Worn or loose pin or lack of oil Service pin and bushing; add oil
usually most audible during
idle
. Chattering or rattling during Worn rings, cylinder walls, low ring Service cylinder walls; replace piston
acceleration tension, or broken rings rings
Hollow, muffled bell-like Piston slap due to worn pistons or Replace or resize pistons; service cyl-
sound (engine cold) walls, collapsed piston skirts, inder walls; replace connecting
excessive clearance, misaligned rods; add oil
connecting rods, or lack of oil
. Dull, heavy metallic knock Regular noise; worn main bearings; ir- Replace or service bearings and crank-
under load or acceleration, es- regular noise; worn thrust bearing shaft
pecially when cold knock on clutch engagement or on
hard acceleration
. Miscellaneous noises (rattles, Loosely mounted accessories: alterna- Tighten mounting
etc.) tor, starter, water pump, etc.

296
Clinton suggests that on small general-purpose two-
cycle engines, good compression pressure should be
above 60 psi [4.22 kg/cm?]. For high output, two-cycle
engines, such as chain saws and outboard engines,
McCullock recommends that an engine have com- CARBON
pression of at least 90 psi [6.33 kg/cm?]. For compari- DEPOSITS |
CRACKED
son, a new Yamaha 125-cc motorcycle engine has a INSULATOR
compression pressure of about 120 psi [8.44 kg/cm2].
On engines with two or more cylinders, the compres-
sion in the lowest cylinder should be within 10 to 15
percent of the highest cylinder.
WORN
On kick starters, you can judge compression by the ELECTRODES
ease with which you can kick over the engine. If it FIG. 29-4 Defective spark plug showing cracks, carbon
kicks over too easily, the engine has lost compression deposits, and worn electrodes. (Lawn Boy Division of Out-
for any of the reasons noted above. board Marine Corporation)
If the engine uses a windup or an electric starter,
you can judge the compression by the way the engine the capacitor, high-voltage lead, ON-OFF switch, or
acts when it is cranked. With the windup starter, if magneto coil could also cause trouble.
release of the spring turns the engine over unusually If a spark does jump from the bolt or high-voltage-
fast or for a long time, you can suspect loss of com- lead clip, examine the spark plug to see if it can
pression. With an electric starter, an engine that has deliver the spark to the engine cylinder. Remove the
poor compression will spin abnormally fast. spark plug and reattach the high-voltage lead to it.
When checking compression, listen for unusual Then lay or hold the spark plug against the cylinder
squeaks, squeals, scraping, or knocking sounds. Any head, as shown in Fig. 26-2. Crank the engine. If no
of these could mean worn bearings, scored cylinder spark jumps the gap, the spark plug is probably at
walls or pistons, or broken rings or other parts. If you fault. Examine it for cracks, black sooty deposits on
hear such noises, do not try to start the engine. Care- the porcelain or electrodes, burned electrodes, or
fully check engine parts, disassembling the engine wide gap, as shown in Fig. 29-4. Any of these could
as necessary to examine them. prevent a good spark.
If the engine has normal compression, it will resist There is one other point to check. Remove the spark
the kick starter or the pull of the rope—or act nor- plug just after cranking the engine. If the end is wet
mally when starting is attempted with the windup or with gasoline, then fuel is getting into the cylinder.
electric starter. Another sign of good compression on Put your finger over the spark-plug hole in the head
small two-cycle engines is a sucking sound when the and crank the engine with the choke on, as shown in
engine is spun fast. This should be followed by a sort Fig. 29-5. If your finger gets wet, it is added evidence
of cough as the engine stops after the spin, indicating that fuel is getting through.
that the engine is taking in air normally. If the engine If the end of the plug or your finger does not get wet
has “easy-spin” starting, or a compression release, with gasoline, then the carburetor is not delivering
turn the engine backwards to check compression. fuel. The trouble could be due to clogged lines or
nozzle, incorrect adjustment, or defective float sys-
tem.
© 29-10 IGNITION CHECK _ Try to start the engine
by choking it, making sure the ON-OFF switch is
029-11 CARBURETOR CHECK Try to adjust the
turned on. Then crank the engine. If the engine has
carburetor. If this fails, then the carburetor will have
normal compression but will not start, then the igni-
to be removed for disassembly and repair. A typical
tion system or carburetor is probably at fault. Check
the ignition system first by disconnecting the high-
voltage lead from the spark plug. Pull back the rub-
ber hood to expose the lead clip, or put a bolt into it to
get metal contact. Hold the clip or bolt about 3/16 inch
[5 mm] from the cylinder head, and crank the engine
as shown in Fig. 26-1. If a strong spark jumps to the
cylinder head, the ignition system is probably all
right.
If no spark occurs, then the ignition system is prob-
ably at fault and should be checked as discussed in
Chap. 26. Causes of trouble could be dirty or worn FIG. 29-5 Using thumb to feel if fuel is entering the cylin-
contact points or points out of adjustment. Defects in der head.

7a |
 Y, nN
S| ee |= |

ee TE
ADJUSTMENT SCREW
ZA
NEEDLE
VALVE LZ a
FIG. 29-6 Adjustment screws on a small-engine carburetor. \ Si =
(Briggs & Stratton Corporation)
A
adjustment procedure on a small-engine carburetor is \!
as follows: Turn the needle valve, shown in Fig. 29-6, WOOD
SCRAPE CARBON
clockwise to seat the main-nozzle needle valve. Do
not turn the needle-valve screw too tight. This might
FIG. 29-8 Use a hardwood scraper or screwdriver to re-
damage the seat or the needle, which would then move carbon from the exhaust ports.
require replacement. Back off the needle one and a
half turns. Close the choke. Now crank the engine to
of the combustion action in the cylinder often builds
see if gasoline appears in the cylinder, using a finger
up in the exhaust ports, as shown in Fig. 29-7. As this
on the plug hole to check. If gasoline now appears,
buildup continues, the engine is less and less able to
install the spark plug and try to start the engine. If it
exhaust burned gases, and less fresh air-fuel mixture
starts, open the choke as the engine warms up. If the
can enter the engine cylinder. This means that en-
engine runs roughly, it may be getting too much gas-
gine power is lost. If the deposits are not removed,
oline. Turn the needle valve in to produce a leaner
the engine will barely run. To remove the carbon,
mixture. After the engine is warmed up, turn the nee-
take off the exhaust muffler. Turn the engine flywheel
dle knob in until the engine begins to die from an
so the piston covers the exhaust ports. Then use a
excessively lean mixture. Then back out the needle
hardwood scraper, as shown in Fig. 29-8, to carefully
valve about one-fourth turn. This should be the best
scrape away the carbon. The piston will keep parti-
adjustment for full-load operation.
cles from falling into the cylinder, where they could
Chapter 18 describes in detail the adjustment pro-
cause trouble. Be extremely careful to avoid scratch-
cedures for various types of carburetors.
ing the piston. Use compressed air to carefully blow
out all loose particles from the ports.
029-12 ENGINE STARTS BUT LACKS POWER A
On some two-cycle engines, the mufflers also tend
common cause of this trouble in two-cycle engines is
to clog up with carbon. This carbon should be re-
clogged exhaust ports. Carbon that forms as a result
moved periodically.
If clogged exhaust ports are not the cause of lack of
power, then check and adjust the carburetor. The
carburetor may be supplying an overrich or overlean
mixture.

O 29-13 ENGINE DEFECTS If the lack of power is

not due to clogged exhaust ports or faulty carburetor
action, then the trouble is probably in the engine
itself. It could be due to worn pistons or cylinders or
to worn or broken rings. One other possible cause
should be considered, and this is a defective reed
valve in the crankcase. If the reed valve is broken or
not seating properly, it may not hold compression in
the crankcase. The result would be that not enough
air-fuel mixture would be retained in the crankcase.
The air-fuel charge going to the combustion chamber
SCORED CYLINDER WALL on intake would not be enough for the engine to de-
FIG. 29-7 Cutaway view of cylinder head showing scored velop full power. If the reed valve is broken, warped,
walls and clogged exhaust ports, caused by carbon depos- or bent so it does not lie flat against the inlet holes, it
its in the exhaust ports. should be replaced.

298
© 29-14 ENGINESURGES This is a possible com- REVIEW QUESTIONS
plaint on small engines with governors such as are
used on lawn mowers. If the engine surges by repeat- 1. What cautions must you observe while working
edly speeding up and slowing down, the trouble around batteries?
probably is in either the carburetor or the governor. 2. List the operating cautions that should be fol-
Try adjusting the carburetor as explained in © 29-11. lowed when working on small engines.
If this does not cure the trouble, then check the gover-
nor. Things to look for in the governor are binding of 3. How can you prevent carbon monoxide poison-
the linkage between the governor and the throttle ing?
valve, a weak or damaged governor spring, and worn 4, Why does overloading a small engine shorten
or binding governor parts. its life?
If engine speed is not correct, it can be adjusted on
some engines by bending the linkage between the 5. What is meant by trouble diagnosis?
governor and the throttle valve. On other engines, 6. What are the possible causes of an engine’s
adjustment is made by changing governor springs. failure to start?
Do not attempt to change the speed by stretching the
governor spring. A stretched spring will not hold its 7. Describe the procedure to make a compression
new set, and engine operation will be unsteady. check.
Governor service is covered in detail in Chap. 18 8. What is considered good compression on a
two-cycle engine?
029-15 ENGINE LOSES POWER If the engine 9. What is considered good compression on a
starts off properly but gradually loses speed as it four-cycle engine?
warms up, the most likely source of trouble is the fuel
system. For example, the vent in the fuel-tank cap 10. How much variation is allowed in compression
might be clogged, or the needle in the float bowl pressures for a multicylinder engine?
might be stuck. In either case, too little gasoline gets 11. Explain how to make a quick check of the igni-
through to the carburetor, and the engine slows down tion system.
because it is fuel starved.
Lack of lubrication in the engine, for example, from 12. How can you make a quick check of the fuel
failure to put oil in the gasoline of a two-cycle engine system to find out if fuel is getting into the
might cause loss of power as the engine warms up. cylinder?
This would soon cause complete engine failure from 13. What is the common reason that a two-cycle
seized bearings or scored cylinder walls or pistons, engine might run but lack power?
as shown in Fig. 29-7.
14. What is engine surging?

© 29-16 IRREGULAR FIRING If the engine fires DELESPROIECT

irregularly, the trouble could be a weak spark or poor
carburetion. Check the spark by making a spark test. Locate a small engine that will not run or that has
Replace the coil or capacitor, clean and adjust or signs of engine trouble when running. Make the
replace contact points, and replace wires as neces- quick troubleshooting checks described in this
sary. Check and adjust the carburetor as already chapter. Here's how. (Follow all safety precautions.)
described. Turn to the engine troubleshooting chart in the
A two-cylinder opposed piston engine may run chapter and study each item. After each “Com-
fairly well when firing on only one cylinder if no load plaint” listed in the chart, there is a list of things
or ad minimum load is applied to the engine but lose that could be the ‘Possible Cause.” Compare each
power quickly when a full load is put on the engine. If of the possible causes to the condition of the engine
this situation should occur, first check that fuel is that you are diagnosing. If the possible cause does
getting into the cylinder. Also, check the intake- not apply, then read the “Check or Correction” for it
manifold gaskets and connections for air leaks. If no and go on to the next “Possible Cause.”
problem is found, then check the ignition system for When you reach a “Complaint” that applies to
the cylinder that is misfiring. Again, if no problem is the engine you are diagnosing, then check out each
found and the engine continues to misfire, then check “Possible Cause” carefully by making the “Check
the compression. However, a lean air-fuel mixture is or Correction” for it. By the time you finish working
the most common cause of a two-cylinder opposed through the Engine Troubleshooting Chart, you will
engine running on only one cylinder. Adjust the car- either have corrected the problem or have closely
buretor as described earlier in O 29-11. identified it.

299
Operating and
Maintaining
Small Engines

030-1 STARTING A SMALL ENGINE If the en-

gine uses a rope-wind starter, make sure the equip-
ment is level. This reduces the possibility of tipping
the equipment over when you pull the rope. You can
After studying this chapter, you should be guard against tipping it by putting one foot on the
able to: equipment. Figure 30-1 shows the correct way to start
a lawn mower.
1. Demonstrate how to start, operate, and stop
a small engine CAUTION: Never put your foot under the lawn
mower where the rotating blade might hit it. You
2. List the daily or regular maintenance proce- could be seriously injured. When working around any
dures to be performed by the operator of a machinery, stay clear of moving parts!
small engine

3. Explain how to clean a small engine Never start and operate the engine in a closed
place, such as a garage with the doors closed. The
4. Demonstrate how to clean carbon from the engine can produce enough carbon monoxide in only
three minutes to kill you!
muffler and exhaust ports of a two-cycle en-
If the equipment has brakes, apply them when
gine
starting the engine. If it has a clutch, disengage it if
possible, so the machine will not move when the
5. Demonstrate how to change the oil and oil
engine starts.
filter in a small engine
Many engines have a shut-off valve between the
fuel tank and the carburetor as shown in Fig. 30-2. If
6. Describe how to prepare a small engine for
the fuel has been turned off, turn it on again.
winter storage Close the choke valve or prime the engine. Chokes
and primers are described in Chaps. 17 and 18. Some
7. List the steps in an engine tuneup manufacturers recommend that you turn the engine
over a few times with the ignition off to allow gaso-
8. Demonstrate how to perform a tuneup on a line to get into the carburetor. Then, when you crank
small engine. with the ignition on, the start will be easier and
quicker.
On riding equipment, operate the controls from the
driver's seat. Then, if anything goes wrong or the
equipment suddenly takes off, you can quickly stop
the engine. Never start an engine until you know how
to stop it.
Adjust the throttle to the recommended opening for
starting. Some engines have a single control for
choke and throttle. One model of lawn mower with

300
 STOP RUN START

\. ROPE-WIND
STARTER FIG. 30-8 Lawn mower with a single control lever. (Briggs
& Stratton Corporation)
FIG. 30-1 Make sure that the mower is level and that you
have it under control by holding it or by having a foot on it
before using the rope-wind starter.
warm up. Never run a cold engine at high speed or try
to take full power from it. Give it a chance to warm up
this type of control is shown in Fig. 30-3. On these
first. As the engine warms up, gradually open the
engines, move the lever to the choke position. Then,
choke.
when the engine starts, move the lever back to the
If you have trouble starting the engine, refer to the
open-throttle position.
troubleshooting chart in Chap. 29. a
Turn on the ignition and crank the engine. If you
are using a rope-wind or rope-rewind starter, pull the
030-2 OPERATING A SMALL ENGINE Overload-
rope until the engine reaches the compression stroke
ing and overspeeding are the two most common
(Fig. 30-4). Then rewind the rope so you can give it a
causes of small-engine trouble and short engine life.
good hard pull through the compression stroke.
Overspeeding the engine by improperly adjusting the
governor will shorten engine life and can actually
CAUTION: When starting a chain saw, put it on the cause the engine to blow up from the excessive
ground or brace it so it will not get out of control when speed. Also, high speed can spin the operating parts
you crank it. If you do not have full control, the saw of the equipment faster than designed speed, with
could get away from you with disastrous results, such very damaging results. For example, rotation of the
as a badly cut leg or arm. tips of the lawn-mower blades should never exceed a
speed of 19,000 feet [5701 m] per minute. Manufactur-
If you are using an electric starter, close the starter ers design their equipment to hold engine speed
switch and allow the engine to crank for up to 10 down so that this upper limit is never exceeded. If the
seconds. Figure 30-5 shows how to start an engine engine is overspeeded sufficiently, the blade might
with an electric starter. Avoid long cranking periods, explode. Parts would fly off and could seriously injure
because they can damage the starter. someone.
If the engine does not start right away, open the Overloading an engine can cause the engine to
choke valve part way and try again. The engine may overheat so that engine parts will wear rapidly. If you
have flooded (taken in too much gasoline). have to use a mower under heavy load, such as cut-
Once the engine has started, allow it to operate at a ting tall, wet grass, take it easy. Cut a narrow swath,
fast idle for a minute or two so that it has a chance to and move the mower slowly.

oN

~~
TURN FUEL
VALVE TO
ON POSITION PULL IN N\
DIRECTION
SHOWN-—USE
STEADY MOTION

FIG. 30-4 To crank an engine with a rope-wind or rope-

rewind starter, pull the rope until the engine reaches a
FIG. 30-2 To start the engine, first turn the fuel valve to the compression stroke. Then rewind the rope. (Kohler Com-
ON position. (Kohler Company) pany)

301
 2. DEPRESS AND HOLD
START BUTTON UNTIL KEYSTART—MOVE KEY
ENGINE STARTS — TO START POSITION,
*RELEASE WHEN ENGINE
STARTS (SWITCH AUTO-
MATICALLY RETURNS

CN eae LG TO RUN)

aN *OR MOVE TOGGLE

SWITCH TO “ON”
. PULL IGNITION
POSITION
KNOB OUT*
FIG. 30-5 Procedures for starting an engine with an elec-
tric starter. (Kohler Company) gine before turning it off. Then reduce engine speed
to idle, and allow the engine to run for about a min-
ute. This cools the engine down gradually and re-
If the engine is new or has just been rebuilt, allow
duces thermal stresses on engine parts. Then shut off
it to work up to its maximum power gradually. On
the engine. This may be done by shorting out the
two-cycle engines, adjust the carburetor for a slightly
spark plug with a grounding blade or by returning the
rich mixture for the first 10 hours. On four-cycle en-
ignition-key switch or toggle switch to the OFF posi-
gines, adjust the throttle to medium speed and allow
tion as shown in Fig. 30-6. If the engine continues to
the engine to run for about 30 minutes without load.
run, or “diesels,” after the ignition is turned off, stop
Change the oil on four-cycle engines after the first
the engine by closing the choke and opening the
five hours of operation. Follow the instructions on the
throttle wide-open.
nameplate attached to the engine or equipment. One
After turning the engine off, close the fuel-tank
manufacturer recommends that in overhauled en-
shut-off valve if the engine has one. This takes any
gines having new blocks, nondetergent oil should be
pressure off the carburetor diaphragms or float and
used as a break-in oil during the first five hours of
prevents fuel leaks.
engine operation. Then the nondetergent oil should
If the engine will not be used for up to a month,
be drained and replaced with SC oil of the proper
drain the fuel tank and carburetor to prevent forma-
viscosity. The brief use of nondetergent oil helps seat
tion of gum which could clog carburetor passages. If
new piston rings in these engines.
the engine will not be used for a longer time, treat
it as explained in ©30-14, which concerns winter
CAUTION: Before working on the “business” side of storage.
power equipment, such as under the mower where
the blade is or around the chain on the chain saw, 030-4 MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES This part of
always make sure the engine cannot start. Turn the the chapter covers the maintenance procedures for
engine off and disconnect the spark plug. small engines and explains how proper maintenance
prolongs the life of engines. We have already exam-
ined common small-engine abuses that shorten en-
© 30-3 STOPPING A SMALL ENGINE Although
gine life. Now we will look at the maintenance proce-
you might think there is nothing special about stop-
dures that will help to ensure good engine
ping an engine, there are actually right and wrong
performance and long engine life. This part of the
ways to do this. First, remove any load from the en-
chapter covers the kinds of small engines used in
lawn mowers, edgers, and other similar applica-
tions.
Below is a list of the routine maintenance steps for
RETURN SWITCH TO
“OFF” POSITION small engines. In other sections, we explain how to
perform these maintenance steps, such as cleaning
the air cleaner and cleaning the engine.

Cleaning the Air Cleaner Clean and re-oil the air

filter regularly. You will usually find instructions on
the engine on when and how to do this job. The pro-
cedure for cleaning various types of air cleaners is
covered in Chap. 18.
FIG. 30-6 Stop the engine by returning the ignition-key
switch or toggle switch to the OFF position. (Kohler Com- Tightening Fasteners Check the tightness of all bolts
pany) and nuts on the engine periodically. They sometimes

302
loosen up in service. If loose fasteners are not re- The oil film on the engine parts then becomes less
tightened, parts may become damaged or lost. effective, or actually fails, with the result that engine
parts wear rapidly and engine life is shortened. For
Lubrication Lubricate all bearings outside the en- long engine life, clean a dirty engine before start-
gine, such as the wheel bearings on a power mower. ing it.
Make sure oil reservoirs are filled, for example, on Another purpose of periodically cleaning the en-
the chain saw lubricator. | gine is to check for loose nuts or bolts, and loose,
broken, cracked, or otherwise damaged parts. A sim-
ple way to clean the engine is to use a stiff brush,
Blades and Saw Teeth Make sure that the blades or
soap or household detergent, and water. A brush will
saw teeth are sharp and that the rest of the assembly
get into all the crevices where dirt can accumulate,
is in good condition.
and it will clean away most of the grass clippings
and other trash that can cause trouble. For a com-
Fuel Tank Keep the fuel tank filled. If it is allowed to plete cleaning job, use a degreasing compound, as
sit around only partly filled, air will enter and leave explained later.
the tank as the temperature changes. This will intro- Parts to be cleaned include the shroud (on engines
duce moisture into the tank. The moisture will con- that have one), muffler and exhaust ports (on two-
dense and will ultimately cause severe rusting of the cycle engines), air cleaner, fuel strainer, and crank-
metal tank. Rusting will damage the tank and lead to case breather (on four-cycle engines).
rust particles that get into the carburetor and clog the
fuel passages.
Cleaning the Shroud Many small engines have fans
and shrouds to direct the flow of air around the en-
Keep the Machine Clean Wipe off the machine peri-
gine cylinder, as shown in Fig. 30-7. The blower
odically to remove oil, grass clippings, dust, and
housing, or shroud, will have to be removed before
mud. Foreign matter that collects around the engine
the engine can be thoroughly cleaned. Shrouds are
will act as a blanket and cause the engine to over-
held in place by screws which can be taken out to
heat. On mowers, clean off the accumulations of
allow the shroud parts to be lifted off.
grass clippings from the inside of the housing. A later
On some engines, you must remove certain other
section describes in detail how to clean engines.
parts before the shroud can be removed. These parts
might include the air cleaner, muffler, spark-plug
CAUTION: Be sure the engine switch (if used) is wire, governor spring, or some other part.
turned off and the spark plug high-voltage lead is
disconnected so the engine will not start when you
work on the “business” end of any machine. If a ro-
tary mower should start while you are working on the
underside, you could be seriously injured.

Many of the maintenance procedures described

here should be performed periodically by the owner
or operator of the engine. However, the engine does
not always get the maintenance it should, with the
result that its life is shortened. One of the most im-
portant services is to clean the engine and its compo-
AIR
nents, such as the shroud, carburetor air cleaner, fuel INTAKE
strainer, and crankcase breather. It is dirt more than SCREEN
anything else that shortens engine life.

©30-5 CLEANING THE ENGINE Most small en-

gines are air-cooled and have a cylinder with a series
of cooling fins. These fins provide large surface areas
from which the heat can be removed. The heat flows
from the inside of the cylinder, through the cylinder
metal, to the fins which dissipate it to the outside air. BLOWER
If these fins become dirty or covered with dirt and HOUSING
grass clippings, the heat cannot get through. The (SHROUD)
accumulations act as a blanket to hold heat in the FIG. 30-7. The blower housing must be removed and
engine. As a result, the engine becomes overheated. cleaned periodically. (Kohler Company)

303
CAUTION: Never operate the engine with the shroud
and baffles removed! The shroud is there to direct
cooling air over the engine. When the shroud is off,
the engine will overheat if operated. In addition,
engines which have air-vane governors that operate
on air flow will not function properly with the shroud
off. The engine can overspeed and possibly destroy
itself. EXHAUST MUFFLER
PORTS
If the shroud is bent or damaged, it should be FIG. 30-8 Removal of muffler to inspect exhaust ports of a
straightened, repaired, or replaced. A defective two-cycle engine.
shroud can cause engine overheating. Also, it might
interfere with the fan or other moving part.
as shown in Fig. 29-7. These accumulations reduce
If the shroud is dirty and has accumulations of
the ability of the engine to exhaust and can sharply
grass clippings or other trash, scrape them off with a
reduce engine power. They can cause engine over-
putty knife or similar tool. Use a stiff-bristled brush
heating, which will result in other engine damage. To
and solvent if necessary. Clean the air-intake screen
check for carbon accumulations, remove the muffler,
with a brush and solvent if necessary. Get rid of all
as shown in Fig. 30-8. Mufflers are made in a variety
accumulations of trash that could prevent normal air
of sizes and shapes. They screw into the cylinder or
flow through it.
are held in place by cap screws and a gasket. Re-
Cleaning the Cylinder and Cylinder Head The fins moving the muffler permits you to inspect the exhaust
on the cylinder and cylinder head should be cleaned ports. :
to permit maximum heat transfer from the engine to the If the ports are clogged, rotate the crankshaft until
surrounding air. Three substances for cleaning the the piston moves down enough to cover the exhaust
cylinder and head can be used: a degreaser, a sol- ports. This protects the engine from dirt and carbon
vent, and live steam. As a first step, use a wooden which could otherwise fall into the engine and cause
stick to scrape away all the accumulated trash and damage. Use a wooden stick to scrape off the carbon,
dirt. Do not use a metal tool, because it will scratch as shown in Fig. 29-8. Do not use a metal tool that
the cylinder and head and encourage accumulations could scratch the piston or damage the edges of the
of dirt. exhaust ports. Hold the engine so that the exhaust
Then use the material you have on hand to finish ports are pointing down while you are scraping. This
the cleaning job. Degreasing compound comes in allows the loosened carbon to fall out and reduces the
pressure-spray cans or in larger containers. Solvent chances that any of it might get into the engine. To
can be purchased from some service stations and finish the job, blow out the ports with compressed air
from some auto-parts stores. To use live steam, you or use a brush to make sure you have removed all the
need a steam generator. carbon. Clean the muffler in solvent. When replacing
While cleaning the cylinder and head, check for oil the muffler, use a new gasket if the old one appears
leaks, which usually show up as a heavy accumula- damaged. Tighten the attaching screws securely.
tion of dirt. Check also for cracks or other damage.
Apply the solvent on the areas to be cleaned. The 030-7 SERVICING THE CARBURETOR AIR
degreaser in the pressure can is easy to use on very CLEANER The three types of carburetor air clean-
small jobs. Other types can be applied with a bristle ers for small engines are oil-bath, oiled-filter, and
brush. After about five minutes, flush off the solution dry-filter.
with a stream of water from a hose. Regardless of the type of air cleaner, the usual
recommendation is that the air cleaner be serviced
after every 25 hours of operation under ideal condi-
CAUTION: Do not clean a hot engine. Allow it to cool tions. If the engine is operated under extremely dirty or
first. Cold water or other liquid on the hot engine can dusty conditions, then the air cleaner should be ser-
cause the head or cylinder to crack. Some cleaning viced much more often—as many as two or three
solutions are flammable and could burst into flames if times a day! Procedures for cleaning the three types
sprayed on a hot engine. Also, make sure that there is of air cleaners are covered in Chap. 18.
adequate ventilation. Some fumes from cleaning so-
lutions are unhealthy to breathe. 030-8 CLEANING THE FUEL STRAINER OR FIL-
TER There are three general types of fuel strainers
030-6 CLEANING THE MUFFLER AND EXHAUST and fuel filters. They are the sediment-bowl type, the
PORTS On two-cycle engines, the exhaust ports type mounted in the fuel tank, and the type having a
tend to become clogged with carbon accumulations, weighted strainer at the end of a flexible hose. Ser-

304
vice of fuel filters and strainers is covered in should be replaced at regular intervals. Figure 30-9
Chap. 18. shows the PCV valve in disassembled view. One
manufacturer recommends that the PCV valve should
030-9 CLEANING CRANKCASE BREATHERS be removed and cleaned at least every six months or
Four-cycle engines must have some means of allow- after every 1200 hours of engine running time.
ing blow-by to escape. Blow-by is the seepage of
unburned air-fuel mixture and combustion gases 030-11 CHANGING OIL AND OIL-FILTERS IN
from the combustion chamber past the piston and FOUR-CYCLE ENGINES Oil level in the crankcase
rings. Pressure can build up in the crankcase if the of four-cycle engines should be checked after every
blow-by has no way to escape, and this can damage few hours of engine operation. Some engines have a
the engine. Blow-by gases also can cause corrosion of dipstick, which is attached to the filler plug or cap.
engine parts and shorten engine life. Cleaning of On these, the dipstick should be removed, wiped,
crankcase breathers is covered in Chap. 18. reinserted, and removed again, and the level of the
oil on the dipstick noted. On other engines, the oil
© 30-10 SERVICING PCV VALVES In some older level in the crankcase is correct if the oil is filled to
four-cycle engines, the crankcase was ventilated by overflowing when the engine is level. Changing oil
an open oil-filter cap and a vent tube from the crank- and oil filters is covered in detail in Chap. 15.
case. The rotation of the crankshaft moved air
through the crankcase. The air passing through re- © 30-12 LUBRICATING TWO-CYCLE ENGINES
moved the water, fuel vapors, and blow-by. However, Lubrication of many two-cycle small engines is pro-
the discharge of these gases into the atmosphere vided by adding oil in the recommended amount to
produced air pollution. the fuel. The fuel-oil mixture enters the crankcase in
To prevent atmospheric pollution, many of these vapor form and passes on to the combustion chamber
engines now have a closed system, called a positive with the air-fuel mixture. Part of the oil, in mist form,
crankcase-ventilation (PCV) system. Filtered air from is retained in the crankcase. There the oil lubricates
the carburetor air cleaner is drawn through the the piston, rings, and crankshaft bearings. Some of
crankcase. In the crankcase, the air picks up the the oil gets into the combustion chamber, where the
water, fuel vapors, and blow-by. The air then flows oil is burned along with the air-fuel mixture.
back to the intake port and enters the cylinder. There The amount of oil to be mixed with the fuel is criti-
the unburned fuel is burned. cal, and the manufacturer's recommendations should
The amount of air flowing through the crankcase be carefully followed. Adding too much oil will cause
must be controlled. Too much fresh air flowing the exhaust ports to become clogged very quickly, and
through the intake port during idling would upset the carbon deposits will form on the piston and rings.
air-fuel ratio. This could cause poor idling. To prevent This causes poor engine performance. Adding too
this, a regulator valve is used. The valve is called a little oil will deprive the engine of adequate lubrica-
positive crankcase-ventilation (PCV) valve. Some- tion, and so it will wear out sooner.
times it is also called a crankcase emission-control There is a wide range of fuel-oil mix ratios. A vari-
valve. The PCV valve allows only a small amount of ety of ratios are required because the designs and
air to flow through during idle. But as engine speed clearances of two-cycle engines vary, just as their
increases, reduced intake vacuum allows the valve to applications vary. Some engines require more oil
open more. This, in turn, allows more air to flow than others. For example, in outboard engines, one
through. manufacturer recommends a fuel-oil ratio of 50:1,
The PCV valve should be checked periodically. It while another recommends 32: 1. Achain-saw manu-
facturer specifies a mix ratio of 40:1, and a motorcy-
cle manufacturer wants 28:1. Before mixing oil into
the gasoline, always be sure that you know the mix
ratio needed by the particular engine you are servic-
ing. A fuel mixing table is printed on many two-cycle
Z BZ
oil containers. Chapter 15 covers in detail the lubri-
SPRING——'G cating of two-cycle engines.
\
© 30-13 STORING GASOLINE There are local and
VALE ————— state laws about storing gasoline. These laws are for
PLUNGER your own protection, and they should be carefully
WASHER ————-© observed. A basic rule is to never store gasoline in a
closed room, where gasoline vapors will accumulate.
CLIP OO Explosions have resulted from storage of gasoline in
FIG. 30-9 A disassembled view of a PCV valve. a closed room in a container that was not tightly

305
sealed. The accumulating gasoline vapors can be based on good, clean, engine operating conditions.
ignited by a spark from turning a light switch on or off Should the engine be used in the desert or on a con-
or by a spark caused by one metal object's striking struction project, then the items should be checked
another. much more frequently.
Gasoline that is stored for any length of time dete-
riorates. It often is called stale gasoline. The length 030-16 ENGINE TUNEUP Now we describe the
of time that the gasoline stays good depends on its procedure known as engine tuneup. Tuneup includes
composition and the additives that have been put into testing the various components and systems involved
it. This is the reason that any machine that is to be in engine operation. It also includes readjusting or
stored for any length of time should have its fuel tank replacing parts as required to restore engine per-
and carburetor drained of all fuel. Otherwise, the formance. Sometimes during a tuneup, serious prob-
stale gasoline can deposit gum and varnish on criti- lems may be uncovered that will require major repair
cal parts. For example, carburetor jets can become work. Other chapters describe the service jobs that
clogged. This will cause poor engine performance _ may be performed on engines.
and require a complete carburetor overhaul to set Engine tuneup means different things to different
things right again. For the same reason, you should people. To some, it means a light once-over check of
not store gasoline in containers for long periods and the engine that takes in only the obvious trouble
then use it. spots. To others, it means using the proper test in-
struments to do a careful, complete analysis of all
© 30-14 WINTER STORAGE For winter storage, engine components and, in addition, adjusting
drain the fuel tank, and run the engine to use up the everything to specifications and repairing or replac-
fuel in the carburetor. Fuel left in a carburetor may ing all worn parts. The latter is the proper meaning of
form gum that will clog fuel passages. Remove the engine tuneup, and it is the procedure outlined
spark plug, and squirt about a tablespoon of heavy below.
engine oil into the combustion chamber. Turn the An engine tuneup follows a more or less set proce-
engine over a few times to distribute the oil over the dure. Many service technicians follow a standard
engine parts. Install the spark plug. Cover the engine procedure recommended by the engine manufactur-
with plastic or canvas, and store the engine in a ers. By following a procedure, the technician is sure
warm, dry place. of not overlooking any part of the procedure. How-
ever, not all tuneup procedures are exactly the same
030-15 SERVICE AND MAINTENANCE SCHED- because not all engines are the same. Different com-
ULES Small engines are used for a variety of pur- panies have different ideas about what should be
poses and under great extremes of operating condi- done and the order in which it should be done. In
tions. To help ensure that the engine will deliver the addition, sometimes the tuneup procedure depends
maximum power for its normal life, engine manufac- on the equipment available. If test instruments are
turers provide a maintenance, or service, schedule not available, then the tuneup is performed differ-
for each of their engines. A typical service schedule ently.
for a two-cylinder four-cycle air-cooled engine is The procedure that follows includes all essential
shown in Fig. 30-10. The purpose of the service checks and adjustments that several manufacturers
schedule is to remind the operator that certain checks recommend.
must be made every day before starting the engine
and that others must be made after a certain number 030-17 STEPS IN ENGINE TUNEUP The tuneup
of hours of operation. procedure restores power and performance that have
In addition to adding gasoline to the fuel tank, the been lost through wear, corrosion, and deterioration
oil level must be checked and the air-intake screen of engine parts. These changes take place gradually
cleaned. Then after every day that the engine runs in many parts during normal operation. The steps
without stopping, or after every 25 hours of operation, that follow are also part of a complete engine over-
certain types of air cleaners must be serviced. You haul.
can see in Fig. 30-10 that additional checks must be
made after every 50, 100, and 500 hours of engine 1. Remove the air cleaner and check its condition.
operation. Note whether it has been serviced regularly.
Figure 30-11 shows an engine maintenance chart
2. Check the oil level and the condition of the oil
prepared by a manufacturer of small engines for
in the crankcase. Then drain the oil and remove
electric generating sets. Note that the service inter-
the oil filter.
vals are extended to 5000 hours. At that time the
engine will need a complete overhaul. All manufac- 3. Remove the cap from the fuel tank and check for
turers emphasize that the service intervals they sug- dirt and rust in the fuel tank. Drain the fuel tank
gest in their service and maintenance schedules are and clean it, if necessary. Clean or replace the

306
 SERVICE SCHEDULE

CLEAN
AIR INTAKE SCREEN
-- - -----------L-..-..x
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REBLENISH-FUEE SUPPLY 3— —— — —— 4--2-Lceloeny
SERVICE MUETI=PHASE AIRICLEANER=— -<--=-boeeeesae seeeeLe

SERVICE ONSBATHIAIRIGLEANER==o— ==-=2-- ee essa

eeee sete

SERVIGE DRY-TYPE AIR CLEANER-— —------+---------==--—--L-

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4------ Xx

EA NG EASESEGON bss tt ee eee ee ae

CHANGE LUBE OIL FILTER - - - — - — -----4-------------
SERVICE FUEL FILTER
— - — — — — — — -----4-------------4------------f-----------f------ x
SERVICE SPARK PLUGS ~ - - - - - ~ ~ ~*+----4+-------
7-7 feo --2-22 foo 2p ee Xx
REPEACEELEMENT—DRY AIRICEEANER sseesilesen) wicmeealle

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SERWICHICRANMCGASEIBREAMMER Gem is c 0 as jue. =o sas oe CMe? Rar Mami ons |tL Gennes ©anes nec Geet ee X

CHECK AND SER VICEIBREAKER POINTS ©Ssaa.)ucns

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CHECK VALVE—TAPPET CLEARANCE - - -----4-------------4------------}-----------}------------}------ Xx
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VE AUMER Yeo rae ea se ee Pe ee a ero ae Oa ne bee dea ae X

SERV
ic eC GENERATOR sugistetepess 4 | a Ses roe eT eo aa pene eee eee x

SERVICE STARTING MOTOR AND DRIVE -----4-------------4-

SERN ICE CV LINDE RUE ADS as ete ead cra ean se Sos a4sess swcese bene os Sasha
sae gr tine otoeeoe x

NOTE: Intervals stated are for good, clean operating conditions only—service items more frequently (even daily or twice daily)
if extremely dusty or dirty conditions prevail.

FIG. 30-10 Service schedule for a two-cylinder four-cycle

air-cooled engine. (Kohler Company)

fuel filter. Inspect the fuel lines, and if they are 5. Carefully clean the cooling fins on the cylinder
in good condition, clean them. and head. Then clean the entire engine.

6. Remove the spark plug. Note its condition.

4, Remove the blower housing and clean it. Check Check the cylinder compression by rocking the
the starter and starter clutch. Examine the con- flywheel or using a compression gauge. Record
dition of the rope, and check the rewind assem- the reading. If the compression reading is low,
bly. squirt about a tablespoon of engine oil through

307
 HOURS OF OPERATION

SERVICE & PARTS REQUIRED

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ote se en ss os
SSM, AR CIGETIGK Biss oo. Otono ic eee eee eee ier oen on netic
Clean and lubricate governor linkage .........+..00.
Clean crankcase breather......... 510 G00 040-0 6 On OD
Change oil filter (where applicable) ..........0.0000-
Empty fuel sediment bowl ©) (6 “6. 10° “0. 6) 0° (0. '9y (8) 0° 0s 0) 9 2h ee) 6. 6 “0 10

Chee IMiGioMn (SOIMS uoodoctoogooob

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Inspect commutator, brushes, slip rings oe © © © © we ee ee ow

Gleanvouticarbon and liead deposiitss 6% «seme

6 6 cre oe
Gheckavialiv.e-cli@ananice’Si.t. wile stetei ene ote crete tetoly wiceh che cs ns
SNOW QUE BONO 66 65 0005 OO oo Ooo bo oon 6
CIEEN. CEO? 664.6 6605 66 Oo Ok OOo ooo
Remove and clean oil base Ce a

[FF UWSiny (EVEN om cas eee Bed Sond. Geo. DadeO-O8G OGG 6 One GubetD
CIGAN BENGE cso GO GUS SOO SO DSO BDO bob oH OO don
Replace fan belt
REDIAEE SIERC DIMI ww S Ooo ooo ooo oo Ooo moo oo GOS AS REQUIRED
Replace GF Grit WAINGS occu ao bo be GoKbeeoGb
GORD OOS AS REQUIRED COMPLETE
RECONDITION
Replace points 6, (0fve. (e000 (6, 8 (@; (eee “e) jee Om ie, (0: '@ (ef 6: <0) 6, ele 8

Repliacesgeneraton DrusheS) .u. scm stele iene) cirelcels! © nellolie) @)«isree

Replace pisuen (IMS cape eooudob oo dboreoéoo
tours

FIG. 30-11 Maintenance chart for a small engine used in

electric generating set. (Onan Corporation)

the spark-plug hole. Recheck the compression. 11. Remove the cover from the ignition breaker
If the compression remains low, indicating ei- box, and check for proper sealing. Dirt inside
ther bad piston rings or valves, tell the owner the box indicates seal leakage.
the engine can not be tuned up without over-
12. Inspect the condition, alignment, and gap of
haul or repair.
the breaker points. Replace, or clean, and ad-
7. Remove the carburetor. Disassemble it, and
inspect it for worn or damaged parts. Wash the
parts in solvent. Replace any worn or damaged
parts, and then reassemble the carburetor. Fol-
low the manufacturer's specifications and
make the initial adjustments of the carburetor.

So Inspect the intake manifold, crossover tube,

and intake elbow. Tighten all nuts and bolts.
Replace any gaskets that are leaking.

9. Check the governor blade, linkage, and spring

for damage and wear. Check the adjustment of
mechanical governors.

10. Remove the engine flywheel and inspect it for

cracks (Fig. 30-12). Check the crankshaft oil
(a) (b)
seals for leakage on the flywheel side and on
FIG. 30-12 (a) Flywheel cracked by sudden stopping of the
the power-takeoff side of the engine. Check the
crankshaft, such as by a rotary-mower blade striking a
flywheel key for wear and tightness in the large rock. (b) Flywheel cracked as the result of being loose
grooves. on the crankshaft. (Tecumseh Products Company)

308
 just as necessary. Check the condenser, and . What is the break-in procedure for a new or
the cam or plunger, that operates the breaker rebuilt engine?
points.
. Why should you always know how to stop an
13. Check the ignition coil for secure mounting, engine before you start it?
and check the wires connected to the coil for
. What effect will heavy layers of dirt and grass
breaks and damaged insulation. Be sure none
have. on engine life?
of the wires can touch the flywheel. Check the
operation of the ignition stop switch, and its . How do you clean an air-cooled engine?
wiring.
What is the danger in running an engine with
14, Install the cover on the ignition breaker box. the shroud off?
Use sealer to close the opening in the box
Describe the procedure to clean the carbon from
through which the wires pass.
clogged exhaust ports.
15. Install the flywheel. Time the engine, if neces-
10. How often should the air cleaner be serviced
sary. Set the magneto armature air gap. Check
under normal conditions?
the spark plug for sparks.
1 Explain how to service the PCV valve.
16. Remove the cylinder head. Check the gasket for
signs of leakage. Clean carbon from the cylin- 12. How do you usually check the crankcase oil
der head, from the top of the piston, and from level in four-cycle engines?
around the valves (four-cycle engines). Inspect
13. What is stale gasoline?
the valves for proper seating.
14, Describe how to prepare a small engine for
7. Install the cylinder head. Torque it to specifica-
winter storage.
tions. Set the spark-plug gap and install the
spark plug. Discard worn or defective spark 15. What is a maintenance schedule?
plugs. Many shops install new plugs instead of
16. What is an engine tuneup?
servicing the old ones. Gap all plugs, old and
new, before installing. 17. When should a tuneup be performed?
18. Remove the muffler, and check it for restrictions 18. What is the difference between engine trouble-
and damage. Clean or replace it, as necessary. shooting and engine tuneup?
Clean any carbon deposits from the exhaust
ports. SELF] PROJECT
REVIEW QUESTIONS
To tune up an engine means to follow a logical
He Why should you place your foot on a mower procedure in performing a series of inspections,
with a rope-wind starter before pulling the tests, checks, and adjustments. On a sheet of paper
rope? for your notebook, write down the most important
steps in the tuneup procedure given in this chapter.
. Should a chain saw be started while you are
Then add this page to your notebook. When you
holding it in the air?
have an engine to tune, referring to your notebook
. What are the two most common causes of short will provide you with the key steps in the proce-
engine life? dure.

309
 Chapter
Servicing
Two-Cycle Engines

TOP-END OVERHAUL

031-1 STARTING THE JOB Before you begin any

work on an engine, be sure you have a clean place to
After studying this chapter, you should be | work, trays for the small parts you will remove, and
able to: the tools you will need. Most small-engine work can
be done with a 3/s-inch drive socket set. This set in-
1. Demonstrate how to perform a top-end over- | cludes the socket sizes most commonly needed for
haul on a two-cycle engine the job.

2. List the types of piston rings used in two- | 031.2 REMOVING THE ENGINE If the engine is
cycle engines installed in a machine, you probably will need to
remove it. There are exceptions. The engine in the
3. Demonstrate how to overhaul the bottom end | Minibike shown in Fig. 31-1 can have a top-end over-
of a two-cycle engine haul with the engine still in the frame. There is
enough room above the engine to remove the head
4. Describe how to service the crankshaft bear- and cylinder without removing the engine itself. But
ings if you do have to remove the engine from a lawn
mower or other machine, detach all pulleys and adapt-
5. Discuss when crankcase oil seals should be ers from the power-takeoff end of the engine. After
the engine is removed, the next step is to clean it.
replaced
©31-38 CLEANING THE ENGINE Before starting
6. Describe how to break in a newly overhauled
to disassemble the engine, clean it thoroughly. Dirt is
engine
the greatest enemy of good engine-service work.
Cleaning the outside of the engine is the best guar-
antee of not getting dirt inside the engine while you
are working on it. Depending on how dirty the engine
is, use a scraper, an old broom, or a stiff-bristle brush
to knock off the larger chunks of dirt. Then brush off
the remaining oil, dirt, and caked grease with chemi-
cal cleaner or with a strong mixture of detergent and
water. Rinse off the outside of the engine with a hose,
and allow it to dry. Some shops steam-clean engines
before working on them. Be careful not to get water in
the air cleaner, carburetor, muffler, or ignition.

031-4 DISASSEMBLING THE TOP END Remove

any shrouds or other parts that block access to the
cylinder and head. Figure 31-2 shows removal of the

310
FIG. 31-1 Top-end service of this minibike does not require
removal of the engine from the frame. (Harley Davidson sembly sticks up through the cylinder opening in the
Motor Company)
crankcase.
On some two-cycle engines, the head and cylinder
engine shroud, gasoline tank, and starter from the are one piece (Fig. 31-4). To remove this type of cylin-
engine of a lawn mower. Next, disconnect the throttle der assembly, unbolt it from the crankcase. Then pull
and choke linkage, and remove the carburetor. Take the cylinder from the crankcase and off the piston.
off the exhaust pipe and muffler. Unscrew the spark Use a cloth as shown in Fig. 31-3 before completing
plug. the removal if you are not going to service the crank-
Remove the screws or nuts holding the cylinder case end.
head and cylinder to the crankcase. Remove any Now complete the disassembly of the top end by
other small parts as necessary. Remove the cylinder detaching the piston from the connecting rod. Pistons
head. Pull the cylinder up about 2 inches [51 mm] are attached in several ways in different engines. In
away from the crankcase. Put a clean cloth or shop one engine, the piston pin is a press fit in the rod.
towel around the connecting rod and over the crank- This type of piston pin must be pressed out in an
case opening as shown in Fig. 31-3. This will help arbor press or tapped out with a special punch. Other
prevent any dirt from entering the crankcase as you pistons are held in place by retaining rings (also
remove the cylinder. However, if you are going todoa called lock rings or Circlips). On these, use needle-
complete overhaul of the engine, it is not necessary to nose pliers or a screwdriver, as shown in Fig. 31-5, to
use the clean cloth to protect the crankcase as shown remove the rings. The pin can then be pushed out.
in Fig. 31-3. You will be disassembling and cleaning With the piston pin out, the piston may be removed
the crankcase components during the complete over- from the connecting rod.
haul.
Now take the cylinder off the crankcase. Set the O31.5 CLEANING THE ENGINE PARTS Withthe
cylinder aside with the cylinder head end down on a top end of the engine disassembled, clean the parts.
clean piece of heavy cardboard. This protects it from This is necessary so that the parts can be checked,
damage to the crankcase sleeve or threads. With the inspected, and measured. The job of cleaning top-end
cylinder removed, the piston- and connecting-rod as- parts often is called decarboning the engine.

311
 Fig. 31-2 Removing engine
shroud, gasoline tank, and starter
as an assembly. (Lawn Boy Divi-
sion Outboard Marine Corpora-
tion).

CYLINDER
HEAD

ONE-PIECE
CYLINDER HEAD-AND-
CYLINDER

lass

FIG. 31-3 Place a clean cloth around the connecting rod FIG. 31-4 Removing the one-piece type of cylinder-and-
and the crankcase opening to prevent dirt from entering the head assembly from the piston. (Lawn Boy Division of Out-
crankcase. board Marine Corporation)

312
 SD: S|
STANDARD SCREW FITS IN

RING
SCREWDRIVER Ss
WITH NOTCHED rs S26
END
: TAPPED HOLE.

FIG. 31-6 Heli-Coil installation.

the bolt holes, broken fins, and scores or other

damage in the cylinder bore. Any of these require
Zi replacement of the cylinder. Sometimes stripped
threads can be repaired with a thread-repair kit as
AY, shown in Fig. 31-6. The repair is made by drilling out
Ss
the damaged threads. Then the hole is tapped with a
special tap that comes with the repair kit. Finally, a
threaded insert is screwed into the hole to bring it
back to its original thread size.
If the cylinder appears to be in good condition, use
FIG. 31-5 Screwdriver with a notch ground in the end of the an inside micrometer or a cylinder bore gauge to
blade, used to remove piston-pin lock ring. (Kohler Com-
pany)

INSIDE MICROMETER
The two-cycle engine requires a mixture of oil and
gasoline. Part of the oil burns away during the com-
bustion process, but some of it becomes a hard car-
bon deposit. This deposit forms in the transfer port,
exhaust ports, and exhaust passages, on the top of
the piston, and on combustion chamber surfaces. The
exhaust ports in the cylinder can become so clogged,
as shown in Fig. 29-7, that the engine will barely run.
To remove the carbon use a hardwood scraper to
scrape away the accumulations as shown in Fig. 29-8.
Very fine sandpaper can be used to finish removing
any remaining carbon from the ports.
Removing the carbon from the exhaust ports can be CENTER OF PISTON
RING TRAVEL
done on an engine without disassembling it. To re-
move the deposits on an assembled engine, take off
the exhaust muffler. Then turn the crankshaft so that
the piston covers the exhaust ports. Use the scraper to
remove the carbon, as described above. The piston
will keep carbon particles from falling into the cylin-
der where they could cause trouble. Be very careful to
avoid scratching the piston. Blow out all loose parti-
cles from the ports.
Remove the old gasket from the cylinder head, if
the head is detachable, and from the cylinder-to-crank-
case surface. Clean any sticking gasket material
from the metal surfaces. Wash all parts in clean
solvent. Dry the parts with air or with a clean cloth.
Take a look at the spark-plug threads. If you can see
carbon deposits in the threads, clean them by run-
ning a 14-mm tap through the spark-plug hole. @ CYLINDER BORE GAUGE
031-6 INSPECTING THE CYLINDER As a first
step in servicing the cylinder, clean it as previously (b)
explained. Then inspect it and do whatever refinish- FIG. 31-7. Methods of measuring the cylinder bore.
ing is required. (a) Using an inside micrometer. (b) Using a cylinder bore
Examine the cylinder for cracks, stripped threads in gauge.

313
 OOO
check the cylinder bore for wear, taper, and out-of-
round (Fig. 31-7). A telescoping gauge and an outside
micrometer can also be used to check the cylinder
bore (Fig. 31-8). Take the measurements at several
places to check for taper and out-of-round (Fig. 31-8).
The difference between wear, taper, and out-of-round
is shown in Fig. 31-9.
Some small engines have cylinders of aluminum
with cast-iron liners (Fig. 31-10). The cast-iron liner is
included to serve as the bore and wearing surface.
Cast iron wears very little as compared with alumi-
num. When you find a cylinder of this type, check to
see if the cast-iron liner has worked loose. A loose
liner causes piston and cylinder overheating. The
heat cannot escape easily if the liner is loose. If there WEAR TAPER OUT-OF-ROUND
FIG. 31-9 Cylinder wear, taper, and out-of-round.

th
are blue spots on the bore (from the cast-iron over-
heating) or if the liner is loose, discard the cylinder.
Other small engines have chrome-plated cylinder
bores. Chrome is harder and wears less than cast
iron. You can identify chrome-plated cylinders by
MEASURE AT their shiny appearance. These cylinders cannot be
SIX POINTS
refinished. If they show signs of wear or scoring,
replace the cylinder.

© 31-7 REFINISHING THE CYLINDER If the cyl-

inder is scored, worn, tapered, or out-of-round, it
must be bored or honed to a larger size so that larger
piston and rings can be installed. Pistons are sup-
plied in standard oversizes, such as 0.010, 0.020, and
0.030 inch [0.25, 0.50, and 0.76 mm]. The cylinder,
CENTER OF
unless it is a chrome-plated cylinder, must be refin-
PISTON RING TRAVEL
ished to take one of these standard oversize pistons.
(a) Chrome-plated cylinders cannot be refinished.
Figure 31-11 shows the honing procedure for a cyl-
inder of a one-cylinder two-cycle engine with a de-
tachable cylinder head. The honing should be done
from the crankcase end of the cylinder. Honing also is
done in a drill press and in special shop hones that
have fixtures for holding the cylinder. Follow the
instructions supplied by the hone manufacturer for
installation of the hone in the cylinder, operating
speed, and lubrication. Remove the hone and
measure the cylinder periodically so you do not re-
move too much metal. When the cylinder is approxi-
MICROMETER

INSIDE GAUGE ALUMINUM

CYLINDER

(b)
FIG. 31-8 Taking bore measurements with a telescoping SSS
gauge and an outside micrometer. First you set the gauge to
the bore diameter (a), and then you determine the diameter CAST-IRON LINER
by using the micrometer as shown at (b). FIG. 31-10 Aluminum cylinder with a cast-iron liner.

314
 cloth on it without getting the cloth dirty. Then dry the
cylinder wall and coat it with engine oil. Do not use
kerosene or gasoline to clean the cylinder wall. They
will not remove all the grit.

031-8 CLEANING AND SERVICING THE PISTON

Remove the piston rings one at a time. Use a ring
expander to spread each ring so it can be slipped
over the head of the piston as shown in Fig. 31-13.
This avoids damaging the piston. Usually, new rings
should be installed every time the engine is over-
hauled. The exception is if the rings have been used
only a short time. In this case, the rings can be
HONING cleaned and inspected. If they are in good condition,
STONE
they can be reinstalled.
If the cylinder wall is worn so that the cylinder
requires refinishing, then both new rings and a new
piston will be required, as explained previously.
Inspect the piston for scuffing and scoring, cracks
FIG. 31-11 Honing the cylinder of a two-cycle engine. in the head or skirt, and damaged or broken ring
(Onan Corporation) lands. A ring land is the metal ring between the ring
grooves. Cracks or similar damage means the piston
should be discarded. However, some pistons that
mately 0.002 inch [0.05 mm] within the desired size,
have rough or lightly scored piston skirts can be re-
change to fine stones to finish the honing operation.
paired and reused. One repair method is to polish the
Usually, rough honing is done with 60-grit stones.
piston with a soap-filled steel-wool pad. Then rinse
Finish honing is done with 220-grit stones. When the
the piston in running water, and when all soap and
honing job is finished, the cylinder wall should have
metal particles have been washed off, dry the piston
acrosshatch pattern such as shown in Fig. 31-12. This
and coat it with light engine oil. Another way to
finish requires that the hone be moved up and down
smooth up a rough piston skirt is to use an oil stone.
at the right speed while the hone is rotating at the
Hold the piston in your hand and work the oil stone
proper speed.
over the scuffed area, following the pattern shown in
A one-piece cylinder block-and-head assembly
Fig. 31-14. If the damage does not clean up, discard
should be machine-bored and not honed when cylin-
the piston.
der-bore oversizing is necessary. However, when cyl-
Check the piston dimensions with a micrometer as
inder oversizing is not necessary, use the hone to
shown in Fig. 31-15. Compare these dimensions with
break the glaze on the cylinder wall. Roughen the
the cylinder dimensions previously checked (Figs.
cylinder wall slightly by running the hone through
31-7 and 31-8). The difference is the piston clearance.
the cylinder several times. This will help new piston
Some engine manufacturers recommend checking the
rings seat faster in a rebuilt engine.
fit of the piston in the cylinder bore with a feeler

CAUTION: The cylinder wall must be cleaned very

carefully after honing. This is to remove all particles
of grit and metal that may have become embedded in
the cylinder wall.
The best way to clean the cylinder wall is to use
soap and water and clean rags or a mop. Wash the
cylinder wall thoroughly or until you can rub a clean

EXPANDER

of a properly honed FIG. 31-138 Using a ring expander to remove the piston
cylinder bore. (Briggs & Stratton Corporation) rings from the piston. (Kohler Company)

315
 CYLINDER

OIL STONE CYLINDER

SKIRT

PISTON

SAWING PATTERN

PISTON
FIG. 31-16 Measuring piston clearance with a feeler
gauge. (Outboard Marine Corporation)

PISTON-RING-GROOVE CLEANER

ESOS
COY,%
ESSN
“e LOS ee NG
, 2
KX eg LOR K BOS
FIG. 31-14 Using an oil stone to clean up a scuffed piston.
(Yamaha Motor Company, Ltd.)
PISTON
gauge. The piston is inserted in the bore with the FIG. 31-17 Piston ring-groove cleaner.
feeler gauge along its side (Fig. 31-16). If the piston
moves too freely, the clearance is excessive. Too much
NEW PISTON RING
clearance requires reboring the cylinder to a larger
size and installing an oversize piston, as previously
explained.
If the piston checks out properly so far, inspect the
ring grooves. Clean out the carbon with a groove
cleaner (Fig. 31-17) or with a piece of a broken piston
ring. Do not remove metal; remove carbon only. It
may help to soak the piston in old carburetor cleaner
or a liquid chemical cleaner that is recommended for
aluminum. Then scrape any remaining carbon from
the grooves. FIG. 31-18 Checking the piston ring for tightness or bind-
Never use a wire brush on a piston. The wire bris- ing by rolling it around the groove. (Outboard Marine
tles will scratch the piston and can round off the Corporation)
outside edges of the piston-ring lands.
Next, check for ring-groove wear. Use the rings you some carbon in that spot, or there is a metal burr on
are to install on the piston to make this check. First, the side of the piston-ring land. This must be re-
roll the ring around the groove as shown in Fig. 31-18. moved. Another check for ring-groove wear is to use a
The ring should roll freely in the groove all the way feeler gauge to measure the clearance between the
around. If it binds in any place, there probably is still ring and ring land (Fig. 31-19).
If the ring grooves appear satisfactory, check the
ring gaps with the rings in the cylinder as explained
in ©31-9 and then install the rings, using the ring
expander as shown in Fig. 31-13. In two-cycle en-
gines, the piston rings are pinned so they cannot
move aground. Figure 31-20 shows several pinning
methods. If the rings move around, their ends might
catch in the transfer or exhaust ports. This could
break the rings and piston.
OUTSIDE
MICROMETER After the rings are in place on the piston, attach the
piston to the connecting rod and install the cylinder
FIG. 31-15 Measure piston skirt just below bottom ring and and cylinder head as explained in a following sec-
at a right angle to the piston pin. (Kohler Company) tion.

316
 NEW PISTON
RING PISTON
RING

RING
CENTERED
IN RING
TRAVEL AREA

CHECK RING
INVERTED PISTON END GAP
TO POSITION RING
SQUARELY IN
CYLINDER
FIG. 31-21 Squaring ring in cylinder bore with a piston in
FEELER GAUGE
preparation for measuring ring gap. (Tecumseh Products
Company)

FIG. 31-19 Checking the side clearance of the piston ring

in its groove. (Kohler Company)

PISTON CYLINDER
©O31-9 PISTON-RING SERVICE As a rule, new
piston rings should be installed every time an engine
is disassembled for an overhaul. However, if the
rings are relatively new, have been in use in the PLAIN
PISTON RING
engine for only a short time, and are in good condi-
tion, they might be used again.
Before a piston ring is installed on a piston, the ring
gap—the gap between the ends of the ring—must be
checked. This is done by pushing the ring down in the
cylinder with the piston turned upside down, as
SAS CYLINDER
shown in Fig. 31-21. Measure the gap with a feeler
PISTON
KEYSTONE
gauge. If the gap is excessive, do not use the ring. If PISTON RING
there is no gap, you have the wrong ring for the job.
FIG. 31-22 Comparison of the regular or plain piston ring
©31-10 TYPES OF RINGS Many small engines (top) with the keystone piston ring (bottom). (Yamaha Motor
use keystone rings (Fig. 31-22). The keystone piston Company, Ltd.)

PIN AT TOP OR BOTTOM PIN IN CENTER OF GROOVE PIN TOWARD

OF GROOVE ) INTAKE SIDE

aI
1
KZ) er [>]

Ss
Eee
fr> = TOP
VIEW
BEVELED-EDGE RING STRAIGHT-EDGE RING TOP L-RING
FIG. 31-20 Various pin-type piston rings used in small engines. (Kohler Company)

317
 a)
PISTON
SIDE CLEARANCE

CLIP PISTON PIN

a CLIP

DOWN STROKE

SIDE CLEARANCE ROLLER

BEARING

FIG. 31-24 Piston and connecting-rod assembly that uses a

roller bearing in the small end of the connecting rod.
a (Yamaha Motor Company, Ltd.)
UP STROKE
FIG. 31-23 The in-and-out movement of the keystone piston Before installing the cylinder or attaching the pis-
ring tends to make it self-cleaning. ton to the connecting rod, make the following check of
the rod big-end bearing. Move the rod from one side
ring tends to be self-cleaning, an especially impor- to the other to see how much it will wobble (Fig. 31-28).
tant feature for two-cycle engines. These engines If the rod small end can be moved more than a certain
accumulate carbon in the cylinder, because some of maximum, the rod big-end bearing is worn exces-
the oil mixed with the gasoline burns. Figure 31-23 sively. One manufacturer specifies that if the small
shows the self-cleaning action. end moves 0.080 inch [8 mm] or more, the big-end
The keystone rings must not be installed upside bearing requires service.
down, because this would probably break them. Ac-
tually, the caution about not installing piston rings O31-12 INSTALLING THE PISTON Aftertherings
upside down applies to all rings. But it is especially are installed on the piston, attach the piston to the
important for keystone and L rings. connecting rod with the piston pin. Coat the piston pin
The top ring in some engines is L-shaped as shown with oil before installing it. Some piston pins can be
in Fig. 31-20. This ring tends to reduce the amount of pushed in with a thumb. Others require a press or
unburned air-fuel mixture that exits from the cylinder special tool (Figs. 31-25 and 31-26). If lock rings are
during exhaust. The reason is that there is no space used, install them. Then coat the cylinder and the
between the top ring, cylinder wall, and top of the piston and rings, and install the cylinder over the
piston as there is in other ring designs. This space, in
engines not using the L ring, contains unburned air-
fuel mixture which cannot burn because it is next to
the relatively cool metal. During exhaust, this un-
burned mixture mixes with the exhaust gas, in-
creasing the amount of HC in the exhaust.

O31-11 CHECKING CONNECTING-ROD SMALL-

END AND BIG-END BEARINGS The piston is at-
tached to the connecting rod in a variety of ways. In
some, the piston pin is a press fit in the connecting
rod. In others, the pin is supported in the rod with a
sleeve or roller bearing (Fig. 31-24). The fit of the pin
to the bearing should be checked, and if it is not
correct, a new bearing, or a new connecting rod, will
be required. In some engines using sleeve bearings
in the rod small end, it is possible to ream the bear-
ing to a larger size and use a larger size pin. If this is
done, the bearing surfaces in the piston must also be
reamed to a larger size. FIG. 31-25 Using a press to push the piston pin into place.

318
 LOCATING PINS FACE
“N. TOWARD CARBURETOR
(INTAKE) SIDE

G
SS
Ks
WG
:WY WN PISTON-PIN
TOOL

FIG. 31-26 Using a special piston-pin tool to install a pis- entering the crankcase. Install a new cylinder base
ton pin. (Kohler Company) gasket on the through bolts, and slide the gasket into
place on the crankcase. Place the cylinder over the
piston and rings as explained in 031-13. A ring through bolts. Slide the skirt of the cylinder over the
compressor is required to compress the rings into head of the piston. Use your fingers or a hinged ring
their grooves so the cylinder can be slipped down over compressor to compress each ring into the cylinder.
the piston. Figure 31-27 shows one type of ring com- When all rings are in the cylinder, slide the cylinder
pressor. into place in the crankcase.
If a separate cylinder head is used, place a new
031-13 INSTALLING THE CYLINDER Coat the head gasket on the cylinder. Then properly position
cylinder bore with oil. Remove the cloth that you the head and set it in place. Reinstall the washers
placed around the connecting rod to prevent dirt from and nuts on the through-bolt threads. Turn the nuts
until they are finger-tight. Then use a torque wrench
to torque the nuts to the manufacturer's specifica-
tions. Be sure to follow the torquing sequence recom-
mended by the manufacturer.
Install the carburetor, being careful not to over-
tighten the nuts that hold it in place. Overtightening
might cause the base of the carburetor to break off.
Reinstall the shrouding and all other parts removed
when you began the top-end overhaul.

AXIAL PLAY
0.079 INCH [3 mm]
OR LESS

CRANKCASE

SIDE
CLEARANCE > =

$ NAVAN AAA
S
7 5 COMPRESSOR

FIG. 31-27 A two-piece band-type ring compressor is used FIG. 31-28 Checking the condition of the big-end bearing
to install the piston on many two-cycle engines. (Kohler by measuring the axial play in the connecting rod. (Out-
Company) board Marine Corporation)

319
 Check that the engine has a supply of oil and gaso-
line mixed to the proper ratio in the fuel tank, or that
the oil-injection oil tank is full. This assures ample
lubrication during start-up. Then start the engine.
Some manufacturers indicate that no special
break-in procedure is needed. In general, it is good
practice to operate the engine for the first few times at
light load to give the piston rings and other parts a
chance to seat. After 10 hours of operation, no further
break-in precautions are required.
A two-cycle engine that has been properly over-
hauled will give its owner hundreds of hours more of
dependable service. In this part of the chapter, you
learned how to thoroughly recondition the top-end of
a two-cycle engine. This is one of the most common
(b) SINGLE ROW OF NEEDLE BEARINGS
service jobs that these engines require.
FIG. 31-29 Single-row and split-row needle bearings for
connecting rods. (Tecumseh Products Company)
BOTTOM-END OVERHAUL

If a complete overhaul job is required, then the © 31-16 CONNECTING-ROD-SLEEVE-BEARING SER-

top-end work just described must also be done. This VICE This type of bearing (Fig. 31-31) is used with
part of the chapter covers bottom-end services, which a split-rod big end. The rod has a bearing cap so the
include servicing connecting-rod big-end bearings, two halves of the sleeve bearing can be installed
crankshaft main bearings, crankshaft reed valves, (Fig. 10-8). There are three ways of checking the
and oil seals and gaskets. clearance between sleeve bearings and the crank-
shaft. These are with shim stock, with Plastigage,
© 31-14 CONNECTING-ROD SERVICE Therod big and with a micrometer and telescope gauge.
end can be checked for looseness while it is still Before you check the clearance between the con-
attached to the crankshaft, as explained in 031-11. necting-rod big-end bearing and the crankpin or the
The rod small end may have a needle bearing or a crankshaft, inspect the crankpin for wear and rough-
bushing. As explained in © 31-11, if it is a bushing (or ness. If the crankpin is worn, it will require service or
sleeve bearing) and if it is worn, it can be replaced in the crankshaft will require replacement (see © 31-24).
many rods. In other rods, the bushing can be reamed To check the clearance with shim stock, lubricate a
to a larger size and an oversize pin fitted. In some strip of 0.001-inch [0.025-mm] shim stock about '/4 inch
engines, the bushing is not serviceable and, if worn, [6 mm] wide. Lay it lengthwise in the center of the
the rod is replaced. bearing cap. Install the cap, and tighten the rod nuts
In many small engines, particularly those used in to the specified torque. Try to move the rod endwise
motorcycles, a built-up crankshaft is used (see Fig. on the crankpin. If the rod has tightened up on the
10-9). In these, the crankshaft, connecting rod, and
rod big-end bearing are replaced as an assembly.
The big-end bearing usually is the needle type. Other
small engines using needle bearings in the rod big
end have a rod cap which can be removed so the rod
can be taken off the crankshaft. Figure 31-29 shows
this type.

© 31-15 CONNECTING-ROD-NEEDLE-BEARING SER-

VICE If the connecting-rod big end uses needle
bearings and they require replacement, proceed as
follows: Figure 31-29 shows two styles of needle bear-
ings: single-row and split-row. To install a new set of
needles, lay the strip on your finger as shown in Fig.
31-30. Then carefully strip off the backing. Curl your
finger with the needles around the crankpin. The
grease on the needles will hold them in place, as
shown in Fig. 31-30. The crankshaft and crankpin
FIG. 31-30 (Left) Needles in place around the crankpin.
must be clean and the crankpin must be in good (Right) Hold needles on finger to apply them to the crankpin.
condition. See © 31-24 regarding crankshaft service. (Lawn Boy Division of Outboard Marine Corporation)

320
 LENGTH LOCKING WEIGHT
END LIP
CHAMFER |
ANNULAR ||
GROOVE l ¢
< Q

c 6
a)
a2 LINING
OILHOLE G THICKNESS
Z/ ~~ Back
THICKNESS
DISTRIBUTING PARTING-LINE TOTAL WALL THICKNESS
GROOVE CHAMFER
FIG. 31-31 (left) A typical sleeve-type bearing half. (right) A
sleeve-type bearing half with the parts named. (Federal When a micrometer and telescope gauge are used,
Mogul Corporation)
the diameter of the bearing is measured with the
telescope gauge. Then the crankshaft is measured
crankpin, the clearance between the bearing and the with a micrometer. The clearance is found by sub-
crankpin is less than the thickness of the shim stock. tracting the crankshaft diameter from the bearing
If the rod is still loose, the clearance is greater than diameter.
the thickness of the shim stock. Lay another shim on
top of the first, and tighten the rod nuts again. Repeat O31-17 INSTALLING NEW SLEEVE BEARINGS
the checking procedure. If the rod is still loose, add New connecting-rod bearings are required if the old
another piece of shim stock. Repeat the procedure ones are defective or have worn so much that the
until the rod locks up. The bearing clearance is the clearances are excessive. They also are required if
thickness of the shims required to lock up the rod. the crankpins have become out-of-round or tapered.
Compare this thickness with the manufacturer's In such cases, a new or reground crankshaft with new
specifications. Excessive clearance means a new bearings must be installed. See 031-24 regarding
bearing is required. crankshaft service.
Plastigage is a plastic wire that comes in strips. It Always check the crankpin as explained in 0 31-24
flattens when pressure is applied to it. To use Plasti- to make sure it is not out-of-round or tapered. With
gage, first make sure the bearing and crankpin are either of these conditions, new bearings would soon
wiped clean of dirt and oil. Lay a strip of the Plasti- fail.
gage on the bearing in the rod cap as shown in Fig. When installing new bearings, make sure your
31-32. Then install the cap and rod on the crankpin, hands, the workbench, your tools, and all engine
and tighten the nuts to the specified torque. Do not parts are clean. Keep the new bearings wrapped until
move the crankshaft while the Plastigage is in place. you are ready to install them. Handle them carefully.
Remove the cap and measure the amount that the Wipe each bearing with a clean cloth just before
Plastigage has flattened, as shown in Fig. 31-32, installing it. Be sure that the bore in the cap and rod
using the scale that is printed on the Plastigage
package. If the clearance is small, the Plastigage will
have flattened considerably. If the clearance is rela-
tively large, the Plastigage will not have flattened as
much.
PLASTIGAGE SCALE

PLASTIGAGE

PLASTIGAGE
(b)
FIG. 31-32 Using Plastigage to check bearing clearance.
(a) Lay a strip of Plastigage on the bearing in the rod cap.
(b) After installing the cap and then removing it, measure
the amount that the Plastigage has flattened to determine FIG. 31-33 Inserting a new bearing in the connecting-rod
clearance. cap. (Service Parts Division of Dana Corporation)

321
are clean and not out-of-round. Some manufacturers and rod. Clearance can be measured as for the re-
recommend a check of bore roundness with the bear- placeable sleeve bearings with shims, Plastigage, or
ing shells removed. The cap is attached and the nuts telescope gauge and micrometer (031-16). If clear-
drawn up to specifications. Then a telescope gauge ance is excessive, shims can be removed from Se
and micrometer are used to check the bore. If it is tween the cap and rod to reduce it.
excessively out-of-round, a new rod should be in-
stalled. If the bore is satisfactory, install the bearing ©31-19 CRANKSHAFT-BEARING SERVICE The
(Fig. 31-33). If the bearing halves or shells have lock- crankshaft of a single-cylinder engine is held at its
ing tangs, be sure they enter the notches provided in ends by bearings. A variety of bearings have been
the rod and cap. used: needle, ball, tapered roller, and sleeve. Sleeve
bearings may be of the split type, in which case they
are checked and serviced as are connecting-rod
Bearing Spread Bearing shells are usually manufac-
split-sleeve bearings (031-16 and ©31-17). Other
tured with “spread.” The shell diameter is slightly
crankshaft sleeve bearings are complete bushings
greater than the diameter of the rod cap or rod bore
pressed into the end plates of the crankcase. We
into which the shell will fit. This is shown in Fig.
discuss the servicing of the bushing type of sleeve
31-31. When the shell is installed in the cap or rod, it
bearing and needle, ball, and tapered roller bearings
snaps into place and holds its seat during later as-
in following sections.
sembling operations.
To gain access to the bearings, the crankshaft must
be removed, and this requires removal of the fly-
Bearing Crush To make sure that the bearing shell wheel. There are several methods of doing this, as
will “snug down” into its bore in the rod cap or rod explained in Chap. 26. Sometimes the flywheel must
when the cap is installed, the bearings have “crush.” be removed to service the magneto. This procedure is
See Fig. 31-34. They are manufactured to have a also covered in Chap. 26.
slight additional height over a full half. This addi-
tional height must be crushed down when the cap is 031-20 CRANKSHAFT SLEEVE-BEARING SERVICE
installed. Crushing down the additional height forces Several different sleeve-bearing-and-crankcase com-
the shells into the bores in the cap and rod. It ensures binations have been used on small engines. This is
firm seating and snug contact with the bores. because of the various crankcase materials and de-
Never file off the edges of the bearing shells in an signs. In some engines with aluminum crankcases,
attempt to remove crush. When you select the bear- no separate bearing is used. Instead, the crankshaft
ings recommended by the engine manufacturer for an is supported by, and turns in holes bored in, the
engine, they will have the correct crush. Precision- aluminum itself. If these holes wear, bearings can be
insert bearings must not be shimmed or filed to make installed as explained later, or a new crankcase or
them “fit better.” This usually leads only to early end plates are required.
bearing failure. Here is the procedure for checking and replacing
sleeve bearings of the bushing type: First, wipe the
O31-18 BONDED ENGINE BEARING On some bearing clean and inspect it for wear, scoring, or
connecting rods, the bearing is permanently bonded other damage. One manufacturer supplies “reject”
to the rod and cap. If this bearing is worn excessively, gauges for checking the bearings in their engine. If
the complete rod must be replaced. However, some the gauge can enter the bearing (Fig. 31-35), the bear-
adjustment can be made to compensate for wear. ing is worn and should be replaced (“rejected”). If a
This is done by removing shims from between the cap reject gauge is not available, the bearing can be
ADDITIONAL HEIGHT OVER
FULL HALF GIVES CRUSH
ON ASSEMBLY
THIS MAY BE AS
LITTLE AS
0.00025 INCH
[0.006 mm]

BEARING SHELL

CRANKSHAFT
BEARING

BEARING CAP OR BORE

IN ROD OR BLOCK FIG. 31-35 Use a reject gauge to check the wear of a
FIG. 31-34 Bearing crush. sleeve-type crankshaft bearing.

322
 bearing driver, and drive the old bearing toward the
inside of the crankcase, as shown in Fig. 31-37. Sup-
port the crankcase or end plate around the bearing
area while the old bearing is being removed and the
new bearing installed. You can make these supports
from old pieces of pipe. The supports prevent the
bearing mounting area from distorting and the cast-
ing from cracking or breaking.
Look for an oil hole in the crankcase and in the new
bearing. If these are present, the new bearing must
be installed so that the oil hole in the bearing aligns
with the oil hole in the crankcase. Then press or drive
the new bearing into place from the outside of the
crankcase toward the inside. Drive the bearing into
FIG. 31-36 Removing oil seal from the crankcase end
plate. (Tecumseh Products Company) the crankcase to the proper depth, which is usually
about 4/16 inch [1.6 mm]. This allows room for instal-
lation of the oil seal later.
checked with a small-hole gauge or a telescope When the sleeve bearing is in position, ream it to
gauge and micrometer. the correct size. Each engine manufacturer makes
In single-cylinder engines, the exposed end of the available the proper size of reamers.
crankshaft is called the power-takeoff (PTO) end. For Two different types of reamers are used. The differ-
example, the end of the crankshaft of a power mower ence is in the pilot used for the reamer. One type of
on which the cutting blade mounts is the PTO end. reamer uses a guide bushing placed in the opposite
The other end of the crankshaft is the magneto end. bearing as the pilot, as shown in Fig. 31-38. With the
The two bearings that support the crankshaft often guide bushing in place, reassemble the crankcase
are identified as the PTO bearing and the magneto and perform the reaming operation. Turn the reamer
bearing. clockwise, slowly and steadily, until it is completely
If new sleeve bearings are required, proceed as through the bearing. One manufacturer recommends
follows: After the crankshaft has been removed, rein- that the bearing be reamed dry, without oil. However,
stall the end plate. Remove the oil seal (Fig. 31-36). if the reamer cuts slightly large, then use oil. The oil
Then remove, install, and ream one bearing before causes the reamer to cut slightly smaller. When the
removing the other bearing. In this way, the original reamer is completely through the bearing, remove the
bearing in the opposite end of the crankcase serves end plate and take out the reamer. Do not back the
as a guide for reaming the new bearing. Then the reamer out of the bearing. This will gouge the bear-
newly installed and reamed bearing is used as a pilot ing surface and damage the reamer. Check the bear-
for reaming the second bearing after it is installed. ing diameter for correct size. Then carefully clean out
To replace a sleeve bearing in the crankcase, first all chips and metal particles.
remove the PTO-end bearing. Use an arbor press or a Aluminum engines without removable bearings are
reamed as outlined above to take a new replaceable
bearing. However, a different size reamer is used.
After the new bearing bore is reamed, the bearing

BEARING PILOT BUSHING

DRIVER

FIG. 31-38 Using a pilot and guide bushing in the original

FIG. 31-37 Use of a bearing driver to remove or replace a bearing to ream a newly installed sleeve bearing. (Briggs &
sleeve bearing. (Clinton Engines Corporation) Stratton Corporation)

323
must be staked in place. Make a notch in the bore
with a chisel. The notch should be in the outer edge, BALL BEARING

opposite to where the split in the bearing will be

after installation. Then install the bearing. With the STEELOR
chisel, notch the bearing above the notch in the bore. BEARING ASBESTOS
END SHEET
This will drive part of the bearing material into the PLATE
outer notch and help prevent the bearing from turn-
ing. With the bearing staked in place, finish reaming HOT
it as outlined above. PLATE

©31-21 CRANKSHAFT NEEDLE-, ROLLER-, AND

BALL-BEARING SERVICE To service ball, needle,
or tapered roller bearings, first determine if the bear-
ings are damaged or worn. After the crankshaft is
removed from the engine, wash the bearing and then
FIG. 31-40 Using a hot plate to heat the crankcase half and
dry it. Do not spin-dry the bearing with compressed make it easy to remove ball bearing. (Tecumseh Products
air. Depending on the engine, the bearing will re- Company)
main in the crankcase or on the crankshaft. Do not
remove the bearing until you have decided that it
must be replaced. After the bearing is clean and dry, of the bearing so you can determine by feel whether
make a thorough visual inspection of it for pits and the bearing is tight or has rough spots.
discoloration. If the bearing appears to be in good If the bearings are worn or damaged, they must be
condition, coat it with oil. Then rotate the inner race replaced. If the bearings are on the crankshaft, they
should be pulled with a puller, as shown in Fig. 31-39,
or pressed off with an arbor press. Then a new bear-
ing can be pressed on.
If the bearings are in the crankcase, they may be
pressed out or knocked out with a bearing driver.
Another removal method, recommended by some en-
gine manufacturers, is to put the crankcase half on a
hot plate, as shown in Fig. 31-40. As the crankcase
half reaches a temperature of about 400°F [204°C],
the ball bearing should drop out. Tap the case lightly
with a soft hammer to help loosen the bearing. The
new bearing can be dropped into the case. Make sure
it seats all the way into the recess for it. Wear heavy
gloves when you must handle the hot case.
When the crankshaft is mounted on roller bearings,
as shown in Fig. 31-41, you can replace the outer race
in the housing by pulling the race. Another way is to
heat the housing until the race drops out. Then install
a new race. The inner race on the crankshaft must be
pulled out with a puller and a new race pressed on.

BEARING CUP STEEL WASHER

ie CYLINDER COVER
[tr

aw
NLS. =

BEARING RB] Vl

SHIM GASKET
ROLLER BEARING
FIG. 31-39 Removing ball bearing from crankshaft with a FIG. 31-41 Crankshaft mounted on tapered roller bearings.
puller. (Kohler Company) (Tecumseh Products Company)

324
 Crankshaft needle bearings should be cleaned, CONDENSER
dried, and coated with oil. Then check the needle
bearings and their cage for wear. Replace the needle
bearing when the needles are very loose or fall out of
their cage. To install a new needle bearing, always
drive the bearing on the end with the identification
marks. But be very careful! If the new needle bearing
assembly is damaged during installation, it will
quickly damage the crankshaft.

©31-22. OIL SEALS On a two-cycle engine, the

crankcase must be sealed. Although no oil is carried
in the crankcase, air leaks must be prevented. Other-
wise, the air-fuel mixture ratio will be changed and
the engine may not run right. Oil seals on each end of
INSERT TOOL HERE
the crankshaft prevent these leaks. TO REMOVE SNAP
Oil seals should be discarded and new seals in- RING AND SEAL
stalled every time the engine is given a complete FIG. 31-48 Point at which tool must be inserted to remove
overhaul. Usually, oil seals are damaged during re- snap ring. (Tecumseh Products Company)
moval. One oil-seal arrangement is shown in Fig.
any slight out-of-round condition of the seal or the
31-42. The seal is held in place by a retainer and snap
seal bore. Some seals are made with a neoprene
ring. To remove the snap ring and seal, use a pointed
(plastic) coating for the same purpose. These can be
tool to pry the snap ring out of the spiral groove. This
installed without the use of liquid gasket sealer.
permits removal of the spring, retainer, and seal.
If you use a liquid sealer, be sure that it is applied
Figure 31-43 shows where the tool must be inserted to
to the seal and not to the bore in the block. Do not coat
remove the snap ring.
the bore in the block and then drive the seal in. Doing
Be careful not to use too much pressure while re-
so allows the gasket sealer to get into the lip and may
moving the spring. Excessive pressure on the pointed
cause it to leak. Also, the sealer could possibly cause
tool may damage the thin crankcase or scratch the
a leak by running into and blocking off the oil drain
seal surface on the crankshaft.
hole.
When installing new seals, many technicians coat
the outside of the seal case with Permatex No. 3 or © 31-23 GASKETS Always use new gaskets on
other liquid gasket sealer. Then, while the seal is engine reassembly. Old gaskets are probably hard
being driven into place, the liquid sealer will fill in and will not provide a good seal. In addition, they

COILED
CRANKSHAFT SNAP SPRING STEEL
SPRING
RETAINER

(a) (b)
FIG. 31-42 (a) Removing snap ring to permit removal of oil seal.
(b) Sectional view of a typical oil seal. (Selastomer Division of Microdot,
Inc.)

325
 0.0005 INCH [0.013 mm]
PERMATEX #3 DIAL
MAX.
OR CORDO INDICATOR
.000 INCH Og

2 2
MAIN-BEARING
JOURNAL

FIG. 31-44 Applying sealant to the contact face of one half FIG. 31-45 Using a dial indicator to check main-bearing
of the split crankcase. (Tecumseh Products Company) journals. (Tecumseh Products Company)

may have been damaged or destroyed during engine move. If journals are rough, out-of-round, or tapered,
disassembly. Make sure that the sealing surfaces on the crankshaft should be discarded.
the engine are clean, but do not scrape them. Instead,
use lacquer thinner on a clean cloth to wipe traces of 031-25 REED VALVES Not all two-cycle engines
sealer or gasket material from the surfaces. use reed valves. Those that do will not run right with
On the split-crankcase engine, the two halves of a defective reed valve. When overhauling an engine,
the crankcase are sealed by a bead of liquid gasket always clean all dirt and oil from the reeds and the
sealer. Apply the sealer to the contact face of one of adapter or reed-valve plate. Do this carefully to avoid
the halves, as shown in Fig. 31-44. damaging reeds. If reeds are bent, damaged, or bro-
ken, replace the reed-valve assembly. Check also, on
O 31-24 CRANKSHAFT SERVICE The crankshaft engines using a reed-valve stop, to make sure the
should be inspected for wear of the journals and for stop is not bent or broken. Use a feeler gauge as
distortion. The crankshafts of power mowers, for ex- shown in Fig. 31-46 to check how much the reeds bend
ample, can be bent if the cutting blade should strike a away from the base plate, or adapter. One manufac-
solid object a glancing blow. This could put a stress turer specifies a maximum of 0.010 inch [0.25 mm]. If
on the crankshaft that would bend it. A quick check the reeds bend more than this, or are otherwise dam-
for a bent crankshaft can be made with the crankshaft aged, replace them.
still in the engine. Remove the spark plug and crank Do not attempt to check reed-valve action with
the engine. Watch the end of the crankshaft for wob- compressed air. This can damage the reeds. Reed
ble. If there is wobble, the crankshaft is bent and it valves are checked by visual inspection only.
should be replaced.
With the crankshaft out of the engine, it can be © 31-26 BREAKING IN AN OVERHAULED ENGINE
inspected for roughness, discoloration, cracks and Allow a new or overhauled engine to work up to full
breaks, and stripped threads on the ends. Check the power gradually. On two-cycle engines, adjust the
keyway for any enlarging or other damage that might carburetor for a fairly rich mixture for the first 10
have resulted from a loose flywheel, adapter, or pul- hours. Follow the instructions on the nameplate at-
ley. Check the taper on the crankshaft where the
flywheel mounts for wear or damage. Any damage,
except for battered threads, means the crankshaft
must be discarded. Battered threads can often be
cleaned with a thread chaser.
Figure 31-45 shows various checks to be made on a
crankshaft. After a thorough visual inspection, use a
micrometer or dial indicator to check the crankpin
and main journals. Mount the crankshaft on centers
so it can be rotated. As the crankshaft rotates, any FIG. 31-46 Measure how far the reeds bend away from the
irregularity will cause the dial indicator needle to adapter. (Tecumseh Products Company)

326
tached to the engine or equipment. See also © 30-2 for 16. List the types of piston rings used in two-cycle
further information on operating a new or rebuilt engines.
engine.
17. Describe how to check the piston-pin bearing.
REVIEW QUESTIONS 18. How do you check for connecting-rod bearing
1. What is a top-end overhaul? wear without disassembling the engine?

Z. When is it necessary to remove the engine from 19. Explain how

to use Plastigage to check bearing
clearance.
a machine in order to do a top-end overhaul?
- While the cylinder is off of the crankcase, why
20. Why are bearing spread and bearing crush
should the crankcase opening be covered with important?
a shop towel? 21. What type of crankcase metal can be used by
itself as the bearing surface?
. List the different ways that the piston can be
removed from the connecting rod. 22. What names are used to identify the two ends
of a crankshaft?
What causes the exhaust ports to clog in a
two-cycle engine? 23. What is a sleeve bearing?
- What three conditions of a cylinder can be 24. Explain how to ream new sleeve bearings after
checked with an inside micrometer? installation in the crankcase.
. How can you tell if a cylinder has a cast-iron 25. Why must the crankcase of a two-cycle engine
liner? have seals although no oil is carried in the
crankcase?
. What is the difference between a chrome-
plated cylinder bore and a cast-iron liner?
. Explain how to hone a cylinder.
DELE-PROIECH

10. After honing, how is the cylinder cleaned?

Locate a shop engine or an old engine that you can
di. What do you do about a piston that has a bro- disassemble. Clean the outside of the engine and
ken ring land? prepare it for disassembly. Next, disassemble the
engine and perform each of the inspections and
12. Explain how to check piston clearance.
checks covered in this chapter. When you are fin-
13. Why should a wire brush never be used to clean ished with each step, have your instructor inspect
a piston? your work. In this way, you will learn how to use
the tools and shop equipment that are needed by
14, How do you check for ring-groove wear?
the small-engine technician in performing a small-
15. When can piston rings be reused? engine overhaul.

327
r
32
Chapter
Servicing
Four-Cycle Engines

032-1 SPECIAL SERVICING PROCEDURES FOR

FOUR-CYCLE ENGINES There are many servicing
procedures that are the same for two-cycle and four-
cycle engines. For example, the servicing procedures
After studying this chapter, you should be for both are the same for the cylinder, pistons, piston
able to: rings, connecting rod, crankshaft, and the rod and
crankshaft bearings. These service procedures are
1. Explain the difference in service procedures all covered in detail in Chap. 31.
required for four-cycle engines However, there are several special procedures that
the four-cycle engine requires. These include adjust-
2. Discuss the use of short blocks ing the valves, servicing valves and valve seats, and
servicing the camshaft and camshaft bearings. We
3. Demonstrate how to adjust the valves on cover these special services in this chapter.
various types of small engines
032-2 SHORT BLOCKS Small engines are rela-
4. Demonstrate how to perform a complete tively inexpensive. Repair time and parts are rela-
valve-service job tively costly. If an engine is worn so badly that a new
piston, rings, connecting rod, and bearings are re-
5. Demonstrate how to check the valve springs quired, it may cost more to overhaul the engine than
to buy a new one. However, it may not be necessary
and tappets
to buy a complete engine. Some engine manufactur-
ers supply “short-block” engine assemblies (Fig. 32-
6. Demonstrate how to service valve guides
1). These are assembled engines minus magneto,
cylinder head, carburetor, and starter. When these
7. Demonstrate how to grind valve seats
parts are still good, the short block may be the an-
swer to a service problem. The short block includes
8. Explain how to install a valve-seat insert
the cylinder block, piston rings, connecting rod,
crankshaft, and, on four-cycle engines, the valves
9. Demonstrate how to inspect and check a
and camshaft.
camshaft
For engines that can be repaired with still fewer
parts, a “miniblock” is available from some manufac-
turers (Fig. 32-2).

© 32-3 VALVE ADJUSTMENTS Before we examine

the grinding of valves and valve seats, servicing of
camshafts, and other valve-related services, let us
look at valve adjustments.
On most four-cycle small engines, periodic adjust-
ment of the valves is required. Actually, this adjust-
ment sets the proper amount of clearance in the valve

328
 PISTON CRANKSHAFT

FIG. 32-1 Short block for a small

engine. (Kohler Company)

train. There must be some clearance to assure com-

plete closing of the valves. The adjustment procedure
varies with the type and design of engine. The proce-
= dure has several names—adjusting valve-lifter
RINGS
clearance, adjusting valve-tappet clearance, adjust-
ing valve lash—but all refer to the same basic ad-
justment. Some engines using hydraulic valve lifters
normally require no clearance adjustment. Others
PISTON a require checking and adjustment whenever valve-
service work is performed. The procedures that follow
are typical.

© 32-4 L-HEAD ENGINE WITH MECHANICAL VALVE

LIFTERS Some specifications call for checking the
clearance with the engine cold. According to other
specifications, the engine should be warmed up and
idling. Remove the valve-cover plates. Figure 11-2
shows the valve mechanism on an L-head engine.
Use a feeler gauge to check the clearance between
the valve stem and the adjusting screw in the valve
lifter as shown in Fig. 32-3. A two-step “go, no-go”
feeler gauge of the specified thicknesses can be used.
CONNECTING Adjustment is correct when the “go” step fits the

2
ROD clearance but the “no-go” step does not.
If the clearance is not correct, the adjusting screw
FIG. 32-2 Miniblock assembly for a small engine. (Kohler must be turned in or out as necessary to correct it.
Company) Some tappet-adjusting screws are self-locking. Oth-

329
 ADJUST VALVE
CLEARANCE HERE g
fa <4, ROCKER
ARM
REEEER VALVE-
SPRING
RETAINER
VALVE
SPRING
OIL SEAL G°
VALVE
(INTAKE VALVE
PUSH
ONLY)
ROD

Beeseuceseuusaeaaceen:
FIG. 32-3 Adjusting valve-tappet clearance on an L-head
engine.

ers have a locking nut. On the latter type, the locking

nut must be loosened. This requires two wrenches: FIG. 32-5 Adjusting valve-tappet clearance on an engine
one to hold the screw, the other to turn the nut. On with rocker arms independently mounted on ball studs.
both types of tappet-adjusting screws, one wrench Backing the stud nut out increases clearance. (Onan
must be used to hold the valve lifter while a second Corporation)
wrench is used to turn the adjusting screw. Adjust-
ment is correct when the feeler gauge can be moved There are two kinds of rocker arms. One is shaft-
between the screw and valve stem with some drag mounted, and the other is ball-stud-mounted. The
when the valve is closed. When a locking nut is used, shaft-mounted type usually has an adjustment screw.
it should be tightened after the adjustment is made This screw is normally self-locking and does not re-
and the clearance should be checked again. After the quire a locking nut. Use a box wrench to turn the
adjustment is completed, replace the cover plates, adjustment screw and adjust the clearance to specifi-
using new gaskets. cations. Do not use an open-end wrench. This could
damage the screwhead.
032-5 OVERHEAD-VALVE ENGINE WITH MECHAN- On the ball-stud-mounted rocker arms (Fig. 32-5)
ICAL VALVE LIFTERS Most specifications call for turn the self-locking rocker-arm nut to make the ad-
making the check with the engine cold and not run- justment. Turning the nut down reduces clearance.
ning. First, remove the valve cover. Measure the clear-
ance between the valve stem and rocker arm, asshown O 32-6 ENGINES WITH HYDRAULIC VALVE LIFTERS
in Fig. 32-4. The clearance is measured with the On some engines with hydraulic valve lifters, no
valve lifter on the base circle of the cam. Turn the adjustment is provided in the valve train. In normal
crankshaft with the starter until the base circle of service, no adjustment is necessary. The hydraulic
the cam is under the valve lifter. valve lifter takes care of any small changes in the
valve-train length. However, adjustment may be
needed if valves and valve seats are ground. Unusual
and severe wear of the push-rod ends, rocker arm, or
valve stem may also require adjustment. Then some
correction may be required to re-establish the correct
LOOSEN LOCKNUT AND TURN valve-train length. The procedures vary, so follow the
ADJUSTING SCREW UNTIL
steps in the manufacturer's service manual.
FEELER GAUGE IS SLIP-FIT
BETWEEN ROCKERARM &
AND VALVE STEM O 32-7 OVERHEAD-CAMSHAFT ENGINES Over-
head-camshaft (OHC) engines have several arrange-
ments for carrying the cam action to the valve stems.
In some engines, cam action is carried directly to the
valve stem through a cap, called the valve tappet.
This cap fits over the valve stem and spring. In other
engines, the cam action is carried through a rocker
arm. We shall look at both arrangements. Checks and
adjustments are made with the engine cold, after the
engine has cooled overnight or has not been operated
FIG. 32-4 Adjusting valve-tappet clearance on an over- for at least four hours.
head-valve engine. Figure 32-6 shows two arrangements that are used

330
 ADJUSTING SCREW
AND LOCKNUT
ROCKER
CAMSHAFT
ARM CAMSHAFT
CAMSHAFT SPACER
CAM
FOLLOWER

VALVE
SPRING

FIG. 32-6 Valve and camshaft arrangement for a single-

overhead-camshaft engine and for a double-overhead- Insert a feeler gauge of the specified thickness in
camshaft engine. (Honda Motor Company, Ltd.)
the space between the rocker arm and the valve stem,
as shown in Fig. 32-7. If the gauge goes in with a
to actuate the valves by means of an overhead cam- slight drag, the valve has the proper clearance. How-
shaft. In some engines the cam operates the valve ever, if the gauge will not go in, the valve does not
directly. Other engines use rocker arms to transfer have enough clearance. When the gauge slips
cam motion to the valve. When only one camshatft is through the space freely with no resistance, the
used, as shown in the left illustration of Fig. 32-6, the clearance is excessive and must be reduced.
engine is identified as having a single overhead
camshaft. This is often abbreviated SOHC. When an ADJUSTING
engine has two camshafts—one camshaft to operate WRENCH aaa
the intake valves and a second camshaft to operate
the exhaust valves—the engine is known as a double
overhead camshaft (DOHC) engine. MORE CLEARANCE
A valve-clearance adjustment on an overhead-
camshaft engine using rocker arms is made in the
same manner as for the overhead-valve engine ADJUSTER
shown in Fig. 32-4. The adjustment is made with the
piston at TDC on the compression stroke, when both
LOCKNUT
valves are closed. Most engines have timing marks
indicating this position. However, in a four-cycle en-
gine, when the timing marks line up, the engine
could be at TDC ending the compression stroke or at
TDC ending the exhaust stroke. A quick way to tell if FEELER
the valves are in position to adjust, or if the engine GAUGE
should be cranked one complete revolution, is to
wiggle the rocker arms up and down. Both should
have a slight amount of free movement up and down.
If either rocker arm is tight, then turn the engine one
full revolution. On multicylinder engines, crank the FIG. 32-7 Adjusting valve clearance on an overhead-
engine until the piston in each cylinder is in proper camshaft engine that has rocker arms. (Honda Motor Com-
position for valve adjustment. pany, Ltd.)

331
 The adjuster and locknut on many rocker arms can
be set using a wrench and a screwdriver. This is the
method shown in Fig. 32-4. Some engines require a
special adjusting wrench, as shown in Fig. 32-7, to fit
the rocker-arm adjuster. To set the clearance, first use
a wrench to loosen the locknut. Then use the adjust-
ing wrench to make the clearance adjustment. Basi-
cally, the adjuster is a machine screw. Turning it
clockwise lengthens the distance the screw sticks out
below the rocker arm. This reduces the clearance.
Turning the adjuster counterclockwise increases the
clearance between the end of the screw and the valve
stem.
When you feel a slight drag on the feeler gauge
while turning the adjuster, the clearance is correct.
Remove the feeler gauge, and tighten the locknut.
Then recheck the clearance again. Sometimes tight-
ening the locknut changes the clearance slightly.
Figure 32-8 shows an exploded view of the valve
im a
train in a single-overhead-camshaft marine engine. FIG. 32-9 Checking valve clearance on the overhead cam-
Notice that in this engine the cams are direct-acting. shaft engine shown in Fig. 32-8.
By “direct-acting,” we mean that the cams work di-
rectly on the cam follower, or tappet. No rocker arm is ment in the chart. Then fill out the chart to determine
used. To check the valve clearance, rotate the crank- how thick the new spacer must be. When you have
shaft until both valves close. Then insert the feeler the new spacer in place, make a quick check as
gauge between the cam and the cam follower, as shown in Fig. 32-11 to be sure that the spacer pro-
shown in Fig. 32-9. Record the clearance, then repeat trudes above the valve-spring retainer by at least
the procedure for each valve. 0.002 inch [0.05 mm]. If it does not, the valve must be
When any valve has incorrect clearance and you replaced. After checking the spacer, install the cam
decide to adjust it, you must prepare a chart similar follower on the same valve from which it was re-
to the one shown in Fig. 32-10 for each valve. In this moved. Then reinstall the camshaft bearings and
type of valve train, valve clearance is adjusted by camshaft.
changing the cam-follower spacer, which is availa-
ble in a variety of thicknesses. As you can see in © 32-8 THE COMPLETE VALVE JOB In addition to
Fig. 32-11, the spacer fits between the valve stem and adjusting valves, other jobs relating to the valves
the cam follower. may be required on four-cycle engines. These include
To adjust the clearance, remove the camshaft and removing the cylinder head, removing and servicing
camshaft bearings. On each valve that requires the valves, servicing valve seats and valve guides,
clearance adjustment, lift off the cam follower and and installing new valve-seat inserts if required. We
remove the cam-follower spacer. Measure the thick- cover these procedures on following pages.
ness of each spacer, or shim, and enter the measure- The procedures that follow apply generally to sin-
gle-cylinder L-head air-cooled engines. They may
also apply to other engines. However, if available,
INTAKE VALVE INTAKE VALVE ROTATOR have the service manual in front of you whenever you
start out to service an engine that is new to you.

SPACER
CAM FOLLOWER

RETAINER LOCKS
FIG. 32-8 Exploded view of the valve train of a
SPACER direct-acting single-overhead-camshaft outboard
CAM FOLLOWER engine. (Homelite)

332
 ADD
0.106 INCH
THICKNESS OF ORIGINAL
SPACER AS MEASURED [2.69 mm]

Gl
0.114 INCH
Ree [2.90 mm]
SUBTRACT REQUIRED VALVE
CLEARANCE. 0.012-.014 INCH
[0.30-0.36 mm]
INTAKE VALVES
0.015-.017 INCH [0.38-0.43 mm]
EXHAUST VALVES

TO GET THICKNESS OF 0.097 INCH

REQUIRED SPACER [2.46 mm]

FIG. 32-10 Chart for calculating the thickness of the shim

or spacer needed to adjust valve clearance in the engine
shown in Fig. 32-8. 3. Disconnect the spark-plug wires and tempera-
ture-sending unit, if used.
A complete valve job requires the following steps. . Remove the crankcase ventilating system, if
The details of valve and valve-seat service are de- used.
scribed immediately afterwards. Listed below are the
steps for doing a complete valve job. All steps may On overhead-valve engines, remove the carbu-
not apply to a specific engine that you are servicing. retor and intake manifold. On many L-head
engines, it is not necessary to remove the car-
buretor.
1. Remove the air cleaner and disconnect the
throttle linkage, fuel line, and any air and vac- . Remove the rocker-arm cover or covers.
uum hoses from the carburetor.
On engines with rocker arms supported on
2. Remove or set aside the necessary lines and shafts, remove the shaft assembly or assem-
hoses to get at the cylinder head. blies. Then remove the push rods in order.

. Remove the head bolts. Take the head off the

CAM FOLLOWER SPACER
engine.

. Remove the valves and springs from the head

RETAINER LOCK or block. To avoid damaging or breaking the
0.002 INCH valve guide, do not pull out by hand a valve
(0.05 mm) with a mushroomed stem end. The mushroom
aN VALVE-SPRING must be removed by grinding it off with a
RETAINER
grinding stone. Keep the removed valves and
springs in proper order so that they can be put
back into their proper positions.

10. Check valves and valve seats. Clean the valve

heads and stems on a wire wheel. Grind the
valve seats and reface valves as necessary.
Check valve seating. Reface and chamfer
valve-stem ends if necessary. If you are install-
ing new valves of the coated type, do not reface
them. Refacing or lapping coated valves re-
moves the protective coating and greatly short-
ens valve and seat life.

FIG. 32-11 Position of the cam-follower spacer in the valve LI. Check rocker arms for wear. Service or replace
train. (Homelite) them as necessary.

333
 12. Check valve guides for wear. Clean, replace, or
knurl and ream for same-size valve stem if nec-
essary. Or ream for a larger-diameter valve
stem.

13. Reinstall valves and springs.

14. Install head, push rods, rocker arms, rocker-
arm cover, and other parts removed during
head removal.
15. Check and adjust valve-stem clearance as nec-
essary.

032-9 REMOVING THE CYLINDER HEAD Follow

the general instructions above for removing the cyl- FIG. 32-13 Valve rack for holding valves and valve-train
parts. (Homelite)
inder head, remembering never to remove a cylinder
head from a hot engine. Wait until the engine cools. If
the head is removed hot, it can warp so that it cannot the cylinder head and valves must be removed from
be used again. Slightly loosen all cylinder-head bolts the engine. Care must be used to avoid interchanging
first to ease the tension on the head. Then remove the the valves while they are out of the engine. During
bolts and take off the head as shown in Fig. 32-12. If assembly, each valve must be installed in the same
the head sticks, carefully pry it loose. Do not pry valve port from which it was removed. A valve rack in
hard. Do not insert the pry bar too far between the which valves with their springs, retainers, and locks
head and the cylinder. This could mar the mating can be placed in proper order is recommended. If you
surfaces and lead to leaks. Lift the head off, and do not have a valve rack, you can make one easily,
place it on a piece of wood or heavy cardboard. like the one shown in Fig. 32-13. However, an old
As you remove the cylinder-head screws, be sure to muffin pan from the kitchen will do. Keep the valve-
note where the long and short screws go. If you try to train parts—valve, spring, retainer lock—together
put a long screw in a short-screw hole during reas- as a set.
sembly, it might bottom and break off a fin or leave Different tools and valve-removal procedures must
the cylinder head loose. If you put a short screw ina be used for different engines. Let us look at these
long-screw hole, it may not engage enough threads to various procedures.
hold and may either strip the upper threads or else Because of the interference of the manifolds, on
not retain its hold, leaving the cylinder head loose. some L-head engines you must remove the manifolds
from the cylinder block before attempting to remove
© 32-10 VALVE REMOVAL For such services as the valves. Next, you remove the cover plate from the
valve or valve-seat grinding, valve-seat insert re- tappet chamber. A valve-spring compressor then is
placement, and valve-guide cleaning or replacement, used to compress the valve spring so that the valve-
retainer lock or keeper can be removed from the valve
stem. Various types of retainer locks are used. Care
must be exercised to prevent the lock from falling
down into the crankcase, where it might jam into
moving parts and cause serious damage. Any open-
ings through which the lock could fall into the crank-
case should be temporarily closed with clean cloths.

VALVE oem
STEM

©
Stas RETAINER

PIN COLLARS

FIG. 32-14 Different types of valve-spring retainers and

engine. (Clinton Engines Corporation) locks. (Briggs & Stratton Corporation)

334
 VALVE-SPRING COMPRESSOR Ss SS oe

ss
» [\ oO
| PY] Nee ese
e =
— = ie Sees ene ony =

ss 5; le :
ae
=F ———— =
== 5_
S—T_ 8.
ey 6 © as.
eee a=GO
CZ mw,

one SS
vave | |en
RETAINER an
VALVE
FIG. 32-17 Removing valve spring on engine using one-
piece retainer. (Briggs & Stratton Corporation)

the retainer around so the larger part of the opening

FIG. 32-15 Removing valve spring on engine using split- clears the undercut in the valve. Then, on all types,
collar retainer. (Briggs & Stratton Corporation) lift the valve out and remove the compressor with the
spring.
Special tools are available that will catch and hold Other types of valve-spring compressors are widely
the lock when it is released. Some manufacturers used. Figure 32-18 shows the automotive C type being
recommend the use of a magnet to hold the lock when used to compress the valve spring. This type of
it is released so that it will not fall into the crankcase. valve-spring compressor is very versatile, and it is
There are three general types of valve-spring re- practically a must for use on overhead-valve engines.
tainers, as shown in Fig. 32-14: pin, split-collar, and
one-piece. To remove the pin or split type, use a © 32-11 SERVICING VALVES Figure 32-19 shows
spring compressor, as shown in Figs. 32-15 and 32-16. the various parts of the valve to be inspected. Check
Adjust the jaws of the compressor until they just touch the valve-seating faces for wear, burned spots, pits,
the top and bottom of the valve chamber. This will cracks, and other signs of damage. If the face seems
keep the upper jaw from slipping into the coil of the to be in good condition but is somewhat worn or
spring. Push the compressor in until the upper jaw
slips over the upper end of the spring. Then com-
press the spring by tightening the jaws. On the split-
collar type, put a little grease on a screwdriver, as
shown in Fig. 32-15, to remove the retainer. On the
pin-type use needle-nose pliers to pull out the pin, as
shown in Fig. 32-16.
On the one-piece type, shown in Fig. 32-17, move

VALVE-SPRING COMPRESSOR

NEEDLE-NOSE PLIERS
FIG. 32-16 Removing valve spring on engine using pin FIG. 32-18 Using the automotive type of valve-spring com-
retainer. (Briggs & Stratton Corporation) pressor. (Onan Corporation)

335
 GROOVE-TO-STEM END
DISTANCE

Seer

STEM DIAMETER

FIG. 32-21 Cleaning a valve on a wire wheel. (TRW, Inc.)

evenal\ VALVE
tect your eyes from flying particles of metal and dirt.
Polish the stems, if necessary, with a fine grade of
emery cloth. Do not take off more than the dirty coat-
FACE
ANGLE
ing on the surface. You must not remove any metal
MARGIN from the stem. Be careful also not to scratch the
THICKNESS Uh
valve-seating surface or valve stem with the wire
brush or emery cloth.
FIG. 32-19 Parts of the valve to be checked. For the dimen-
As you clean the valves, re-examine them to make
sions, refer to the manufacturer's specifications.
sure all are usable. Small pits or burns in the valve
face can be removed by grinding the valve. Larger
burned, it can be refaced on a valve-refacing ma- pits or grooves are hopeless. New valves will be re-
chine. Also, check the valve-stem diameter with a quired. Figure 32-19 shows specific parts of the valve
micrometer. Figure 32-20 shows typical valve and to be examined. Eccentricity, otherwise known as a
seat dimensions as recommended by Briggs & Strat- bent stem, can be checked in the valve grinder. If the
ton. If the valve face looks to be too badly worn or runout, or eccentricity, is excessive, discard the
otherwise damaged to clean up in the valve-refacing valve.
machine, or if the valve stem is worn or bent, discard
the valve. O 32-12 REFACING, OR GRINDING, VALVES Ifthe
Clean the carbon off the valves with a wire wheel, valves are good enough to reuse, the next step is to
as shown in Fig. 32-21. Always wear goggles to pro- reface, or grind, them. This process requires a
valve-refacing machine like the one shown in
Fig. 32-22. The machine has a grinding wheel, cool-
45° OR
30° ant delivery system, and chuck that holds the valve
NS NCH ee eee -3 incu To —LIncH for grinding. Set the chuck to grind the valve face at
32 64 16 hy
the specified angle. This angle must just match the
valve-seat angle or be the interference angle recom-
mended by the engine manufacturer. Then put the
INCH
64 valve into the chuck and tighten it. The valve should
MARGIN DISCARD be deep in the chuck, so that not too much sticks out.
VALVE SEAT
DIMENSIONS Otherwise the valve can slip during grinding, and the
result will be a poor grinding job.
‘FIG. 32-20 Valve and valve-seat dimensions. (Briggs & To start the operation, align the coolant feed so that
Stratton Corporation) it feeds coolant on the grinding wheel. Then start the

336
 first one, should remove only enough metal to true up
the surface and remove pits. Do not take heavy cuts.
GRINDING If so much metal must be removed that the margin is
WHEEL lost, as shown in Fig. 32-20, discard the valve. Loss of
the margin causes the valve to run hot and soon to
fail.
If new valves are required, they will not need to be
refaced. Seating should be checked, however. Never
reface or lap coated valves.
Follow the operating instructions of the refacer
manufacturer. In particular, dress the grinding wheel
as necessary with the diamond-tipped dressing tool
as shown in Fig. 32-23. As the diamond is moved
across the rotating face of the grinding wheel, it
cleans and aligns the grinding face.

O 32-13 REFACING VALVE-STEM TIPS If the tip of

FIG. 32-22 Valve-refacing machine, also called a valve a valve stem is rough or worn unevenly, it can be
grinder. (Black and Decker Manufacturing Company) ground lightly. Use the special attachment furnished
with the valve-refacing machine as shown in
machine. Move the lever to carry the valve face Fig. 32-24. The attachment allows you to swing the
across the grinding wheel. The first cut should be a valve slightly and rotate it. In this way, the tip can be
light one. If this cut removes metal from only one-half ground to produce a slightly crowned, or rounded,
or one-third of the face, the valve may not be centered end. One recommendation is to grind off as much from
in the chuck. Or the valve stem may be bent, in which the stem as you ground off the valve face. In that
case the valve should be discarded. Cuts, after the way, you make up for the amount the valve sinks into
the seat as a result of face grinding.
The ends of some valve stems are hardened. These
should have no more than a few thousandths of an
inch ground off them. Excessive grinding exposes soft
metal, causing the stem to wear rapidly in the en-
gine.
As the valves are refaced and cleaned, they should
DIAMOND-TIPPED be returned to the valve rack. They are now ready for
DRESSING TOOL installation. First, however, the valve guides and
ye
valve seats must be serviced. Also, the other compo-
nents of the valve train must be checked and serviced
as necessary.

FIG. 32-23 Using a diamond-tipped dressing tool to dress FIG. 32-24 Grinding the tip-end of a valve stem. (Snap-on
the valve-grinding wheel. (Snap-on Tools Corporation) Tools Corporation)

337
 valve stem. If the tappets do not have adjusting
screws, check the stem end of the tappets. If you find
wear or roughness, new tappets will be required. The
camshaft must be removed to remove the tappets, as
explained later.

032-15 SERVICING VALVE GUIDES The valve

guide must be clean and in good condition for normal
™~~VALVE-SPRING TESTER
valve seating. It must be serviced before the valve
seats are ground if grinding is required. Asa first step,
VALVE
the valve guide should be cleaned with a wire brush
SPRING
CC or adjustable-blade cleaner. Then it should be
ae checked for wear. If it is worn, it requires service. The
FIG. 32-25 Checking valve-spring tension. (Outboard Ma- type of service depends on whether the guide is re-
rine Corporation) placeable or integral. If it is replaceable, the old
guide should be pressed out. Then a new guide
O 32-14 CHECKING VALVE SPRINGS AND _ TAP- should be installed and reamed to size. If the guide is
PETS Valve springs should be tested for proper integral, you can service it in either of two ways:
tension and for squareness. A valve-spring tester, (1) by reaming it to a larger size and installing a valve
shown in Fig. 32-25, is required to check spring ten- with an oversize stem or (2) by knurling and ream-
sion. The pressure required to compress the spring to ing it.
the proper length should be measured. Then the The valve guide may wear bell-mouthed or oval-
spring should be checked for squareness, as shown shaped, because the valve tends to wobble as it
in Fig. 32-26. Stand the spring on a surface plate and opens and closes. The bell-mouth wear shown in
hold a steel square next to it. Rotate the spring slowly Fig. 32-27 is exaggerated. A small-hole gauge, shown
against the square and see whether the top coil in Fig. 32-27, will detect oval or bell-mouth wear. It is
moves away from the square. If the spring is exces- used as shown. The split ball is adjusted until it is a
sively out of square or lacks sufficient tension, dis- light drag fit at the point being checked. Then the
card it. split ball is measured with a micrometer. By checking
Check the valve-tappet faces which ride on the the guide at various points, any eccentricity will be
cams for roughness or wear. Check for wear also the detected.
adjusting-screw head which is in contact with the If the guide is worn, it should be rebushed, as

BELLMOUTH
1 WEAR

MICROMETER

myWie,
i Ws
m ‘S
my i
my
Ry OX
XX
KG
44rx? Ry
Wo,
9,
ry

FIG. 32-27 A small-hole gauge is the most accurate device

for inspecting valve-guide wear. The gauge is adjusted so
FIG. 32-26 Checking valve-spring squareness. (Onan that the split ball is a drag fit in the guide (left). Then the
Corporation) split ball can be measured with a micrometer (right).

338
 COUNTER
BORE
REAMER BUSHING FINISH
GUIDE DRIVER REAMER
BUSHING

BUSHING
LENGTH
A
\W
tamer] Y BS REAMER
ZA, UW 7A 4 ES

Ie
ee ee 4,
——

FIG. 32-28 Checking, installing, and reaming valve

guides. (Briggs & Stratton Corporation)

shown in Fig. 32-28. First, a bushing guide is used to

center the reamer, and then the reamer is turned to
ream out the worn guide. Ream to only ?#/1e inch STONE
HOLDER
[1.59 mm] deeper than the valve-guide bushing.
Then, after cleaning out all cuttings, press in a new
valve-guide bushing, using a soft-metal driver of
brass or copper to avoid peening over the top end of
the bushing. Finally, finish reaming the new bushing
to the proper size so that a standard valve can be
used.
To remove the replaceable type of valve guide on
some L-head engines, the guide is driven down into
the valve-spring compartment.
New valve guides can be installed with a special
driver or arbor press. Valve guides must be installed
to the proper depth in the block or head. Then they
must be reamed to size. This is usually done in two
steps: a rough ream and then a second, or final, fin-
ishing ream. Figure 32-28 illustrates both the depth of
assembly of valve guides and the reaming dimen- GRINDING
sions on one engine.

O 32-16 GRINDING VALVE SEATS Valve seats are VALVE SEAT

of two types. The integral type is actually the cylinder
BLOM
block or head. The insert type is a ring or insert of
special metal set into the block or head. Grinding VALVE
valve seats is described below. Replacing valve-seat GUIDE

inserts is covered in 0 32-17.

If the valve seat is worn, burned, pitted, or other-
wise damaged, it should be ground with a valve-seat
grinder. If the seat is so badly worn or burned that it
will not clean up, it is possible to counterbore the seat
and install a seat insert. FIG. 32-30 Pilot on which the grinding stone rotates. The
As a first step in grinding a valve seat, make sure pilot keeps the stone concentric with the valve seat. (Black
that the valve guide is in good condition. The reason and Decker Manufacturing Company)

339
for this is that the seat-grinding stone is centered in the angle to which the valve face is ground in the
the valve guide. We explained how to check and valve-face regrinder.
service valve guides in the previous section. Be sure to follow the operating instructions fur-
The valve-seat grinder rotates a grinding stone of nished by the valve-seat-grinder manufacturer. The
the proper shape on the valve seat as shown in grinding stone must be dressed frequently with the
Fig. 32-29. The stone is kept concentric with the valve diamond-tipped dressing tool as shown in Fig. 32-31.
seat by a pilot installed in the valve guide as shown After the valve seat is ground, it may be too wide. If
in Fig. 32-30. This means that the valve guide must be so, it must be narrowed by having the upper and
cleaned and serviced before the valve seat is ground. lower grinding stones grind away the upper and
In the grinding set shown in Figs. 32-29 and 32-30, the lower edges of the seat. A typical valve seat is shown
stone is automatically lifted about once a revolution. in Fig. 32-20. A steel scale can be used to measure the
This permits the stone to clear itself of grit and dust valve-seat width.
by centrifugal force. Many small-engine manufacturers recommend that
Figure 32-30 shows how the seat-grinding stone is after the valve and valve seat are ground, the two
centered by means of a pilot installed temporarily in should be lapped together to check and perfect the fit.
the valve guide. In operation, an electric or air-pow- Lapping compound is an abrasive paste that comes
ered motor rotates the grinding stone and smooths in a tube or small can. To use it, place a small amount
the seat. The angle of the stone determines the angle on your finger. Then apply the lapping compound to
to which the seat will be ground. This angle matches the valve face as shown in Fig. 32-32. When there is a
light coat of lapping compound around the entire
valve face, place the valve in its proper guide.
To lap the valve, a lapping tool is used. It is a stick
with a small rubber suction cup on one end which
holds to the valve head. The lapping tool is rotated
back and forth between your hands several times.
The motion also causes the valve to lightly bounce up

DIAMOND-TIPPED
DRESSING TOOL

Fig. 32-31 Using a diamond-

tipped dressing tool to dress
the valve-grinding wheel.
(Snap-on Tools Corporation)

340
 FIG. 32-34 Lapping compound shows the valve has the
correct valve-seat to valve-face contact area.

FIG. 32-32 Applying lapping compound to the valve face

(TRW, Inc.)
and down. This operation is shown in Fig. 32-33. the valve seats. They are made of special metal
Remove the valve from the guide, and wipe the valve which can withstand the pounding and high temper-
face clean with a cloth. Figure 32-34 shows the proper atures valve seats are subjected to. If a valve-seat
valve face-valve seat contact area that you should insert is worn so much that it cannot take another
see on every valve face. After the lapping operation is seat-grind job, or if it is cracked or burned, then a
completed, the valve seat and valve must be thor- new insert can be installed. Also, some engine man-
oughly cleaned to remove all traces of lapping com- ufacturers supply information and tools that permit
pound. you to install seat inserts on engines that did not origi-
nally have them. We cover these procedures in this
section.
© 32-17 VALVE-SEAT INSERTS Some engines are Figures 32-35 and 32-36 show how to install the
made with valve-seat inserts. These are metal rings counterbore cutter. Figure 32-37 shows the counter-
that are set into the cylinder block or head to serve as boring procedure. If a worn valve-seat insert must be

VALVE-LAPPING
TOOL

S
FIG. 32-33 Using a valve-lapping tool to improve fit of FIG. 32-35 Inserting pilot in preparation for counterboring
valve to seat. for a valve-seat insert. (Briggs & Stratton Corporation)

341
 [ iy
aZY
BODY IN PLACE

“(@ SS VALVE SEAT.

WEE: AY PULLER as

\_ GY
cr
SSR

S EXHAUST
VALVE
‘ \ INSERT
d
FIG. 32-38 Inserting the valve-seat-insert puller. (Briggs &
Stratton Corporation)

FIG. 32-36 Inserting cutter shank in cutter. (Briggs & Strat-

ton Corporation)
WASHER
WRENCH
BODY
replaced, the old insert must be pulled with a special
tool. This operation is shown in Figs. 32-38 and 32-39.
Turning the bolt on the tool will pull out the old insert.
To install a new valve seat, the proper pilot must be
used, along with the correct driver. Insert the pilot
into the valve guide. Then drive the insert into place
with the driver, as shown in Fig. 32-40. The new FIG. 32-39 Pulling the valve-seat insert. (Briggs& Stratton
Corporation)

CUTTER SHANK

a Y Wy ies MV
FIG. 32-37 Counterboring for the valve-seat insert. (Briggs FIG. 32-40 Driving in a new valve-seat insert. (Briggs &
& Stratton Corporation) Stratton Corporation)

342
1. LOOSE VALVE SEAT CAN CHISEL MARK ON
BE TURNED OR MOVED uP CRANKSHAFT
OR DOWN. CHECK WITH
FEELER GAUGE HERE

oe 3. PEEN OVER EDGE AROUND

ENTIRE INSERT

2. USE CENTER PUNCH TO

TIGHTEN INSERT AT
THREE POINTS
EQUALLY SPACED

FIG. 32-42 Lifting camshaft out of the engine. (Briggs &

SQUEEZED Stratton Corporation)
AGAINST
INSERT
camshaft and crankshaft gears. These can be cen-
ter-punch or chisel marks. Some engines have a
FIG. 32-41 Peening around the edge of the valve-seat in-
sert to hold it in position. (Briggs & Stratton Corporation) chamfer on the end of one crankshaft-gear tooth.
These marks must be aligned when the camshaft is
reinstalled to assure proper valve timing. On some
valve-seat insert should be ground lightly. Then lap engines, you must remove the crankshatt first, before
the valve into the seat with lapping compound. This you can remove the camshaft. Also, some engines
procedure was covered earlier. On aluminum blocks, have thrust bearing that must be removed when you
peen around the insert to help lock it in place, as remove the camshaft.
shown in Fig. 32-41. However, if a 0.005-inch [0.13- Before attempting to remove the camshaft, turn it
mm] feeler gauge will fit in the space between the until the timing marks align on the compression
insert and the cylinder, the cylinder must be re- stroke. In this position, both valves are closed and the
placed. valve tappets are free of the camshaft. This makes it
easy to slip the camshaft out. Turn the engine on its
© 32-18 CAMSHAFT SERVICE In addition to hav- side so the tappets will not fall out. Some engines
ing a pair of cams to operate the valves, camshafts using ball bearings require removal of the camshaft
also may have an eccentric to operate the oil pump. and crankshaft together. Also, some engines have the
The action of the oil pump is discussed in an earlier camshaft supported on a pin which must be driven
chapter. Some camshafts also include an automatic- out before the camshaft can be removed. If the cam-
compression-release device. This also was covered in shaft has an end-play washer, carefully note its posi-
a previous chapter. Some Kohler engines have the tion. Then remove it. During engine assembly, the
ignition breaker-point cam on the camshaft mounted washer must be reinstalled in its original position.
through a centrifugal-advance mechanism. This pro- Wash the camshaft with solvent to clean off dirt and
vides an ignition retard during cranking so as to oil. Check the gears for wear or nicks. Check the
avoid kickback. After the engine starts, the ignition automatic compression release or ignition-advance
advances to the running position. Later engines, mechanism (Fig. 32-43) for freedom of action. If the
using the automatic compression release, do not use camshaft has oil holes, blow them out with com-
this ignition-advance mechanism. Some engines pressed air.
have a power takeoff on the camshaft. Some engines Figure 32-44 shows the various points at which the
also have a governor drive gear which drives an camshaft should be inspected. The camshaft dimen-
internal centrifugal governor. As you can see, there sions, arrowed in Fig. 32-44, should be checked witha
are a variety of camshaft-driven mechanisms on micrometer. Compare the measurements with the
four-cycle engines. manufacturer's specifications. Discard the camshaft
If the camshaft or bearings appear to be worn, then if the wear is excessive.
you should remove the camshaft for inspection. The Normal cam wear is close to the center of the cam.
removal procedure varies according to the engine The reason for this is that the cam is slightly tapered
design. On many engines, take off the baseplate or in many engines. Also, the tappet foot may be
gear cover and lift out the camshaft as shown in slightly spherical or crowned in shape. Therefore,
Fig. 32-42. Be sure to find the timing marks on the when all is well, the contact pattern appears as a

343
 TAPPETS

FIG. 32-45 Installing valve tappets in the engine. (Clinton

Engines Corporation)

FIG. 32-48 Checking automatic spark advance on the cam- force the old bushings out and new bushings in. Then
shaft gear for freeness of action. (Briggs & Stratton Corpora- the new bushings must be reamed to size. If the cam-
tion)
shaft is supported by ball or roller bearings, check
narrow band around the cam lobe. If wear shows them as explained earlier in this lesson.
across the full width of the cam, a new camshaft is To install the camshaft, first install the tappets as
required. The tappet should also be checked. Remove shown in Fig. 32-45. Make sure you put the tappets
the tappets and examine them for wear. An exces- back in the same holes from which you took them. If
sively worn tappet must be replaced. If it is only you get the tappets reversed, they may not fit prop-
slightly worn or pitted, it can often be reground on a erly. On some engines, the two tappets are of differ-
valve-refacing machine and reused. A slight crown ent lengths.
on the foot of the tappet can be produced by rocking Push the tappets up out of the way, and then install
and rotating the tappet during the finish grind. the camshaft (Fig. 32-46). If the camshaft is supported
Cam-lobe lift can be checked with the camshaft in by a camshaft pin, put the camshaft and crankshaft
or out of the engine. A dial indicator is needed to in first. Then align the timing marks before position-
make the check with the camshaft in the engine. To ing the camshaft and driving the camshaft pin into
measure lobe lift with the camshaft out of the engine, place.
use a micrometer. Measure from the nose of the cam On all four-cycle engines, always be sure the tim-
to the back of the cam. Then make another measure- ing marks are properly aligned when installing the
ment at a right angle to the first measurement. Cam- camshaft and crankshaft. This is essential for correct
lobe lift is the difference between these two measure- valve timing. If the camshaft has additional parts
ments. attached, such as the oil pump, governor drive gear,
If the camshaft rides in sleeve bearings, or bush- ignition centrifugal-advance mechanism, or auto-
ings, check them for wear and replace them if matic compression release, make sure they are prop-
necessary. Replacement requires special drivers to erly aligned. Put a little oil on all parts—tappets,

FUEL PUMP ray

ECCENTRIC cr 4
+

POWER
9 TAKE-OFF
SIDE VA
FIG. 32-44 Points at which the camshaft should be FIG. 32-46 Installing the camshaft. (Briggs & Stratton
checked. Tecumseh Products Company) Corporation)

344
bushings, camshaft, advance or compression re- Tighten the screws down evenly by hand, and then
lease—before final installation. use a torque wrench to finish the job. Tighten the
screws in the sequence and to the torque shown in the
© 32-19 ENGINE REASSEMBLY Now you are ready manufacturer's specifications.
to install the valves and reassemble the engine. On Do not tighten the screws down to the total torque
engines with solid or nonadjustable valve tappets, the first time you put the wrench on them. Instead,
install the valves in their proper positions in the cyl- tighten each screw in sequence only a little. Go
inder block. Turn the crankshaft until one of the around again and a third or fourth time, tightening
valves is in its highest position. Then turn the crank- the screws a little more each time until finally all are
shaft one more complete revolution. Check the clear- at the proper tightness. This assures even tension on
ance with a feeler gauge. Repeat for the other valve. all screws and guards against a warped cylinder
If the clearance is too small, as it may be if valves head.
and seats have been ground, grind off the end of the
valve stem, as necessary, to get the correct clear- REVIEW QUESTIONS
ance.
1. What is the biggest difference between servic-
Some valve tappets have an adjusting screw. On
ing a two-cycle engine and servicing a four-
these, you can adjust the valve-tappet clearance by
cycle engine?
turning the screw in or out, as shown in Fig. 11-2. We
discussed checking and adjusting valve-tappet 2. What is a short block?
clearance earlier in this chapter. 3. What is a miniblock?

O 32-20 INSTALLING VALVES Check the valve 4. On what type of engine repair would you use a
springs carefully before installing the valves. If the short block? ‘
spring is held in place by a pin or a split collar, put 5. Describe the procedure to adjust the valves on
the spring with the retainer in the spring compressor, an L-head engine.
as shown in Fig. 32-47. Insert the compressor with
6. How are valve adjustments made on over-
spring and retainer into position in the cylinder
head-valve engines with hydraulic valve lift-
block, and then drop the valve into place. Install the
ers?
retainer pin or collar and release the spring pressure.
Pull out the compressor. On the one-piece retainer, 7. Describe the procedure to adjust the valves on
move the retainer around when dropping the valve an overhead camshaft engine that has the cam
into place so the stem enters the larger part of the lobes operating directly on the valves.
opening, allowing the stem to go through. Then lift
8. How do you remove the mushroomed end of a
the retainer up and center it in the undercut on the
valve stem so the valve can be removed?
valve stem. Now release the spring pressure and
remove the spring compressor. 9. Why should the cylinder head never be re-
moved until after the engine has cooled?
© 32-21 INSTALLING THE CYLINDER HEAD When
10. What tool is used to compress valve springs so
installing the cylinder head, use a new head gasket.
that the locks and retainers can be removed?
Do not use any sealer on the gasket. Use graphite
grease on screws that go into aluminum cylinders. 11. What is the margin of a valve?

LARGE
HOLE
IN VALVE STEM-
RETAINER
RELEASE
COMPRESSOR

FIG. 32-47. Compressing valve spring in preparation for valve installa-

tion. (Briggs & Stratton Corporation)

345
 12. During the use of the valve-refacing machine, 23. Describe the procedure to install new camshaft
what tool must be used periodically to ensure bearings.
that the face of the grinding wheel is clean,
24. What do you do if an insert type of bearing fits
straight, and smooth?
loosely in the bearing cap?
13. Explain how to service the tip end of the valve
25. Where do you find the bolt-tightening sequence
stem.
to use when installing the bolts in a cylinder
14, How are valve guides checked? head?
15. Why are valve guides serviced before the valve 26. Should new valves be refaced on the valve-
seats are refinished? refacing machine before installation?
16. What are the two general types of valve SELF PROJECTS
guides?
1. As you look through the junk box in the shop and
LZ: What is the interference angle, as applied to
as you do valve-service jobs on engines, save
valves and valve seats?
valves showing different kinds of troubles.
18. How do you lap a valve? Mount the valves on a board. Add a label under
each, identifying the trouble.
19. Describe the steps in removing and installing a
new valve-seat insert. . Study valve-adjusting procedures in various
manufacturers’ shop manuals. Write short sum-
20. Explain how to inspect a camshaft for wear and
maries on how the various manufacturers want
_ damage.
the valves in their engines adjusted. File these
21. Why must the timing marks on the camshaft in your notebook.
and crankshaft be aligned during installation
Study the instruction manuals for the valve
of the camshaft?
grinder and valve-seat grinder. Prepare, for your
22. Can a valve tappet be reused if it is dished in notebook, brief notes on how to use these two
on the foot that rides against the cam lobe? machine tools.

346
GLOSSARY
This glossary of terms used in small-engine mechanics and ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE See “Air pressure.”
employed in this book provides a ready reference for the
student. The definitions may differ from those given in a
standard dictionary. These definitions are not intended to BACKFIRING Pre-explosion of air-fuel mixture so that the
be all-inclusive. They are meant to provide the practical explosion passes the open intake valve and flashes back
meaning or meanings of importance and usefulness to the through the intake manifold; also, the loud explosion of
small-engine technician. More complete definitions and overly rich exhaust gas in the exhaust manifold.
explanations of the terms usually are found in the text. BACKLASH In gearing, the clearance between meshing
teeth of two gears. Generally, the amount of free motion,
ABRASIVE A substance used for cutting, grinding, lapping or lash, in a mechanical system; the amount by which the
or polishing metal. width of the tooth space exceeds the thickness of the tooth
in that space.
ACCELERATOR PUMP Insome carburetors, a pump, linked
to the accelerator, which momentarily enriches the mix- BACK PRESSURE Pressure in the exhaust manifold: the
ture when the accelerator pedal is depressed. higher the back pressure, the lower the volumetric effi-
ciency.
ADDITIVE A substance added to gasoline or oil which
improves some property of the gasoline or oil. BATTERY An electrochemical device for storing energy in
chemical form so that it can be released as electricity. A
ADJUST To bring the parts of a component or system to a group of electric cells connected together.
specified relationship, dimension, or pressure.
BDC Bottom dead center.
AIR CLEANER A device mounted on the carburetor for
filtering out dirt and dust from air being drawn into the BEARING The part which transmits the load to the support
engine. and, in so doing, takes the friction caused by moving
parts in contact.
AIR-COOLED ENGINE An engine that is cooled by the
passage of air around the cylinders, not by passage of a BEARING CAPS In the engine, caps held in place by bolts
liquid through water jackets. or nuts which, in turn, hold bearing halves in place.
AIR-FUEL MIXTURE Name given to the air and fuel travel- BEARING CRUSH The additional height over a full half
ing to the combustion chamber after being mixed by the which is purposely manufactured into each bearing half.
carburetor. This ensures complete contact of the bearing back with
AIR GAP A small space between parts that are related the housing bore when the engine is assembled.
magnetically, as in an alternator, or electrically, as the BEARING OIL CLEARANCE The space purposely provided
electrodes of a spark plug. between the shaft and the bearing through which lubri-
AIR HORN In the carburetor, the tubular passage through cating oil can flow.
which the incoming air must pass. BEARING SPIN A type of bearing failure caused by lack of
AIR PRESSURE Atmospheric pressure of 14.7 psi (pounds lubrication which overheats the bearing until it seizes on
per square inch) or, in the metric system, 1.0355 kg/cm? the shaft, shearing the locking lip and causing the bear-
(kilograms per square centimeter) at sea level; or the ing to rotate in the housing or block.
pressure of air produced by pump, by compression in
BEARING SPREAD A purposely manufactured small extra
engine cylinder, etc.
distance across the parting faces of the bearing half in
ALTERNATOR The device in the electric system that con- excess of the actual diameter of the housing bore.
verts mechanical energy into electrical energy for charg-
BELL-SHAPED WEAR Deterioration of an opening (such as
ing the battery, etc. Also known as an ac generator, the
a valve guide) in which one end is worn most, causing the
alternator produces alternating current, which must be
opening to flare out like a bell.
changed to direct current for use in the engine.
ALUMINUM CYLINDER BLOCK An engine cylinder block bhp See “Brake horsepower.”
cast from aluminum or aluminum alloy and usually pro- BIG END The crankpin end of the connecting rod.
vided with cast-iron sleeves for use as cylinder bores.
BLOCK See “Cylinder block.”
ANTIFRICTION BEARING Name given to almost any type
of ball, roller, or tapered roller bearing. BLOW-BY Leakage of unburned air-fuel mixture and some
burned gases past the piston rings into the crankcase
ANTIKNOCK COMPOUND An additive put into gasoline to
during the compression and combustion strokes.
suppress spark knock or detonation.
BORE The diameter of an engine cylinder; the diameter of
ARBOR PRESS Small hand-operated press used on jobs
any hole. Also used to describe the process of enlarging,
when light pressure is needed.
or accurately refinishing, a hole, as “to bore an engine
ATDC After top dead center. cylinder.”

347
BORING BAR. An electric-motor-powered cutting tool used CLEARANCE The space between two moving parts or be-
to machine, or bore, engine cylinders, thereby removing tween a moving dnd a stationary part, such as a journal
metal and enlarging the cylinder’'s bore. and a bearing. Bearing clearance is considered to be
filled with lubricating oil when the mechanism is run-
BOTTOM DEAD CENTER (BDC) The piston position when
ning.
the piston has moved to the bottom of the cylinder and the
cylinder volume is at its maximum. CLOSED-CRANKCASE VENTILATING SYSTEM A system in
which the crankcase vapors (blow-by gases) are dis-
BRAKE HORSEPOWER (bhp) The power delivered by the
charged into the engine intake system and pass through
engine which is available for doing work.
the engine cylinders rather than being discharged into
BREAKER POINTS See “Contact points.” the air.
BREATHER The opening used on engines without emis- CLUTCH In the vehicle, the mechanism in the power train
sion-control devices that allow air to circulate through the that connects the engine crankshaft to, or disconnects it
crankcase and thus produce crankcase ventilation. from, the transmission and the remainder of the power
train.
BTDC Before top dead center.
CO Chemical formula for carbon monoxide.
BURR A featheredge of metal left on a part being cut with a
file or other cutting tool. CO, Chemical formula for carbon dioxide.
BUSHING A one-piece sleeve placed in a bore to serve asa COATED RING A piston ring having its cylinder-wall face
bearing surface. coated with ferrous oxide, soft phosphate, or tin. This thin
coating helps new rings seat by retaining oil and reduc-
CAM A rotating lobe or eccentric which changes rotary ing scuffing during break-in.
motion to reciprocating motion.
COIL SPRING A spring made up of an elastic metal, such
CAM-GROUND PISTON A piston that is ground slightly as steel, formed into a wire or bar and wound into a coil.
oval in:'shape. It becomes round as it expands with heat.
COMBUSTION Burning; in the engine, the rapid burning of
CAMSHAFT The shaft in the engine which has a series of the air-fuel mixture in the cylinder.
cams for operating the valve mechanisms. It is driven by
gears or sprockets and chain from the crankshaft. COMBUSTION CHAMBER The space at the top of the cylin-
der and in the head in which combustion of the air-fuel
CAPACITOR See “Condenser.” mixture takes place.
CARBON A black deposit left on engine parts by the com- COMPRESSION RATIO The ratio between the volume in
bustion of fuel. Carbon forms on pistons, rings, valves,
the cylinder with the piston at BDC and the volume with
etc., inhibiting their action. the piston at TDC.
CARBON DIOXIDE (CO,) A colorless, odorless gas which
COMPRESSION RINGS The upper ring or rings on a piston
results when gasoline is burned completely.
designed to hold the compression in the cylinder and
CARBON MONOXIDE (CO) Acolorless, odorless, tasteless, prevent blow-by.
poisonous gas which results when gasoline is burned
COMPRESSION STROKE The piston stroke from BDC to
incompletely.
TDC during which both valves are closed and the air-fuel
CARBURETOR The mixing device in the fuel system which mixture is compressed.
meters gasoline into the air stream (vaporizing the gaso-
COMPRESSION TESTER A gauge for measuring the pres-
line as it does so) in varying proportions to suit engine
sure, or compression, developed in an engine cylinder
operating conditions.
during cranking.
CELSIUS In the metric system, a temperature scale on
CONDENSER In the ignition system, a device that also is
which water boils at 100° and freezes at 0°; equal to a
called a capacitor. It is connected across the breaker
reading on a Fahrenheit thermometer of 9/9 (°F — 32). Also
points to reduce arcing by providing a storage place for
called centigrade.
electricity (electrons) as the breaker points open.
CENTIGRADE See “Celsius.”
CONNECTING ROD In the engine, the rod that connects
CENTIMETER (CM) A unit of linear measure in the metric the crank on the crankshaft with the piston.
system equal to approximately 0.39 inch.
CONNECTING-ROD BEARINGS See “Rod bearings.”
CHOKE In the carburetor, a device used when starting a
cold engine that chokes off the air flow through the air CONNECTING-ROD CAP The part of the connecting-rod
horn, producing a partial vacuum in the air horn for assembly that attaches the rod to the crankpin.
greater fuel delivery and a richer mixture.
CONTACT POINTS In the breaker-point ignition system,
CHROME-PLATED RING A piston ring that has its cylin- the stationary and the movable points which open and
der-wall face lightly plated with hard chrome. close the ignition primary circuit.

348
COOLANT The liquid mixture of antifreeze and water used CYLINDER COMPRESSION See “Compression tester.”
in the liquid cooling system.
CYLINDER HEAD The part that encloses the cylinder bores.
COOLING SYSTEM In the engine the system that removes It contains the valves on I-head engines.
heat by the circulation of liquid coolant or of air to pre-
vent engine overheating. CYLINDER HONE An expandable rotating tool with abra-
sive fingers turned by an electric motor, used to clean and
COUNTERBORED RING A piston ring, used as a compres- smooth the inside surface of a cylinder.
sion ring, which has a counterbore on its inside diameter
to promote cylinder sealing. CYLINDER LINER See “Cylinder sleeves.”

CRANK A device for converting reciprocating motion into CYLINDER SLEEVES A replaceable sleeve, or liner, inset
rotary motion, or vice versa. into the cylinder block to form the cylinder bore.

CRANKCASE The lower part of the engine in which the

DEGREE (of a circle) 1/360 of the circumference of a circle.
crankshaft rotates. The upper part of the crankcase is the
lower section of the cylinder block, and the lower part is DETERGENT A chemical added to engine oil designed to
made up of the oil pan. help keep the internal parts of the engine clean by pre-
venting the accumulation of deposits.
CRANKCASE DILUTION Dilution of the lubricating oil in
the oil pan by liquid gasoline seeping down the cylinder DETONATION In the engine, an uncontrolled second ex-
walls. plosion after the spark occurs, with excessively rapid
burning of the compressed air-fuel mixture, resulting in a
CRANKCASE VENTILATING SYSTEM The system that per- spark knock, or pinging noise.
mits air to flow through the engine crankcase when the
engine is running to carry out the blow-by gases and DIAL INDICATOR A gauge that has a dial face and a nee-
relieve any pressure buildup. dle to register movement; used to measure variations in
size, movements too little to be measured conveniently by
CRANKING MOTOR See “Starting motor.” other means, etc.
CRANKPIN That part of a crankshaft to which the connect- DIE A special tool for cutting threads on a rod.
ing rod is attached.
DIESEL CYCLE An engine cycle of events in which air
CRANKPIN RIDGING A type of crankpin failure typified by alone is compressed and fuel oil is injected at the end of
deep ridges worn into the crankpin bearing surfaces. the compression stroke. The heat produced by compress-
CRANKSHAFT The main rotating member, or shaft, of the ing the air ignites the fuel oil, eliminating the need for
engine with cranks to which the connecting rods are at- spark plugs or a separate ignition system.
tached. DIESEL ENGINE An engine that operates on the diesel
CRANKSHAFT GEAR A gear, or sprocket, mounted on the cycle and burns oil instead of gasoline.
front of the crankshaft used to drive the camshaft gear, or DIESELING A condition in which an engine continues to
chain. run after the ignition is shut off.
CROSS-FIRING In a multicylinder engine, jumping of
DIODE A solid-state electronic device that allows the pas-
high-voltage surge in the ignition secondary circuit to the
sage of an electric current in one direction only. Used in
wrong high-voltage lead so that the wrong spark plug
the charging system to convert alternating current to di-
fires. Usually caused by improper routing of the spark-
rect current for charging the battery.
plug wires, by faulty insulation, or by a defective distrib-
utor cap or rotor. DIPSTICK The oil-level indicator stick.

CUBIC CENTIMETER (cc) A unit in the metric system used DIRECT-BONDED BEARING A bearing formed by pouring
to measure volume; equal to approximately 0.061 cubic babbitt (bearing metal) directly into the bearing housing,
inch. : and the machining of the desired size bearing diameter in
that cast metal.
CYCLE Any series of events which continuously repeat. In
the engine, the four piston strokes (or two piston strokes) DISASSEMBLE To take apart.
that complete the working process and produce power.
DISPERSANT A chemical added to oil to prevent dirt and
CYLINDER A round hole or tubular-shaped structure in a impurities clinging together in lumps that clog the engine
block or casting in which a piston reciprocates. In an lubricating system.
engine, the circular bore in the block in which the piston
DISPLACEMENT In an engine, the total volume of air-fuel
moves up and down.
mixture an engine is theoretically capable of drawing
CYLINDER BLOCK The basic framework of the engine in into all cylinders during one operating cycle. The space
and on which the other engine parts are attached. It swept through by the piston in moving from one end of a
includes the engine cylinders and the upper part of the stroke to the other.
crankcase.
DOHC ENGINE Engine with double, or two, camshafts over
CYLINDER BORING MACHINE See “Boring bar.” each line of cylinders.

349
DRILL Also called twist drill. A cylindrical bar with helical EXHAUST MANIFOLD A housing with a series of connect-
grooves and a point for cutting holes in material. Also ing pipes between the exhaust ports and the exhaust pipe
refers to the device that rotates the drill. through which hot burned gases from the engine cylin-
ders flow.
DRIVE PINION A gear or a rotating shaft that transmits
torque to another gear. EXHAUST STROKE The piston stroke from BDC to TDC
during which the exhaust valve is open so that the burned
DRY FRICTION The friction between two dry solids.
gases are forced from the cylinder.
DYNAMOMETER A device for measuring the power output EXHAUST VALVE The valve which opens to allow the
or brake horsepower, of an engine; may be an engine burned gases to exhaust from the engine cylinder during
dynamometer, which measures power output at the fly-
the exhaust stroke.
wheel, or a chassis dynamometer, which measures the
power output at the drive wheels. EXPANSION PLUG A plug that is slightly dished out and
used to seal core passages in the cylinder block and
ECCENTRIC A disk or offset section—of a shaft, for ex- cylinder head. When driven into place, it is flattened and
ample—used to convert rotary to reciprocating motion. expanded to fit tightly.

EFFICIENCY The ratio between the effect produced and EXPANSION TANK A tank at the top of an engine radiator
the power expended to produce the effect; the ratio be- which provides room for heated coolant to expand and
tween the actual and the theoretical. give off any air that may be trapped in the coolant. Also
used in some fuel tanks to prevent fuel spilling from the
ELECTRIC SYSTEM The system that electrically cranks the
tank because of expansion.
engine for starting, furnishes high voltage sparks to the
engine cylinders to fire the compressed air-fuel charges,
FATIGUE FAILURE A type of metal failure resulting from
lights the lights, and operates the other electrical equip-
repeated stress which finally alters the character of the
ment. It consists, in part, of the starting motor, wiring
metal so that it cracks. In engine bearings, frequently
battery, alternator, regulator, ignition distributor, and
caused by excessive idling or slow engine idle speed.
ignition coil.
FEELER GAUGE Strips of metal of accurately known thick-
ELECTROLYTE The mixture of sulfuric acid and water used
nesses used to measure clearances.
in lead-acid storage batteries. The acid enters into chem-
ical reaction with active material in the plates to produce FILTER That part in the lubricating or fuel system through
voltage and current. which fuel, air, or oil must pass so that dust, dirt, or other
contaminants are removed.
ELECTRONIC IGNITION SYSTEM An ignition system using
transistors which does not have mechanical contact FINS Thin metal projections on an air-cooled engine cylin-
points. Also called solid-state ignition. der and head which greatly increase the heat transferring
EMISSION CONTROLS A term applied to any device, or surfaces and help provide cooling of the engine cylinder.
modification, added onto, or designed into, an engine for In a radiator, the thin metal projections, over which cool-
the purpose of controlling a source of air-pollution emis- ing air flows, that carry heat away from the hot coolant
sions. passages to the passing air.

END PLAY As applied to the crankshaft, the amount that FIRING ORDER The order in which the engine cylinders
the crankshaft can move forward and back. fire, or deliver their power strokes, beginning with the
No. 1 cylinder.
ENERGY The capacity or ability to do work.
FLAT-HEAD ENGINE See “L-head engine.”
ENGINE A machine that converts heat energy into me-
chanical energy. The assembly that burns fuel to produce FLOAT BOWL In the carburetor, the reservoir from which
power, sometimes referred to as the power plant. gasoline feeds into the passing air.

ENGINE TUNEUP The procedure of checking and adjusting FLYWHEEL The rotating metal wheel attached to the
various engine components so that the engine is restored crankshaft which helps even out the power surges from
to top operating condition. the power strokes and also may serve as part of the clutch
and engine-cranking system.
ETHYL See “Tetraethyl lead.”

EVAPORATIVE EMISSION-CONTROL SYSTEM A system FLYWHEEL RING GEAR The gear fitted around the fly-
which prevents the escape of gasoline vapors from the wheel that is engaged by the teeth on the starting-motor
fuel tank or carburetor float bowl to the atmosphere while drive to crank the engine.
the engine is off. The vapors are stored in a canister, or in FOUR-CYCLE Short for “four-stroke-cycle.”
the crankcase, until the engine is started.
FOUR-STROKE CYCLE The four piston strokes of intake,
EXHAUST-GAS ANALYZER A device for sampling the ex-
compression, power, and exhaust, which make up the
haust gas from an engine to determine the amounts of
complete cycle of events in the four-stroke-cycle engine.
pollutants in the exhaust gas. Most analyzers used in the
shop check HC and CO, while analyzers used in testing FRICTION The resistance to motion between two bodies in
laboratories can also check NO,. contact with each other.

350
FRICTION BEARINGS Bearings having sliding contact be- GOGGLES Special glasses worn over the eyes to protect
tween the moving surfaces. Sleeve bearings, such as them from flying chips, dirt, or dust.
those used in connecting rods, are friction bearings.
GOVERNOR Ai device that governs or controls another
FRICTION HORSEPOWER (fhp) The power used up by an device, usually in accordance with speed or rpm.
engine in overcoming its own internal friction; usually it
increases as engine speed increases. GREASY FRICTION The friction between two solids coated
with a thin film of oil.
FUEL The substance that is burned to produce heat and
create motion in an engine. GRINDER A machine for removing metal by means of an
abrasive wheel or stone.
FUELINJECTION A system replacing the conventional car-
buretor which delivers fuel under pressure into the com- GRINDING WHEEL A wheel made of abrasive material
bustion chamber or into the air flow just as it enters each used for grinding metal objects held against it.
individual cylinder. GROUND Connection of an electrical unit to the engine or
FUEL NOZZLE The tube in the carburetor through which frame to return the current to its source.
gasoline feeds from the float bowl into the passing air. In
HC Chemical formula for a hydrocarbon, such as gasoline.
a fuel-injection system, the tube that delivers the fuel into
the air. HEADLAND RING A compression ring having the cross-
sectional shape of an L. Used as the top compression
FUEL PUMP The electrical or mechanical device in the fuel
ring.
system which transfers fuel from the fuel tank to the
carburetor. HEAT A form of energy released by the burning of fuel.

FUEL SYSTEM In the engine, the system that delivers to the HEAT OF COMPRESSION Increase of temperature brought
engine cylinders the combustible mixture of vaporized about by compression of air or air-fuel mixture.
fuel and air. It consists of fuel tank, lines gauge, carbu-
HELI-COIL A thread insert used to repair worn or damaged
retor, fuel pump, and intake manifold.
threads. It is installed in a retapped hole to bring the
FUEL TANK The storage tank for fuel on the engine. screw thread down to original size.
HEMISPHERIC COMBUSTION CHAMBER A combustion
GAS A state of matter, neither solid nor liquid, which has
chamber having a resemblance to a hemisphere, or round
neither definite shape nor definite volume. Air is a mix-
ball cut in half.
ture of several gases. In the engine, the discharge from
the muffler is called the exhaust gas. “Gas” is a slang HIGH COMPRESSION A term used to refer to the increased
expression used for the liquid fuel gasoline. compression ratios of modern engines as compared to the
compression ratios of engines built in past years.
GASKET A flat strip, usually of cork or metal, or both,
placed between two machined surfaces to provide a tight HONE An abrasive stone that is rotated in a bore or bush-
seal between them. ing to remove material.

GASKET CEMENT A liquid adhesive material, or sealer, HORSEPOWER (hp) A measure of mechanical power, or the
used to apply gaskets; in some applications the liquid rate at which work is done. One horsepower equals 33,000
layer of gasket cement is used as the gasket. foot-pounds of work per minute.

GASOLINE A liquid blend of hydrocarbons, obtained from HYDRAULIC VALVE LIFTER A valve lifter that by means of
crude oil, used as the fuel for most engines. oil pressure maintains zero valve clearance so that valve
noise is reduced.
GEAR RATIO The relative speeds at which two gears (or
HYDROCARBON (HC) A compound made of the elements
shafts) turn; the proportional rate of rotation.
hydrogen and carbon. Gasoline is a blend of hydrocar-
GEARS Mechanical devices to transmit power, or turning bons refined from crude oil.
effort, from one shaft to another; gears contain teeth that
HYDROMETER A device used to measure specific gravity.
interlace, or mesh, as the gears turn.
A test instrument, consisting of a float inside a tube,
GEAR-TYPE PUMP A pump using a pair of matching gears which measures the specific gravity of a liquid; used to
that rotate; meshing of the gears forces oil (or other liq- measure the specific gravity of battery electrolyte to de-
uid) from between the teeth through the pump outlet. termine the state of battery charge.

GENERATOR A device that converts mechanical energy IDLE SPEED The speed, or rpm, at which the engine runs
into electrical energy; it can produce either ac or dc without load when the throttle is closed.
electricity. In general usage, the term applies to a dc
IGNITION In an engine, the act of the spark in starting the
generator.
combustion process in the engine cylinder.
GLAZE The mirrorlike, very smooth finish that develops on
IGNITION COIL That part of the ignition system which acts
engine cylinder walls.
as a transformer to step up the battery voltage to many
GLAZE BREAKER A tool, rotated by an electric motor, used thousands of volts; the high-voltage surge then produces
to remove the glaze from engine cylinder walls. a spark at the spark-plug gap.

351
IGNITION DISTRIBUTOR That part of the ignition system LIQUID-COOLED ENGINE An engine that is cooled by the
which closes and opens the circuit to the ignition coil circulation of liquid coolant around the cylinders.
with correct timing and distributes to the proper spark
LITER (L) In the metric system. a measure of volume, ap-
plugs the resulting high-voltage surges from the ignition
proximately equal to 0.2642 U.S. gallon.
coil.
LOBE The projecting
part, such as the rotor lobe, or the
IGNITION SWITCH The switch in the ignition system
cam lobe.
which is operated with a key to open and close the igni-
tion primary circuit. LOCKNUT A second nut tumed down on a holding nut to
prevent loosening.
I-HEAD ENGINE An ovérhead-valve (OHV) engine with the
valves in the cylinder head. LUBRICATING SYSTEM The system in the engine that sup-
plies moving engine parts with lubricating oil to prevent
ihp See “Indicated horsepower.”
actual contact between any of the moving metal surfaces.
INDICATED HORSEPOWER (ihp) The power produced
LUGGING Low-speed, full-throttle engine operation in
within the engine cylinders before deducting any fric-
which the engine is heavily loaded and overworked.
tional loss.
INERTIA Property of objects that causes them to resist any MAGNETO An engine-drive device that generates its own
change of speed or direction of travel. primary current, transforms that current into high-voltage
surges, and delivers them to the proper spark plugs.
IN-LINE ENGINE An engine in which all engine cylinders
are in a single row, or line. MAIN BEARINGS In the engine, the bearings that support
the crankshaft.
INTAKE MANIFOLD The part of the engine that provides a
series of passages from the carburetor to the engine cyl- MANIFOLD VACUUM The vacuum in the inteke manifold
inders through which air-fuel mixture can flow. that develops as a result of the vacuum in the cylinders
on their intake strokes.
INTAKE STROKE The piston stroke from TDC to BDC during
which the intake valve is open and the cylinder receives MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY In an engine, the ratio he-
a charge of air-fuel mixture. tween brake horsepower and indicated horsepower,

INTAKE VALVE The valve that opens to permit air-fuel MECHANISM A system of interrelated parts that make up a
mixture to enter the cylinder on the intake stroke. working assembly.
METER (m) A unit of linear measure in the metric system
JOURNAL The part of a rotating shaft which tums in a
equal to 39.37 inches. Also, the name given to test instru-
bearing.
ments that measure a substance passed through it—for
example, an ammeter. Also, any device that measures
KEY A wedgelike metal piece, usually rectangular or
and controls the discharge of the substunce passing
semicircular, inserted in grooves to transmit torque while
through it. For example, a carburetor jet is used te meter
holding two parts in relative position: the small strip of
fuel flow.
metal with coded peaks and grooves used to operate a
lock, such as an ignition. METERING ROD AND JET A device, consisting of ¢ small
movable rod, which has a varied diameter, and a jet that
KILOGRAM (kg) In the metric system, a unit of weight, or
increases or decreases fuel flow according to engine
mass, approximately equal to 2.2 pounds. a : ‘ woe a e
throttle opening, engine load, or a combination of both.
KILOMETER (km) In the metric system, a unit of linear
MICROMETER A precision measuring device tha? mee-
measure equal to 0.521] mile.
sures small distances, such as crankshaft or cylinder hore
KILOWATT (kW) In the metric system, a measure of power. diameter or thickness of an object. Also called a mike.
One horsepower equals 0.746 kilowait. ‘ Fs :
MIKE Slang term for micrometer.
KINETIC ENERGY The energy of motion: the energy stored : :
MILLIMETER (mm) Im the metric system
in a@ moving body as developed in its momentum—for
measure approximately equal to
>> > he ~ J 3
0.089
q RO
inch.
>

example, the kinetic energy stored in a rotating flywheel.

MISSING In the engine, the failure of the air-fuel mixture
KNOCK The heavy metallic sound created in an engine ~ ata So.Seana }
m a cylinder to ignite when i> shoulda.
} ink
varying with engine speed and usually caused by a loose
> > ¢ at ~
or worn bearing. MOTOR A device for convertingSS electric
} ~
alBi energy -~>into m
~ ~
chanical energy—for example the starting Sant
ten Qherste
motor.
>ba & bal

kW See “Kilowatt.”
~~ — —
MOTOR VEHICLE Any iype af seit-propeliea
= veiicle
er + . “i
LAPPING A method of seating engine valves by which the mounted on wheeis or tracks.
valve is turned back and forth on the seat.
MUFFLER In the exhaust, a device through which the ex-
L-HEAD ENGINE A type of engine in which the valves dre i
haust + t Ses Must pass and
= <>
which
a
mutties the sound.
=

located in the cylinder block.

MULTIPLE-VISCOSITY
_- eee ae
-
2
OIL An < engine oilaS )which > hes xsa lo>
AM engine oll Which Has cd low
LIFTER See “Valve lifter.” wiscostty when cola Wor easier cCranmsing) and Ga Oigher

352
 viscosity when hot (to provide adequate engine lubrica- OVERSQUARE A term applied to engines which have a
tion). bore larger than the length of stroke.
MUSHROOMED VALVE STEM The condition that exists on a PANCAKE ENGINE An engine with two rows of cylinders
worn valve stem when the tip, or butt end, has mush-
which are opposed and on the same plane, usually set
roomed and metal is hanging over the valve guide. Cor-
horizontally.
rection requires removal of the mushroomed metal.
PCV Positive crankcase ventilation.
NEEDLE BEARING Antifriction bearing of the roller type; PILOT BEARING A small bearing, in the center of the fly-
the rollers are very small in diameter (needle-size). wheel end of the crankshaft, which carries the forward
NO, Chemical formula for nitrogen oxides. end of the clutch shaft.
PING The sound resulting from sudden ignition of the
OCTANE RATING A measure of antiknock property of gas- air-fuel charge in the engine combustion chamber; char-
oline. The higher the octane rating, the more resistant the acteristic sound of detonation.
gasoline is to knocking, or detonation.
PISTON A movable part, fitted to a cylinder, which can
OHC Overhead camshaft. receive or transmit motion as a result of pressure changes
(fluid, vapor, or gas) in the cylinder.
OIL A liquid lubricant derived from crude oil used to pro-
vide lubrication between moving parts. In a diesel en- PISTON DISPLACEMENT The cylinder volume displaced
gine, oil is used for fuel. by the piston as it moves from the bottom to the top of the
cylinder during one complete stroke.
OIL-CONTROL RINGS The lower ring or rings on a piston
designed to prevent excessive amounts of oil from work- PISTON PIN Also called wrist pin. The cylindrical or tubu-
ing up into the combustion chamber. lar metal piece that attaches the piston to the connecting
rod.
OIL COOLER A small radiator through which the oil flows
to lower its temperature. PISTON-RING COMPRESSOR A special tool used in engine
overhaul work to compress the piston rings inside the
OIL DILUTION Dilution of oil in the crankcase caused by piston grooves so the piston-and-rings assembly may be
leakage of liquid gasoline from the combustion chamber installed in the engine cylinder.
past the piston rings.
PISTON RINGS Rings fitted into grooves in the piston.
OIL FILTER The filter through which the crankcase oil There are two types: compression rings for sealing the
passes to remove any impurities from the oil. compression into the combustion chamber and oil rings
OIL-LEVEL INDICATOR The indicator, usually called the to scrape excessive oil off the cylinder wall. This prevents
dipstick, that is removed to determine the level of oil in the oil from working up into and burning in the combus-
the crankcase. tion chamber.

OIL PAN The detachable lower part of the engine, made of PISTON SKIRT The lower part of the piston below the
sheet metal, which encloses the crankcase and acts as an piston-pin hole.
oil reservoir. PISTON SLAP Hollow, muffled, bell-like sound made by an
excessively loose piston slapping the cylinder wall.
OIL PUMP In the lubricating system, the device that deliv-
ers oil from the oil pan to the various moving engine PLASTIC GASKET COMPOUND A plastic paste in a tube
parts. which can be laid in any shape to make a gasket.

OIL PUMPING Passing of oil past the piston rings into the PLASTIGAGE A plastic material that comes in various
combustion chamber because of defective rings, worn sizes of wirelike lengths and is used to measure crank-
cylinder walls, etc. shaft main-bearing and connecting-rod bearing clear-
ances.
OIL SEAL A seal placed around a rotating shaft, or other
moving part, to prevent passage of oil. POLLUTANT Any gas or substance in the exhaust gas from
the engine or evaporating from the fuel tank or carburetor
OIL STRAINER A wire mesh screen placed at the inlet end that adds to the pollution of the atmosphere.
of the oil-pump pickup tube to prevent dirt and other
large particles from entering the oil pump. POPPETT VALVE A mushroom-shaped valve, widely used
in automotive engines.
ORIFICE A small opening, or hole, into a cavity.
PORT Inan engine, the valve port or opening in which the
OVERHEAD CAMSHAFT (OHC) ENGINE An engine in valve operates and through which air-fuel mixture or
which the camshaft is located in the cylinder head, or burned gases pass.
heads, instead of in the cylinder block.
POSITIVE CRANKCASE VENTILATING (PCV) SYSTEM A
OVERHEAD VALVE (OHV) ENGINE An engine in which the crankcase ventilating system in which the blow-by gas in
valves are mounted in the cylinder head above the com- the crankcase is returned to the intake system of the
bustion chamber; the camshaft is usually mounted in the engine to be burned. This prevents the blow-by gas from
cylinder block, and the valves are actuated by push rods. escaping into the atmosphere.

353
POWER The rate at which work is done. A common RADIATOR In the cooling system, the device that removes
power-measuring unit is the horsepower, which is equal heat from the coolant passing through it; it takes hot
to 33,000 foot-pounds per minute. coolant from the engine and returns the coolant to the
engine at a lower temperature.
POWER PLANT The engine, or power-producing mecha-
nism. RC ENGINE A rotary combustion, or Wankel, engine.

POWER STROKE The piston stroke from TDC to BDC dur- REAMER A metal-cutting tool with a series of sharp cutting
ing which the air-fuel mixture burns and forces the piston edges that remove material from a hole when the reamer
down so that the engine produces power. is turned in it.
POWER TRAIN The group of mechanisms that carry the REBORE To bore out a cylinder larger than its original size.
rotary motion developed in the engine to the drive
wheels. It includes the clutch, transmission, drive shaft, RECIPROCATING MOTION Motion of an object between
differential, and axles. two limiting positions: back and forth, or up and down,
elc.
PRECISION-INSERT BEARINGS Bearings of the type that
can be installed in an engine without reaming, honing, or REED VALVE A type of valve used in the crankcase of some
grinding. two-cycle engines. Air-fuel mixture enters the crankcase
through the reed valve, which then closes as pressure
PREIGNITION Ignition of the air-fuel mixture in the engine builds up in the crankcase.
cylinder (by any means) before the ignition spark occurs
at the spark plug. REGULATOR In the charging system, a device that controls
alternator output to prevent excessive voltage.
PRELOAD In bearings, the amount of load originally im-
posed on a bearing before actual operating loads are RING EXPANDER A special tool used to expand piston
imposed. This is done by bearing adjustments before rings for installation on the piston.
operation and ensures alignment and minimum loose-
ness in the system. RING GAP The gap between the ends of the piston ring
with the ring in place in the cylinder.
PRESS FIT A fit so tight that the pin has to be pressed into
place, usually with an arbor or hydraulic press. RING GROOVES Grooves cut in a piston into which the
piston rings are assembled.
PRESSURE CAP A radiator cap with valves which causes
the cooling system to operate under pressure and thus at RING RIDGE Ridge left at the top of the cylinder as the
a somewhat higher and more efficient temperature. cylinder wall below it is worn by piston-ring movement.

PRESSURE-FEED OIL SYSTEM A type of engine lubricating RING-RIDGE REMOVER Ai special tool used for removing
system that makes use of an oil pump to force oil through the ring ridge from the cylinder.
tubes and passages to the various engine parts requiring
lubrication. ROCKER ARM InanI-head engine, a device that rocks ona
shaft or pivots on a stud as the cam moves the push rod,
PRESSURE REGULATOR A regulating device which oper- causing the valve to open.
ates to prevent excessive pressure from developing. In
the hydraulic systems, a valve that opens to release oil ROD BEARINGS In the engine, the bearings in the con-
from a line when the oil pressure attains specified necting rod in which a crankpin of the crankshatt rotates;
maximum. also called connecting-rod bearings.

PRESSURE-RELIEF VALVE A valve in the oil line that opens ROD BIG END The end of the connecting rod that attaches
to relieve excessive pressures that the oil pump might around the crankpin.
develop.
ROD BOLTS Special bolts used on the connecting rod to
psi Abbreviation for pounds per square inch; often used to attach the cap.
indicate pressure of a liquid or gas.
ROD SMALL END The end of the connecting rod through
PULLER Generally, a shop tool that permits removal of one which a piston pin passes to connect the piston to the
closely fitted part from another without damage. Often connecting rod.
contains a screw or screws which can be turned to apply
gradual pressure. ROTARY Action of a part that continually rotates, or turns
around.
PULLEY A metal wheel with a V-shaped groove around the
rims, which drives or is driven by a belt. ROTARY COMBUSTION (RC) ENGINE See “Wankel en-
gine.”
PUSH ROD In the I-head engine, the rod between the valve
lifter and the rocker arm. ROTOR A revolving part of a machine, such as alternator
rotors, distributor rotors, and Wankel-engine rotors.
QUENCH The space in some combustion chambers which
ROTOR OIL PUMP A type of oil pump using a pair of rotors,
absorbs enough heat to quench, or extinguish, the com-
one inside the other, to produce the oil pressure required
bustion flame front as it approaches a relatively cold
to circulate oil to engine parts.
cylinder wall. This prevents detonation of the end gas but
results in hydrocarbon emissions. rpm Revolutions per minute.

354
SA Designation of lubricating oil that is acceptable for use SIDE CLEARANCE The clearance between the sides of
in engines operated under the mildest conditions. moving parts that do not serve as a load-carrying surface.
SB Designation of lubricating oil that is acceptable for SINGLE-CHAMBER CAPACITY In a Wankel engine, a
minimum-duty engines operated under mild conditions. method of comparing displacement, or size, between en-
gines.
SC Designation of lubricating oil that meets requirements
for use in gasoline engines in 1964-1967 model passenger SLIP JOINT In the power train, a variable-length connec-
cars and trucks. tion that permits the drive shaft to change effective
length.
SCORED Scratched or grooved: a cylinder wall may be
SLUDGE Accumulation in oil pan, containing water, dirt,
scored by abrasive particles moved up and down by the
piston rings. and oil; sludge is very viscous and tends to prevent lubri-
cation.
SCRAPER A device in engine service to scrape carbon,
SMOG A term coined from smoke and fog which is applied
etc., from engine block, pistons, etc.
to the foglike layer that hangs over many areas under
SCRAPER RING On a piston, a type of oil-control ring certain atmospheric conditions. Smog is compounded
designed to scrape excess oil back down the cylinder into from smoke, moisture, and numerous chemicals which
the crankcase. are produced by combustion (from power plants, automo-
tive engines, incinerators, etc.) and from numerous natu-
SCREEN A fine-mesh screen in the fuel and lubricating ral and industrial processes. The term is used generally
system that prevents large particles from entering the to describe any condition of dirty air and/or fumes or
system. smoke.
SCUFFING A type of wear of moving parts characterized SOHC ENGINE Engine with a single overhead camshatt.
by transfer of material from one to the other part and pits
SOLDERING The uniting of pieces of metal with solder,
or grooves in the mating surfaces.
flux, and heat.
SD Designation of lubricating oil that meets requirements SOLVENT TANK In the shop, a tank of cleaning fluid in
for use in gasoline engines in 1968-1970 model passenger which most parts are brushed and washed clean.
cars and some trucks.
SPARK PLUG The assembly, which includes a pair of elec-
SE Designation of lubricating oil that meets requirements trodes and an insulator, that has the purpose of providing
for use in gasoline engines in 1973 and later cars and a spark gap in the engine cylinder.
certain 1971 model passenger cars and trucks.
SPARK-PLUG HEAT RANGE The distance heat must travel
SEAL A material, shaped around a shaft, used to close off from the center electrode to reach the outer shell of the
the operating compartment of the shaft, preventing oil plug and enter the cylinder head.
leakage.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY A measure of the weight per unit vol-
SEALER A thick, tacky compound, usually spread with a ume of a liquid as compared with the weight of an equal
brush, which may be used as a gasket, or sealant, to seal volume of water.
small openings or surface irregularities.
SPLASH-FEED OIL SYSTEM A type of engine lubricating
SEAT The surface upon which another part rests, such as a system that depends on splashing of the oil for lubrica-
valve seat. Also term applied to the process by which a tion to moving engine parts.
part wears into fit; for example, “Piston rings seat after a SPLINE Slot or groove cut in a shaft or bore; a splined shaft
few miles of driving.” onto which a hub, wheel, gear, etc., with matching
SEMICONDUCTOR A material that acts as an insulator splines in its bore is assembled so that the two must turn
under some conditions and as a conductor under other together.
conditions. SPRING An elastic device which yields under stress or
SERVICE MANUAL Also called shop manual; the book pressure but returns to its original state or position when
published by each engine manufacturer listing specifica- the stress or pressure is removed.
tions and service procedures for each make and model of SPRING RETAINER In the valve train, the piece of metal
engine built. that holds the spring in place and is itself locked in place
SERVICE RATINGS For lubricating oil used in engines, a by the valve-spring-retainer locks.
designation that indicates the type of service for which SQUARE ENGINE An engine having the bore and stroke of
the oil is best suited. See also “SA,” "SB,""SC," "SD," and equal measurements.
ols.
SQUISH The action in some combustion chambers in which
SHIM A slotted strip of metal used as a spacer. the last part of the compressed mixture is pushed, or
squirted, out of a decreasing space between the piston
SHRINK FIT A tight fit of one part in another achieved by
and cylinder head.
heating or cooling one part and then assembling it with
the other part. If heated, the part then shrinks on cooling STARTING MOTOR An electric motor in the electric sys-
to provide a shrink fit. If cooled, the part expands on tem that cranks the engine, or turns the crankshaft, for
warming to provide the fit. starting.

355
STATIC FRICTION Friction between two bodies at rest. TIMING GEARS A gear on the crankshaft that drives the
camshaft by meshing with a gear on its end.
STEPPED FEELER GAUGE A feeler gauge which has a thin
tip and is thicker along the rest of the gauge; a “go, TIMING LIGHT A light that is connected to the ignition
no-go” gauge. system to flash each time the No. 1 spark plug fires; used
for adjusting the timing of the ignition spark.
STORAGE BATTERY A lead-acid electrochemical device
that changes chemical energy into electrical energy; that TOP DEAD CENTER (TDC) The piston position when the
part of the electric system which acts as a reservoir for piston has moved to the top of the cylinder and the center
electric energy, storing it in chemical form. line of the connecting rod is parallel to the cylinder walls.

STROKE In an engine, the distance that the piston moves TORQUE Turning or twisting effort, usually measured in
from BDC to TDC. pound-feet (kilogram-meters).
SUPERCHARGER A device in the intake system of the TORQUE WRENCH A special wrench that indicates the
engine which pressurizes the ingoing air-fuel mixture. amount of torque being applied to a nut or bolt.
This increases the amount of mixture delivered to the
TORSIONAL BALANCER See “Vibration damper.”
cylinders and thus increases engine output. If the super-
charger is driven by the engine exhaust gas, it is called a TORSIONAL VIBRATION Vibration in a rotary direction that
turbocharger. causes a twist-untwist action on a rotating shaft; the
actions in a rotating shaft that repeatedly moves ahead or
SURFACE IGNITION Ignition of the air-fuel mixture in the
lags behind the remainder of the shaft—for example, the
combustion chamber produced by hot metal surfaces or
actions as a crankshaft responds to the cylinder firing
heated particles of carbon.
impulses.
TAPER A shaft or hole that gets gradually smaller toward TRANSISTOR An electronic device that can be used as an
one end. In an engine cylinder, the uneven wear which is electric switch; used in electronic ignition systems to
more at the top than at the bottom. replace the contact points.
TAPPET See ‘Valve lifter.” TRANSMISSION The device in the power train that pro-
TDC Top dead center. vides different gear ratios between the engine and rear
wheels, as well as reverse.
TEL Tetraethyl lead.
TROUBLE DIAGNOSIS The detective work necessary to run
TETRAETHYL LEAD A chemical put into engine fuel which down the cause of a trouble. Also implies the correction of
increases octane rating, or reduces spark-knock ten- the trouble by elimination of cause.
dency. Also called ethyl and tel.
TUNEUP The procedure of inspection, testing, and adjust-
THERMAL EFFICIENCY Relationship between the power ing an engine and replacing any worn parts to restore the
output and the energy in the fuel burned to produce the engine to its best performance.
output.
TURBOCHARGER A supercharger driven by the engine
THERMOSTAT A device that operates on, or regulates, exhaust gas.
temperature changes. Several thermostats are used in
engines. TURBULENCE The state of being violently disturbed. In the
engine, the rapid swirling motion imparted to the air-fuel
THROTTLE VALVE The round disk valve in the throttle body mixture entering the cylinder.
of the carburetor that can be turned to admit more or less
air, thereby controlling engine speed. TWIST DRILL Drill.

THROW-A-ROD Expression used to designate an engine TWO-CYCLE Short for “two-stroke-cycle.”

with a loose, knocking connecting-rod bearing or an en- TWO-STROKE CYCLE The series of events taking place in
gine that has broken a connecting rod and shoved it a two-stroke-cycle engine, which are intake, compres-
through the cylinder block or pan. sion, power, and exhaust, all of which take place in two
THRUST BEARING Specifically in the engine, the main piston strokes. A two-stroke-cycle engine is also called
bearing that has thrust faces which prevent excessive two-cycle engine, or a two-stroker.
endwise movement of the crankshatt.
VACUUM An absence of air or other substance.
THYRISTOR A type of semiconductor device that acts as a
switch. It turns on when a certain voltage is applied to the VACUUM ADVANCE Ignition-spark advance resulting from
gate, and it turns off when the current flowing between partial vacuum in intake manifold.
the other two terminals stops or reverses.
VACUUM GAUGE In engine service, a device that mea-
TIMING In the engine, refers to timing of valves, timing of sures intake-manifold vacuum and thereby indicates ac-
ignition, and their relation to the piston position in the tions of engine components.
cylinder.
VALVE A device that can be opened or closed to allow or
TIMING CHAIN A chain driven by a sprocket on the crank- stop the flow of a liquid, gas, or vapor from one place to
shaft that drives the sprocket on the camshaft. another.

356
VALVE CLEARANCE The clearance between the rocker arm VAPOR LOCK A condition in the fuel system in which
and the valve-stem tip in an overhead-valve engine; the gasoline has vaporized and turned to bubbles in the fuel
clearance in the valve train when the valve is closed. line or fuel pump so that fuel delivery to the carburetor is
VALVE FLOAT The condition that exists when the engine prevented or retarded.
valves do not follow the cam; failure of the valves to close VENTURI In the carburetor, the restriction in the air horn
at the proper time. that produces the vacuum responsible for the movement
VALVE GRINDING Refacing a valve in a valve-refacing of gasoline into the passing air.
machine. VI See “Viscosity index.”
VALVE GUIDE The cylindrical part in the cylinder block or VIBRATION A complete rapid motion back and forth; oscil-
head in which the valve is assembled and in which it
lation.
moves up and down.
VIBRATION DAMPER A device attached to the crankshaft of
VALVE-IN-HEAD ENGINE An I-head engine.
an engine which opposes crankshaft torsional vibration,
VALVE LASH See “Valve clearance.” that is, the twist-untwist actions of the crankshaft caused
VALVE LIFTER Also called lifter, tappet, valve tappet, and by the cylinder firing impulses. Also called harmonic
balancer.
cam follower. A cylindrical part of the engine which rests
on a cam of the camshaft and is lifted, by cam action, so VISCOSITY The resistance to flow that a liquid has. A thick
that the valve is opened. oil has greater viscosity than a thin oil.
VALVE-LIFTER FOOT The bottom end of the valve lifter; the VISCOSITY INDEX A measurement used to determine how
part that rides on the cam lobe. much an oil viscosity changes with heat.
VALVE OVERLAP Number of degrees of crankshaft rotation VISCOSITY RATINGS Oil viscosity is rated two ways: for
through which both the intake and exhaust valves are winter use and for summer use. The winter grades are
open together. SAE 5W, SAE 10W, and SAE 20W. For summer driving, the
VALVE RACK Any wood or metal container or holder which grades are SAE 20, SAE 30, SAE 40, and SAE 50. Many oils
identifies and keeps the valves in order. have multiple-viscosity ratings, for example, SAE 10W-30.

VALVE-REFACING MACHINE A machine for removing ma- VISCOUS Thick, tending to resist flowing.
terial from the seating face of valves so that a new face
VISCOUS FRICTION Friction between layers of a liquid.
appears.
VOLATILITY A measurement of the ease with which a
VALVE ROTATOR Device used in place of the valve-spring
liquid vaporizes.
retainer; it has a built-in mechanism to rotate the valve
slightly each time it opens. VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY Ratio between the amount of
VALVE SEAT The surface in the cylinder head against air-fuel mixture that actually enters an engine cylinder
which the valve face comes to rest. and the theoretical amount that could enter under ideal
conditions.
VALVE-SEAT INSERTS Metal rings inserted in valve seats,
usually exhaust-valve seats; they are of special metal V-TYPE ENGINE Engine with two banks of cylinders set at
able to withstand high temperatures. an angle to each other to form a V.

VALVE-SEAT RECESSION Also known as lash loss; the WANKEL ENGINE A rotary-type engine in which a three-
tendency for valves, in some engines run on unleaded lobe rotor turns eccentrically in an oval chamber.
gasoline, to contact the seat in such a way that the seat
wears away, or recesses into the cylinder head. WATER JACKET The space between inner and outer shells
of the cylinder block or head through which coolant can
VALVE-SPRING RETAINER The device on the valve stem circulate.
that holds the spring in place.
WATER PUMP In the cooling system, the device that main-
VALVE-SPRING-RETAINER LOCK The locking device on the
tains circulation of the coolant between the engine water
valve stem that locks the spring retainer in place.
jackets and the radiator.
VALVE STEM The long, thin section of the valve that fits
WEDGE COMBUSTION CHAMBER A combustion chamber
into the valve guide.
resembling, in shape, a wedge.
VALVE-STEM SEAL A device placed on or surrounding the
valve stem to reduce the amount of oil which can get on WORK The changing of the position of a body against all
the stem and thereby work its way down into the combus- opposing force, measured in foot-pounds (meter-kilo-
tion chamber. grams). Product of force times the distance through which
it acts.
VALVE TAPPET Valve lifter.
WRIST PIN Piston pin.
VALVE TIMING The timing of valve opening and closing in
relation to piston position in the cylinder. ZENER DIODE A special type of diode that will conduct
VALVE TRAIN The valve-operating mechanism of an en- current in its normally blocked (or reverse) direction under
gine, from the camshaft to the valve. certain conditions.

357
INDEX
Abuses, engine, 292 Bendix drive, 195, 198, 218
Ac (See Alternating current) checking of, 218
Additives: Bhp (See Brake horsepower)
gasoline, 123-125 Blowby, 54-55, 144
oil, 113 Blower, 155
Adjustments, 6 (See also Air-cooling systems)
Advance mechanisms, distributor, 234-237 Bolts and screws, types of, 15-16
Air cleaner, 128-129, 141-143, 304 Booster battery, 186
servicing of, 141-143, 304 Bore, 102-103
Air-cooled engine, 69-70, 152-156 Bottom dead center, 102
Air-cooling systems, 69-70, 152-156 Bottom-end overhaul, 320-327
servicing of, 155-156 Brake horsepower, 104-105
types of, 152-153 Breaker points, 222-223, 233-234, 240-245
Air-fuel mixture, 69, 72, 132 (See also Ignition systems)
adjusting of, 132 servicing of, 240-245
Air-vane governor, 137, 149 Breakerless magneto-ignition, 226-231
servicing of, 149 Break-in, engine, 326-327
Alternating current, 166, 258 Brushes, starting motor, 192-193
Alternator, 163, 258, 265-270, 284-287 Bushings, 57, 102
flywheel, 265-270
principles of, 265
rectifying ac from, 266-267 Cadmium-tip test, 181-183
regulators for, 268-270 Camshaft, 72, 82-86, 3438-345
servicing of, 284-287 drives for, 83-86
types of, 267-268 servicing of, 3438-345
Aluminum engines, 323-324 Capacitor-discharge ignition, 228-231
Ammeter, 163, 272 Carburetor, 128-137, 147-149, 297-298, 304
Antifreeze, 156 (See also Fuel system)
Antiknock gasoline, 121-123 adjustments of, 147-149
Armature, 193 air cleaner for, 304
(See also Generator; Starter—generator; Starting motor) (See also Air cleaner)
Atmospheric pressure, 51-52 check of, 297-298
Atoms, 46-48 choke in, 132, 147-148
Automatic compression release, 77 construction of, 129-131
diaphragm, 135-136
float bowl in, 129-130
Ball bearings, 57-58 primer for, 132-133
Barometer, 51-52 servicing of, 146-149, 304
Battery, 165, 171-186 suction feed, 134-135
additives for, 184 CDI (See Capacitor-discharge ignition)
booster, using, 186 Centrifugal advance mechanism, 235-236
cells in, 174-175 Centrifugal governor, 137-139, 149
checking of, 179-183 servicing of, 149
chemical actions in, 171, 173-174 Change of state, 49
construction of, 171-173 Charging systems, 258-270, 271-287
efficiency of, 175-176 (See also Alternator; Generator; Magneto; Regulator)
electrolyte in, 179 indicator-light in, 272—273
nickel—cadmium, 176-177 servicing of, 271-287
purpose of, 171 Chemical reactions, 48
ratings of, 175 Choke, carburetor, 132, 147-148
servicing of, 178-186 adjusting of, 147-148
testing of, 181-183 Circuit breakers, 169
trouble diagnosis of, 183 Circuits, electric, 166-169
voltage variation in, 176 connectors for, 168
Battery charger, 177, 184-186 fuses for, 169
Battery ignition systems, 231-237, 251-257 ground in, 165-166
(See also Ignition systems) symbols for, 168-169
principles of, 231-237 Combustion, 48, 53
servicing of, 251-257 Combustion chamber, 74, 124-125
troubleshooting of, 251-257 shapes of, 124-125
BDC (bottom dead center), 102 Commutator, 193
Bearings, engine, 56—58, 76, 102, 322-325 Compression, crankcase, 61-62
bonded, 322 Compression, ratio, 103, 121-124
bushings, 57, 102 Compression, release, 77
crankshaft, 322-325 Compression, rings, 55, 74
servicing of, 320-325 Compression check, 293-297
types of, 57-58 Compression stroke, 72—73

358
Cone-drive, starter, 198 Dry-sump lubricating system, 115
Connecting rod, 55-56, 66, 318, 320-322 Dynamometer, 104-105
bearings for, 318, 322
servicing of, 320-322
Connector, electrical, 168 Electric motors, 191-195
Contact points (See Breaker points) Electric starters, 191-201, 212-218
Cooling system, engine, 69-70, 152-160 (See also Starting motors)
air, 152—156 servicing of, 212-218
coolant for, 156 Electricity, 162-169
pressurized, 160 fundamentals of, 162—163
purpose of, 152 fuses for, 169
temperature indicator for, 160 ground for, 165—166
Cotter pins, 16 symbols for, 168-169
Crankcase, 61, 325 Electrolyte, battery, 179, 181
oil seals for, 325 (See also Battery)
Crankcase breather, 144-146, 305 freezing temperature of, 181
Crankcase compression, 61-62 Electromagnets, 165
Crankshaft, 55-56, 66-69, 78, 81-82, 322-326 Electronic ignition, 227-229
bearings for, 322-325 (See also Ignition systems)
built-up type of, 81 Electrons, 162-164
one-piece type of, 82 Elements, 46—48
operating positions of, 78 Emergencies, 10
servicing of, 322-326 Employment opportunities, 2-5
Crankshaft bearings, 322-325 Energy, 99, 153
(See also Bearings, engine) Engines, 46-52, 56-62, 61-79, 81-86, 91-97, 99-107,
Current, electric, 163, 166 110-117, 150-160, 265-270, 290-345
Current regulator, 263-265, 271-280 (See also Four-cycle engine; Two-cycle engine; Wankel
(See also Charging system; Generator regulator) engine)
servicing of, 271-280 abuses of, 292
tests and adjustments of, 277-278 actions in, 59-61, 72-73
Cutout relay, 264, 271-280 air-cooling of, 69-70, 152-156
(See also Charging system; Generator regulator) bearings in, 56—58, 76
servicing of, 271-280 break-in of, 326-327
tests and adjustments of, 275-276 construction of, 62
Cycles, engine, 58-61, 72-73, cooling systems, 69-70, 152-160
four-stroke, 58-61 defects in, 298
two-stroke, 72—73 dynamometer for, 105
Cylinder, 53-55, 74, 313-315, 319-320 efficiency of, 106-107
inspecting of, 313-314 fan, 158
installing of, 319-320 flywheels in, 66, 76, 265-270
lubricating walls of, 74 identification of, 78
refinishing of, 314 liquid-cooling of, 156-160
servicing, 313-315 lubrication of, 110-117
Cylinder block, 81 maintenance of, 300-309
Cylinder compression check, 293-297 measurements of, 99-107
Cylinder head: oil for, 112-114
installing of, 345 operation of, 290-292, 300-302
removing of, 334 overhead camshaft, 82—83
principles of, 46-52
Dec (See Direct current) servicing of, 290-345
Dc charging system, 271-278 starting of, 300-301
(See also Charging system; Generator) stopping of, 302
generator polarity in, 273-274 troubleshooting of, 290-299
testing of, 274-278 tuneup of, 306-307
troubleshooting of, 271-273 winter storage of, 306
Detonation, 121-125 Exhaust port, 59-61, 304
cause of, 121-124 cleaning of, 304
control of, 123-125 Exhaust stroke, 73
Dial indicator, 41-42 Exhaust system, 139
Diaphragm carburetor, 135-136 Exhaust valve, 71-72
Dies, 30-31 Expansion tank, radiator, 158
Diodes, 226-227, 267 External magneto, 223-226, 249-251
heat sinks for, 267 (See also Magnets)
Dipstick, 117 Ezy-Out, 31
Direct current, 166, 258
Disassembly, 5-6
Displacement, piston, 103 Fan, engine, 158
Distributor, ignition, 232-237, 251-257 Fasteners, 13-19
servicing of, 251-257 Feeler gauges, 37-38
Drives, starting motor, 195, 198 Field windings, starting motor, 193

359
Filters: High-discharge test, 181
fuel, 129 Honing, cylinder, 314-315
oil, 116—117, 305 Horsepower, 101, 104-105
Fins, cylinder, 69-70, 155 brake, 104-105
Fire prevention, 10-11 friction, 105
Flaring tool, 32-33 indicated, 105
Float adjustment, 149 Hydraulic valve lifters, 330
Float bowl, 129-130 Hydrocarbons, 120-121
Flywheel, 66, 76, 265-270 (See also Gasoline)
Flywheel alternator, 165-166, 268-270, 284-287 Hydrometer test, 180-181
regulating of, 268-270
servicing of, 284-287 Idle-mixture, adjusting of, 148
Flywheel magneto, 221-223, 239-249 Idle-speed, adjusting of, 148-149
(See also Magnets) Ignition systems, 220-257, 297
Four-cycle engine, 71—79, 81-86, 110-117, 328-345 battery 261-237, 2ol=257
construction of, 81—86 breaker points in, 222-223, 233-234, 243-245
lubricating system for, 110-117 breakerless, 226-231
operation of, 71-79 capacitor-discharge, 228-231
servicing of, 328-345 check of, 297
Friction, 102 external magneto, 223-226, 249-251
Friction horsepower, 105 flywheel magneto, 221-223, 239-249
Fuel (See Gasoline) piezoelectric, 237-238
Fuel filter, 129, 143-144, 304-305 purpose of, 220-221
servicing of, 143-144, 304-305 servicing of, 239-257
Fuel hazards, 291-292 solid-state, 227-231
Fuel pump, 133-136, 146 timing of, 234-237, 245-247, 251
servicing of, 146 types of, 220
Fuel systems, 127-139, 141-149 I-head engine, 77-78, 82
gravity-feed, 133 Impact driver, 23
pressure-feed, 136-137 Indicated horsepower, 105
servicing of, 141-149 Indicator, charging light, 272—273
suction feed, 133-135 oil level, 117
types of, 127-128 temperature, 160
Fuel tank, 128, 146 Inertia, 101-102
servicing of, 146 Inertia drive, 194-195
Fuses, 169, 281 In-line engine, 81
Inserts, valve-seat, 341-343
Gaskets, 325-326 Insulation, electric, 164
Intake port, 59-61
Gasoline, 120-125, 291-292, 305-306
Intake stroke, 72
antiknock characteristics of, 121
Intake valve, 71-72
hazards of, 291—292
Internal combustion, 53
octane ratings of, 123
storing of, 305-306
Generator, 258-265, 271-282 Jumper battery, 186
(See also Alternator) Jumper cable, use of, 186
construction of, 261—262
magnetic field in, 262-263 Keys, 17
polarity Oi, C= yL! Kick starter, 190-191
principles of, 258-259 Kilowatts, 101
regulators for, 263-265, 271-280
servicing of, 271—282 Layout, shop, 10
tests of, 274-275 Lead, tetraethyl, 125
third-brush, 263 Light bulb, 167
troubleshooting of, 279-281 Lines of force, 164-165
wiring of, 281-282 Liquid-cooled engine, 70, 154
Generator regulator, 263-265, 271-280 Liquid-cooling systems, 156—160
servicing of, 278-279 forced circulation, 157
Governors, 137-139, 149 thermosiphon, 156-157
servicing of, 149 Liquified petroleum gas (LPG), 120-121
Gravity, 50-51 Lockwashers, 16
Gravity-feed fuel system, 133 LPG (See Liquified petroleum gas)
Ground, electric, 165-166 Lubricating systems, engine, 110-117
Guides, valve, 338-339 dipstick for, 117
dry-sump, 115
filters in, 116-117
Hand tools, 20-26 : four-cycle, 110-117
Heat, 48-50, 153-154 oil—-fuel mixture for, 110-111
Heat sinks, diode, 267 oil in, 111-114
Hemispheric combustion chamber, 124 oil-injection type of, 111

360
Lubricating systems, engine (Cont.) Performance measurements, engine, 103-107
oil pump in, 114-116 Petroleum (See Gasoline)
two-cycle, 110-111, 113-114 Piston, 53-55, 86, 310, 315-316, 318-319
wet sump, 114 ring-grooves in, 54-55
servicing of, 315-316, 318-319
Machining, 6 Piston, displacement, 103
Maintenance, small engine, 302-303 Piston pin, 69
Magnetic switch, 197 Piston rings, 54-55, 74—76, 317-318
Magnetism, 163-165 grooves for, 54-55
_Magneto ignition system, 221-231, 239-251 servicing of, 317
breakerless, 226-231 types of, 317-318
checking points in, 240-243 Piston stroke, 58
external type of, 223-226 Plastigage, 321
flywheel, 221-223 Points, breaker, 243-245
principles of, 221-223 (See also Ignition systems)
servicing of, 239-251 Polarity, dc generator, 273-274
timing of, 251 Ports, 59-61, 304
Magnets, 164 cleaning of, 304
Measuring, 5 Power, 99-100
Measuring systems, 34—36 Power stroke, 73, 106
Measuring tools, 34-44 Preignition, 123
Mechanical efficiency, 106 Premixing oil-and-fuel, 110-111
Mechanical starters, 188-191 Pressure, 49—50
Metric fasteners, 18-19 Pressure cap, radiator, 160
Metric system, 34-44 Pressure-feed fuel system, 1386-137
Micrometers, 38-41 Primer, 132-133
metric, 39—40 Push rods, 82
Motors, electric, 191-195
construction of, 192-194 Quench, 124
principles of, 195 Quick chargers, 185
Muffler, 139, 304
cleaning of, 304
Radiation, 154
Radiator, 158
Needle bearings, 58, 320
Radiator pressure cap, 160
servicing of, 320
Reassembly, 6
Nickel-cadmium battery, 176-177
Recoil springs, 207-208
Nuts, 13-14
Rectifier, 226-227
Octane rating, gasoline, 123-125 Reed valve, 61-62, 65, 326
Ohm's law, 165 servicing of, 326
Oil, engine, 111-114, 305 Refacing valves, 336-337
additives in, 113 Regulators:
changing of, 114, 305 alternator, 268-270, 284-287
oil-injection system for, 111 servicing of, 284-287
properties of, 112-113 generator, 263-265, 271-282
purpose of, 111-112 servicing of, 271-282
service ratings of, 113 starter—generator, 283-284
two-cycle, 113-114 Resistance, 165-167
viscosity of, 113 Rings, piston, 54-55
Oil-control ring, 55 Roller bearings, 57-58
Oil filter, 116-117, 305 Rope-rewind starters, 205-209
changing of, 305 Rope-wind starters, 204—206
Oil level indicators, 117 Rotary valves, 65-66
Oil pump, 114-116 Rotating disk valve (See Rotary valves)
Oil seals, crankcase, 325 Rubber-compression drive, 195
120-volt starter, 198
One-wire systems, 165-166 Safety, shop, 10-12
Operation, engine, 72—73, 291-292, 300-309 Safety cautions, 290-292
Opposed-piston engine, 81 Safety interlocks, 198
Overcharging, 183 Safety wire, 18
Overhaul: Screws, types of, 13, 15-16
bottom-end, 320-327 Seals, oil, 325
top-end, 310-320 Seats, valve, 339-341
Overhead-camshaft engine, 82-83, 330-332 Semiconductors, 226-227
Overhead-valve engine, 77—78 Series circuits, 165-166
Overrunning-clutch drive, 195-196 Service and maintenance schedules, 306
Service procedure, steps in, 5-6
Parallel circuit, 166 Shop, layout of, 10
Parts, cleaning, 311-313 Shop manuals, 6-9
PCV valve, 305 Short blocks, 328

361
Shroud, cleaning of, 302-304 Torque wrenches, 23
Side-valve engine, 82 Transfer port, 59-61
Silicon-controlled rectifier, 268-270 Transistors, 226-227
Single-chamber capacity, 103 Troubleshooting, engine, 290-299
Sleeve bearing, 57, 320-324 Tubing cutter, 32-33
servicing of, 320-324 Tuneup, engine, 306-309
Sludge, 114 Turbulence, 124
Smog, 124 12-volt starters, 212-217
Snap rings, 17 troubleshooting of, 212-215
Solenoid, 165, 197-198 Two-cycle engine, 53-62, 65-70, 78, 110-111, 113-114,
Solid-state devices, 226-227 305, 310-327
ignition, 227-229 construction of, 65-70
(See also Ignition systems) lubricating of, 110-111, 113-114, 305
Spark advance, 234-237 oil-injection system for, 11
Spark plug, 73, 220-224, 239-240, 248-249 operation of, 53-62
servicing of, 248-249 servicing of, 310-327
Spark test, 239-240
Specific gravity, 180-183 Undercharging, battery, 183
Specification, 6 United States Customary System (USCS), 34-44
Splines, 17 Unleaded gasoline, 125
Squish, 124
Starter—generator, 199-201, 259-261, 282-287 Vacuum, 51-52
regulator for, 283-284 Vacuum advance, ignition, 236-237
servicing of, 282, 287 Vacuum gauge, 52
Starters, small engine, 188-219 Valve guides, 338-339
electric (See Starter—generator; Starting motor) Valve lifters, 72, 329-330, 338
kick, 190-191 hydrauli¢, 3
mechanical, 188-191 mechanical, 329-330
rope-rewind, 188-189 Valve-seat inserts, 341-343
rope-wind, 188, 204-205 Valve seats, 339-341
servicing of, 203-218 Valve springs, 72, 338
types of, 188 checking of, 338
vertical-pull, 209-211 Valve tappet (See Valve lifters)
windup, 189-190, 211-212 Valves, engine, 71-72, 76-77, 82-83, 328-337
Starting, engine, 300-301 adjusting of, 328-332
Starting motor, 191-201, 212-218 arrangements of, 82-83
brushes in, 192-193 operation of, 72
commutator in, 193 refacing of, 336-337
controls for, 196-198 servicing of, 328-337
drives for, 194-196, 198 timing of, 76-77
_120-volt, 198-201 Venturi, carburetor, 130-131
servicing of, 212-218 Vernier, caliper, 42—43
Stopping, engine, 302 Viscosity, 113
Stroke, piston, 58, 102-103 Volatility, 121
Stud removers, 31-32 Voltage, 164
Studs, 13 Voltage drop, 167
Suction-feed carburetor, 134-135 Voltage regulators:
Sulfation, battery, 183 alternator, 268-270, 284-287
Symbols, electrical, 168-169 servicing of, 284-287
generator, 263-265, 271-280
Tappets, valve, 72, 329-330, 338 servicing of, 271-280
Taps, 29-30 Volumetric efficiency, 76, 103-104
TDC (top dead center), 102 V-type engines, 81
Temperature, 153-154
Temperature indicator, 160 Wankel engines, 91-97
Terminals, electrical, 168 applications of, 91
Tetraethyl lead, 125 construction of, 91-93
Thermal efficiency, 106-107 operation of, 93-96
Thermometer, 50 Water pump, 157-158
Thermosiphon cooling, 156-157 Wedge combustion chamber, 124
Thermostat, 159 Wet-sump lubricating system, 114
Threads, 14-15 Windup starters, 211-212
Three-phase ac, 266-267 Winter storage, engine, 306
Timer, ignition, 233-234 Wire, safety, 18
Tools, cutting, 27-33 Wiring circuits, 167-168
Tools, hand, 20-26 Work, 99
Top-end overhaul, 310-320 Wrenches, torque, 23
Torque, 100-101
engine, 106 Zener diode, 268-270

362
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LIBRARY
New Hampshire
Vocational-Technical College
Prescott Hill
Laconia, NH 03246