60 Cement Produc tion Technology

• Drying capacity of the system

• Product fineness required
• Grinding power available
The optimum feed size requirements to the mill systems are:
Ball mills: 5% residue on 15–30 mm
Vertical mills: 5% residue on 50–100 mm
Roll presses: crushed and pre-homogenized raw mix
So far as the drying capability is concerned, the milling systems
behave as follows:
a. Ball mills having a drying compartment and being air-swept with
hot gas having 2.5–3 m/s velocity above the grinding media can
handle up to 8% moisture.
b. Double rotator central discharge fully air-swept mills (5–6 m/s air
velocity) can dry up to 12% moisture.
c. Roller mills can handle up to 25% moisture.
Since ball mills of more than 4 m diameter encounter serious opera-
tional and design difficulties, VRMs are being increasingly preferred
in large capacity plants. Mills with capacities in the range of 400 to
600 metric tons per hour with drive ratings between 4000 to 5000 kW
are in use in the industry. The other alternative is the adoption of a
hybrid system combining both a ball mill and roll press for energy con-
servation. A typical illustration of a ball mill upgraded with a roll press
is shown in Table 2.4.

Homogenization The post-milling homogenization process involves intimate blending

process of fine powdery material with a view to bringing down the standard
deviation of LSF, SM, and AM or other chemical parameters, if used for
controlling the quality of the ground raw mix (often called “raw meal”),
prior to feeding the kiln. There are four methods of homogenization:
the first and most traditional method is the slurry mixing in the wet pro-
cess plants; other methods adopted in dry process plants are mechanical,
pneumatic, and gravity systems. Since we are focused on dry process
plants, we highlight the salient points of the latter three homogenization
systems.

Table 2.4 A ball mill system modified with a roll press

Mill systems Before After

Capacity, tph
198 214
Specific energy, kWh/t
Ball mill 13.2 8.3
Roller press – 2.5
Total 13.2 10.8
R aw mix proportioning, processing, and burnabilit y assessment 61

The mechanical system consists of multiple storage silos, each of

which is provided with regulated withdrawal facilities. Blending is
achieved by orderly withdrawal rates from all silos. While this type of
mixing consumes lower power, the system requires a great deal of mate-
rial handling that increases power consumption. In addition, the required
number of silos is obviously more than in other systems. As a result of
these shortcomings, this kind of system is not in wide use.
The most common homogenization system is the pneumatic one,
which is based on an air-fluidization method. The fluidization of the dry
raw meal is a very innovative approach towards making it behave like
raw-meal slurry in a mixer basin of traditional wet plants. Air introduced
through a permeable medium in the silo bottom causes the raw meal to
behave almost like a fluid. This method is known to be efficient but rela-
tively more power-consuming.
The pneumatic systems can either be discontinuous (or batch type)
or continuous. The batch-type blending system was once a standard fea-
ture of the dry-process plants of earlier design. Today, the most common
practice is to have pre-blending beds followed by the continuous homog-
enization system.
A typical batch-type blending system is made up of a two-storied
silo, with the homogenizing silo installed on top of the storage silo
(Figure 2.10). The permeable silo bottom is divided into multiple seg-
ments such as quadrants or octants, which are earmarked alternately
to introduce air flow with the help of compressors at high velocity and
pressure for homogenization and at lower velocity and pressure for aera-
tion and extraction of homogenized raw meal. The air flow through the
homogenizing sectors creates active upward-moving, low-density col-
umns of raw meal that spill into denser downward-moving materials
located over the aeration sectors. In this process, the blending factor of
batch-type homogenizing silos may reach a level of 1:20. The method is
Time 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

83.00
82.00
81.00
80.00
79.00
78.00
77.00
76.00
75.00
74.00
73.00
Input CaCO3 Output CaCO3

Homogenizing
silo

Storage silo

FIGURE 2.10 Typical batch blending silo system.

62 Cement Produc tion Technology

very effective but the energy consumption for the compressed air is quite
high. As a result, this mode of blending is preferred for special products
needing high blending factors for quality purposes.
In continuous homogenizing systems, the same silo performs both
the storing and blending functions. Different designs are available (7).
The incoming material is deposited layer by layer in the silo. While dis-
charging, the layers are disrupted by downward funneling of the material
and get intermixed. The silos are emptied via central chambers, which
may be located inside or outside the silos, depending on the equipment
suppliers and their design features. Multiple continuous homogeniza-
tion silos can be connected in parallel, into which the material flow can
be divided, while feeding, and the discharge flows can be recombined
before further downstream movement. The operational experience indi-
cates that continuous homogenization with one silo may have the blend-
ing factor in the range of 5–7, and this improves to 7–12 with two silos.
Despite the wide adoption of pneumatic blending systems, high
energy consumption (1.0–1.5 kWh/t of material), maintenance problems
of the porous media, and the need to install oil-free compressors have
been the basic concerns for this technology. Solutions to these problems
have been found in the innovation of gravity for blending, which is pos-
sible even in one single silo. Energy consumption reduces to 0.2 kWh/t
of material or even lower. Homogenization is achieved by keeping the
entire raw meal in the silo in a constant sinking movement but at con-
trolled and different flow velocities over the cross-section of the silo.
The raw meal leaving the raw mill during the course of one hour is
retained inside the silo for different lengths of time with prolonged resi-
dence time, mixed with raw meal produced during the subsequent hours

1
Legend
1 Feeding system
2 Continuous homogenizing silo
2 3 Discharge channel
4 Openings to the discharge channel
5 Cover of discharge channel
6 Aerated areas with one sided inclination
7 Extraction and dosing equipment
6 8 Transport to kiln

4
5
3
8

7
6
4
5

FIGURE 2.11 A continuous blending silo.

 R aw mix proportioning, processing, and burnabilit y assessment 63

(Figure 2.11). In the overall system design the raw meal leaving multiple
outlets is mixed in a mixing vessel below the silo and mounted on load
cells, and it forms a part of the kiln feed. The silo is typically designed
for a capacity corresponding to consumption of raw meal for three days.
For effective homogenization, therefore, various options are available
and the specific process requirements can be easily met.

2.5 Burnability features of raw meal

Product fineness There are no rigid standards for raw meal fineness. It is determined
empirically and should be as coarse as a given kiln system can tolerate.
Typically, a raw meal is ground to about 15% residue on an 88-μm sieve,
and correspondingly to 1.5–2.5% residue on a 212-μm sieve. But with
improved burning systems and techniques, the residue for raw meal can
be raised to about 25–30% on an 88-μm sieve and 6% on a 212-μm sieve
in some plants operating with large preheater-precalciner kilns. It should
be borne in mind that a narrow particle size distribution is optimally
required as fines tend to increase dust loss by entrainment in exhaust
gases, while coarse particles are harder to react in the kiln, resulting in
high free lime or high fuel consumption.
From the considerations of easy burning, it is highly beneficial to
limit the top sizes of the following mineral phases in the raw meal as
indicated below:
• Silica minerals (e.g., quartz, chert, acid insoluble residue, etc.): 44 μm
• Shale particles: 50 μm
• Silicate minerals (e.g., feldspar): 63 μm
• Carbonate minerals (e.g., calcite, dolomite): 125 μm
It has often been experienced in practice that every 1% increase in
coarser quartz particles and every 1% increase in carbonate particles
results in 0.93% and 0.51% increase in free lime, respectively. Therefore,
it may be advantageous to characterize the particulate fineness on the
125-μm sieve and then acidify the mix and examine the coarse fractions
(+ 44 μm) for their content of grains of concern. This may help to find out
the ways and means of tackling hard burning characteristics of raw meals.
Another aspect in this context is worth mentioning. For all practical
purposes, it may be desirable to check if the + 88-μm fractions of raw
meals are lime-rich or silica-rich, relative to the total sample. For uni-
form and stable burning the raw meals should be ensured to –
a. be consistently either lime-rich or silica-rich
b. have coarse mineral phases in the total raw meal distributed as
follows:
i. Silica phases (> 200 μm): not more than 0.5%
ii. Silica phases (90–200 μm): not more than 1.0%
iii. Silica phases (> 45 μm): not more than 2.0%
iv. Carbonate phases (> 125 μm): not more than 5%
64 Cement Produc tion Technology

Chemical It has already been mentioned that the three modulus values, e.g., lime
and mineral saturation factor (LSF), silica modulus (SM), or alumina modulus (AM),
characteristics are fundamentally considered to ascertain the expected burning behav-
ior of a kiln feed. From the extensive practices in the cement plants the
following ranges are considered optimal:
LSF: 1.0 ± 0.05
SM: 2.4 ± 0.2
AM: 1.4 ± 0.2
Values of individual modulus beyond the above desirable ranges are not
uncommon, but are relatively rare. Since the lowering of LSF directly
reflects on the reduction of the potential C3S in clinker, in many situ-
ations, particularly while dealing with large-diameter rotary kilns,
attempts are made to make the kiln feeds soft-burning by bringing down
SM to 2.0 and AM to 1.0.
In addition to the above chemical characteristics, the mineral phases
present in kiln feeds also influence their burning behavior in some way.
The more influencing features are:
• Presence of ankerite (Ca(Mg, Fe) (CO3) 2) or dolomite (Ca, Mg
(CO3) 2) causes an early release of lime in a reactive state, which
may require reactive clays to enter into combination reactions.
• Presence of magnesia in the silicate form ensures the formation
of small periclase crystals in clinker. Bigger crystals of periclase
are likely to be present, when magnesia comes from the carbonate
phase.
• Different forms of silica show different levels of reactivity, as
shown below:
β - quartz < chalcedony < opal
< ∝ - cristobalite & ∝ - tridymite
< silica from silicates < amorphous silica
• Ferruginous minerals like chlorite, glauconite, etc., release iron
oxide in the ferrous state at early stages to give mineralizing
effects.
• Alkali- and sulfate-bearing minerals result in the formation of
volatile cycles during the burning process.

Effect of minor The more commonly encountered minor constituents have been specified
constituents in the cement-grade limestone (see Table 1.10 in Chapter 1) but the raw
materials are known to contain many other minor constituents. Despite
many investigations in various laboratories on the effects of minor con-
stituents on clinker making processes and clinker properties, the results
are often conflicting. Nevertheless, one might have some idea from the
author’s chapter in (3). As a precautionary measure, it is always advis-
able to conduct special investigations, if a raw mix is found to contain
any unspecified minor constituent in excess of 0.5%. Some of the minor
 R aw mix proportioning, processing, and burnabilit y assessment 65

constituents in small amounts may be beneficial in clinker making but

the same elements may turn harmful beyond a ceiling. Elements like
barium and zinc are examples in this respect as they behave differently
when present at different percentages.

Raw meal One of the parameters that bear a strong effect on the stability of the
homogeneity clinker burning operation is the homogeneity of the kiln feed.
In actual plant practice the homogeneity is determined on the basis of
n numbers of hourly spot samples (normally 24 samples) and the targets
of standard deviations (S) for the measured parameters of this set of
samples are fixed as follows:
S LSF ≤ 1%
S CaCO3 ≤ 0.2%
S SM ≤ 0.1
In some plants, the measure of homogeneity is carried out on the basis
of four or eight hourly samples. These samples are analyzed for major
oxides and these data are converted to potential C3S or LSF. A kiln
feed should typically have an estimated standard deviation of less than
3% C3S or 1.2% LSF.
Although the homogeneity of kiln feed is expressed in terms of stan-
dard deviations of certain parameters, it should be borne in mind that it
has a limitation in the sense that the standard deviation of any parameter
does not distinguish between a steady trend and constant fluctuation.
Hence, the interpretation of data is crucial.

Reactivity and The reactivity of a raw mix is defined by the overall rate of chemical
burnability reactions of the constituents on burning at a certain temperature for a
certain time. Generally, it is influenced by the chemical, mineral, and
particulate characteristics of raw mix components. But in practice this
parameter has not been of much significance as many other parame-
ters come into play in the burning operation. Hence, another parameter
known as “burnability” has evolved, which, to some extent, reflects the
burning behavior of a raw meal. Although “burnability” itself is a quali-
tative parameter that signifies the ease or difficulty of burning of a kiln
feed, attempts have been made to quantify this parameter by some indi-
rect means—both theoretical and experimental.

Theoretical approaches One of the simplest and most traditional

ways of determining the burnability of a kiln feed is to apply the ratio of
its potential phase composition, known as the Kuel’s Index, introduced
back in 1929: C3S/(C4AF + C3A). The higher the value, the more difficult
is the kiln feed to burn. Since this ratio did not take into account some
of the fluxing oxides normally present in kiln feed, a modified version
was presented in (9):

C3S/ (C4 AF + C3 A + MgO + K 2O + Na 2O). (2.36)

66 Cement Produc tion Technology

Since both the above indices did not reflect the burning behavior of kiln
feed in significantly differing practical situations, in the early 1970s a
new index, called the Burnability Factor, was introduced (10):

BF = X (LSF) + Y (SM) − Z (MgO + K 2O + Na 2 O) (2.37)

The coefficients in the above formula were determined by multiple

regression analysis of results obtained from tests conducted in the labo-
ratory. The originally published formula had the following coefficients:
X = 100, Y = 10, and Z = 3. The concept of the Burnablity Factor was
more widely accepted, but changes were introduced in the coefficients
in some situations. An example of a modified formula is given below (9),
although it may not be universally applicable:

LSF + 6(SM − 2) − ( MgO + K 2O + Na 2O) (2.38)

The Burnability Factor may still be applicable in operating plants if

the coefficients are properly worked out from the plant data in a given
situation. The Burnability Factor, however, does not recognize the role
of the liquid phase or the problems that might be encountered in burn-
ing due to the presence of coarse materials in the kiln feed. Another
theoretical formula for burnability was developed to take care of these
parameters (11):

Bth = 55.5 + 1.56(KS − 90)2 − 0.43 SA 2 + 11.9 H g50 (2.39)

Where Bth is the time at 1350°C required to bring down free lime to
2% by weight, KS is the Kalkstandard or its LSF equivalent, SA is the
weight % of liquid, and Hg50 is the weight % residue coarser than 90 μm.
The above equation shows that increasing melt content reduces the time
required to obtain fixed free lime content in clinker.
A similar attempt was made to predict the weight percentage of free
lime that would be expected to remain in clinker after the corresponding
raw mix nodules had been fired at 1400°C for 30 min as a measure of its
burnability without carrying out the actual experiment (12). The formula
developed is given below:

CaO = 0.33 LSF − 0.349 + 1.18 SR + 0.56 K125 + 0.93 Q 45 (2.40)

where SR is the same as SM, K125 is the weight percentage of calcite

grains of + 125-μm size and Q45 is the weight percentage of quartz
grains of + 45-μm size in the kiln feed. The above equation is justified
for moderate variations from the reference sample but for larger varia-
tions a non-linear expression will be needed to fit data.

Experimental approaches All experimental approaches for the deter-

mination of burnability involve calcination of raw meal or making of
clinker in the laboratory under specified laboratory conditions and
R aw mix proportioning, processing, and burnabilit y assessment 67

measuring the degree of reaction achieved. The free lime content in clin-
ker is the most common criterion followed in all experiments, although
the methods and procedures of conducting the tests differ. Some alterna-
tive methods have also been tried. All the test methods are essentially
relative to reference samples and the basic assumption is that they take
care of all the known and unknown factors influencing the process of
clinker making. Some of these methods are presented below.
a. Test method based on lime combinability: the raw meal, which
may include the theoretically computed proportion of coal ash, is
first wetted and then converted to 8–10-mm nodules by hand. The
nodules are dried and then calcined at 950°C. The calcined nodules
are isothermally treated: one part at 1350°C, another at 1400°C,
and a third at 1450°C—all for 20 min. After cooling the fired nod-
ules to room temperature, free lime is determined for each part.
The trend of free lime reduction with temperature is graphically
plotted. The temperature at which 1% free lime is extrapolated
is called the “lime combinability temperature.” The higher this
temperature, the harder the burnability of the raw meal. A typical
temperature-free lime curve is shown in Figure 2.12. A few other
variants of this method have been reported (13,14) but they are not
in practice as they are either too simple or too complex to adopt.
b. Test method based on firing shrinkage: another approach for
assessing burnability is by determining the volume change of raw

40

30
Free CaO (%)

20

10

1000 1050 1100 1150 1200 1250 1300 1350

Temperature (°C)

FIGURE 2.12 Free lime temperature relation for determining burnability.

68 Cement Produc tion Technology

mix pellets fired at different temperatures, developed in Russia

(15). The steps involved are:
• Preparation of homogenized raw mix or kiln feed, including
the likely incorporation of coal ash, maintaining the fineness
as obtained in the plants or as desired.
• Preparation of pellets of 3.3Ø × 1.5 cm size with pressure of
500 kg/cm2.
• Firing of pellets at temperatures ranging from 1000°C to
1450°C.
• Removal of pellets at intervals of 100°C in the above tempera-
ture range, after a soaking of 30 min and immediate measure-
ment of their firing shrinkage/expansion.
• Plotting of pellet volume change against temperature, as
shown in Figure 2.13.
• Interpretation of the plots.
The plots are characteristic of the raw mixes/kiln feeds, as no two
patterns are exactly alike. The initial expansion of the fired pellets
indicates the solid-state reactions forming the intermediate phases; the
subsequent trend of shrinkage shows the appearance and quantity of
the liquid phase; and finally the compressive strength of the pellets at
1400°C throws light on the expected granulometry of the clinker.

2.6 Use of mineralizers

In clinker burning the use of Al2O3 and Fe2O3 as fluxes is universally

practiced. The fluxes are generally considered as materials that lower
the temperature of liquid formation, while mineralizers accelerate the
kinetics of reactions by modifying the solid and liquid state sintering.
Fluorides, alkali or calcium fluorosilicates, alkali sulfates, magnesia,
etc. often perform as mineralizers in clinker burning. The proportion of

‘02

97
Firing shrinkage (%)

92

87

82 1
2
77 3
4
5
6
72
1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600
Temperature (°C)

FIGURE 2.13 Volume shrinkage temperature relation for determining

burnability.
R aw mix proportioning, processing, and burnabilit y assessment 69

mineralizers in raw mixes is generally very small and their compatibil-

ity and quantity for addition are determined through laboratory experi-
ments before undertaking plant trials. The use of mineralizers results in
energy saving due to the following factors:
• Lowering of burning zone temperature;
• Increase in reaction rates including calcination;
• Lowering of exhaust gas temperature;
• Reduction in dust losses;
• Reduction in exit gas volume;
• Lowering of kiln-shell losses due to both lower burning zone
temperature, improved formation of coating, and increase in kiln
throughput;
• Improvement in clinker grinding due to betterment of clinker
granulometry as well as phase composition;
• Stability of kiln operation leading to minimum fluctuation in kiln
output levels;
• Increase in mill output due to the coarser grinding option, taking
advantage of improved reactivity of raw mixes.
However, the above gains may, to some extent, get diluted by lower
secondary air temperature in kiln systems. It is interesting to note that
in static firing the saving of heat input on account of bringing down
the material temperature by 100°C from about 1450°C does not exceed
35 kcal/kg of fired product. In pulverized fuel-fired rotary kilns, where
the mode of heat transfer is through combustion gases, the saving of heat
varies from system to system.

2.7 Summary

Limestone and aluminum silicate materials are the primary constituents

of a raw mix. Sometimes other corrective materials like bauxite, laterite,
and iron ore are used in small proportions. The stoichiometric require-
ments of the four major oxides, viz., CaO, Al2O3, Fe2O3, and SiO2, are
determined with the help of three modulus values known as the lime sat-
uration factor (LSF), silica modulus (SM), and alumina modulus (AM).
The four major clinker phases as well as the melt phase that is likely to
form in the kiln system can be computed with the help of Bogue equa-
tions, which are essentially empirical in nature.
Based on the oxide compositions of limestone and other raw materi-
als, raw mixes are calculated using the modulus values and Bogue equa-
tions. This process is known as the raw mix design. The raw mix design
becomes more and more complicated with increases in the number of
components required for the target composition. The proportions of raw
materials are calculated by setting up and solving simultaneous equa-
tions; to fix n parameters n + 1 raw materials of appropriate composition
are required. The calculations can be manually carried out by trail and
70 Cement Produc tion Technology

error or by step-wise computation. The approach can be faster and more

convenient by adopting simple computer programming.
Several unit operations, such as crushing, pre-blending, grinding, and
homogenizing are involved in the preparation of raw mixes and their
burning behavior is defined by such features as product fineness, top
particle size of the siliceous and carbonate phases, chemical composi-
tion including minor constituents, modulus values, degree of homogene-
ity, etc.
The practical ease of burning a raw mix is called its “burnability,”
which, in scientific connotation is different from “reactivity.” Burnability
of a given raw mix can be evaluated both theoretically and experimen-
tally, as elaborated in this chapter. There are two different experimental
procedures—one, to determine the unreacted free lime in a raw mix
after it has been fired in a laboratory furnace under given conditions;
and, two, by determining the firing shrinkage of the fired raw mix pellets.
Burning of a raw mix can be improved by using a mineralizer, which
is different from a fluxing oxide in having the capacity to accelerate the
phase-forming reactions at lower temperatures. The efficacy of mineral-
izers can be evaluated experimentally prior to their selection and use.

References

1. H . F. W. Tay l or , Cement Chemistry, Academic Press, London (1990).

2. L . O p o cz k y, L . Sa s, and F. D. Ta m a s, Preparation and quality
assurance of raw meals, in Modernization and Technology Upgradation
in Cement Plants (Eds S. N. Ghosh and Kamal Kumar), Akademia Press
International, New Delhi (1999).
3. A . K . C h at t e r j e e , Chemico-physico-mineralogical characteristics
of raw materials of Portland cement, in Advances in Cement Technology
(Ed. S. N. Ghosh), Pergamon Press Ltd., Oxford (1983).
4. R . M. H e r at h Ba n da a n d F. P.G l a s s e r , Role of iron and alumi-
num oxides as fluxes during the burning of Portland cement, Cement and
Concrete Research, Vol. 8 (1978).
5. N. H . C h r i s t e ns e n a n d V. Joh a ns e n, Role of liquid phase and
mineralisers, in Cement Production and Use (Ed. J. Skalny), Engineering
Foundation, New York, Vol. 8, No. 6 (1979).
6. M. A . S wayz e, System CaO – 5 CaO.3 Al2O3 – 2 CaO.SiO2 modified
by 5% MgO, American Journal of Science, 244, 70 (1946).
7. A . K . C h at t e r j e e, Materials preparation and raw milling, in
Innovations in Portland Cement Manufacturing, Portland Cement
Association, Skokie, Illinois, USA (2004).
8. Pennsylvania Crusher Corporation, The Handbook of Crushing, Bulletin
4050, USA (2000).
9. H . N. Ba n e r j e a , Technology of Portland Cement and Blended
Cements, ACC, Mumbai (1980).
10. K . E . P e r ay a n d J. Wa dde l , The Rotary Cement Kiln, Chemical
Publishing Co. Inc., New York (1972).
11. U. Lu dw ig a n d G. Ruc k e ns t e i n e r , Einflusse auf die Brennbarkeit
von Zementrohmehlen, Westdeutscher Verlag, Opladen (1973).
12. E . F u n da l , The burnability of cement raw mixes, World Cement
Technology, Vol. 42, July/August (1979).
R aw mix proportioning, processing, and burnabilit y assessment 71

13. G. R . G ou da , The cement raw materials, in Proceedings of All India

Seminar on Cement Manufacture, Vol. IV, New Delhi (1981).
14. R . Bl a i s e, N. Mus i k a s, a n d H . Ti e d r e z , Rev. Mater. Contr.
No. 674–675, 287 (1970).
15. V. I. Sh u bi n, Refractory Lining of Cement Rotary Kilns (in Russian),
Stroiizdat, Moscow (1975).
http://taylorandfrancis.com
Cha p t e r THREE

Fuels commonly in use

for clinker production

3.1 Preamble

A fuel is defined as any combustible substance containing carbon as the

main constituent that, on proper burning, produces heat that can be used
economically for domestic and industrial purposes and in generation of
power. Fuels are broadly classified into two types depending upon their
genesis and occurrence:
• Primary fuels: these are the naturally occurring fuels found freely
on the Earth’s crust. They are further classified as solid fuels such
as wood, peat, lignite, and coal; liquid fuels, viz., crude oil and
petroleum; and gaseous fuels such as natural gas.
• Secondary fuels: these are derived from the primary fuels through
industrial production. They can also be classified as solid, liquid,
and gaseous. Examples of solid secondary fuels include coke,
charcoal, petroleum coke, and so on. Gasoline, diesel, kerosene,
LPG, and similar products come under the category of secondary
liquid fuels, while coal gas, water gas, biogas, and similar prod-
ucts are known as secondary gaseous fuels.
Coal, oil, and natural gas are common primary fuels used globally for
clinker production. Of the secondary fuels, petroleum coke (abbreviated
as “petcoke”) is also widely used in the cement industry. Price and avail-
ability are determining factors in the choice of fuel. Due to economic
considerations, coal, lignite, and petcoke have become the most widely
used fuels in the industry. This chapter will essentially focus on these
fuels.

73
74 Cement Produc tion Technology

3.2 Characteristics of fuels

Before discussing the properties of specific fuels, it would be pertinent to

recall the broad characteristics that make a fuel good for use. The follow-
ing properties are important from the perspective of proper combustion:
• high calorific value
• low moisture content
• low content of noncombustible matter including ash
• moderate ignition temperature without causing problems of self-
ignition in storage on one side and easy combustion in air on the
other
• minimum pollution on combustion

Calorific value From the above points, it is evident that calorific value is the prime
of a fuel requirement of a fuel. It is defined as the amount of heat obtained by the
complete combustion of a unit mass of the fuel. The calorific value is
presented in two ways:
a. Gross calorific value (GCV): the total amount of heat generated
when a unit mass of fuel is completely burnt and the products of
combustion are condensed to 15°C or 288°K. When a hydrogen-
bearing fuel is burnt, the hydrogen present produces steam. On con-
densation, its latent heat also gets included in the measured heat.
b. Net calorific value (NCV): the net heat produced when one unit
mass of fuel is completely burnt and the products are allowed to
escape.
Thus, NCV is obtained by deducting the latent heat of condensation
of the water vapor produced from GCV. Since one part of hydrogen gives
nine parts of water and since the latent heat of steam is 587 cal/g of water
vapor produced,

NCV = GCV − 9 × (H/100) × 587 = GCV − 0.09 × H × 587 (3.1)

Calorific values are expressed in kilocalories per kilogram (kcal/kg)

for solid and liquid fuels and in kilocalories per cubic meter (kcal/m3) for
gaseous fuels. The calorific value of solid and liquid fuels is determined
with the help of a bomb calorimeter, following the standard procedure.
The calorific value of gaseous fuels is mostly calculated from their volu-
metric combustible constituents, based on their known individual calo-
rific values.

Ranks and Coal, as we all know, is the most important solid fuel, formed by the
properties of coal combined action of high temperature and high pressure on vegetable
matter over geologic periods of time. In the process, the vegetable mat-
ter, like wood, passes through various stages of coalification and the
solid fuels in different stages of formation are known as peat, lignite,
sub-bituminous coal, bituminous coal, and anthracite. During this
Fuels commonly in use for clinker produc tion 75

prolonged transformation process the proportion of hydrogen and oxy-

gen decreases while that of carbon increases. Since peat is the first stage
of coalification, it is mostly immature with high moisture and low car-
bon content and is not considered an economic fuel. The other categories
are in industrial use in varying quantities in different regions, depending
on their availability. The tentative composition and characteristics of dif-
ferent ranks of coal are compared in Table 3.1.
Lignite is not considered a good fuel, although it has better properties
than peat. Sub-bituminous and bituminous coal are easy to handle and
have good heating properties. They are the most widely used solid fuels
in the world and are used both for domestic and industrial purposes.
Anthracite is the highest-ranking coal and contains a maximum percent-
age of carbon and the lowest amount of volatile matter. It is regarded as a
special-purpose solid fuel suitable only for certain applications.
For evaluation purposes, coal is analyzed in two steps:
a. proximate analysis (H2O + volatiles + fixed C* + ash = 100%)
b. ultimate analysis (C + H + N + S + O* + ash = 100%)
(*Not normally determined, obtained by difference.)
There are standard analytical procedures for carrying out the above
analyses. The proximate analysis gives quick and valuable informa-
tion regarding commercial classification and suitability for a particular
industrial use, while the ultimate analysis gives an accurate elemental
composition of a coal sample. The calorific values are generally com-
puted from the composition as follows:

GCV = 80.8C + 22.45S + 339.4 H − 35.90 (3.2)

NCV = 80.8C + 22.45S + 287(H-O/8) − 6W (3.3)

where W is water content in percentage

gross − net = 5150 H (3.4)

where H* is total H2 including water

Table 3.1 Analysis of different ranks of coal

As received and free of mineral matter (%)

Gross calorific
Type H2O Volatiles Fixed C value (kcal/kg)

Lignite 45 25 30 4,000
Sub-bituminous 25 35 40 5,400
Bituminous
High Volatiles 5 45 50 7,200
Low Volatiles 5 20 75 8,500
Anthracite 3 5 92 8,000
76 Cement Produc tion Technology

As already explained, the calorific value depends upon the car-

bon content and, therefore, the greater the percentage of carbon, the
higher the quality of coal. Nitrogen has no calorific value as it is inert
in nature. The presence of sulfur is unwanted as it produces acid,
which corrodes the equipment and also causes atmospheric pollution.
Hydrogen is present in combination with oxygen as water and lowers the
calorific value of the fuel. Ash, being a noncombustible matter, reduces
the calorific value of coal. It also causes hindrance in the flow of heat.
It forms cinders in boilers and may cause problems of disposal. The
presence of excess volatile matter results in incomplete combustion.
Coal with high volatile matter gives rise to long flames and relatively
low heating values. Finally, the presence of moisture in coal samples
reduces its calorific value and a considerable amount of heat is wasted
in evaporating the moisture during combustion. Hence, a high percent-
age of moisture is undesirable.
The ash content in bituminous coal of good quality is normally in
the range of 5–15% of air-dried weight, but the ash composition may
vary widely according to the mineral contamination in the coal bed.
However, in some parts of the world, such as India, the ash content in
coal may be as high as 45–50%. The sulfur content in coal varies from
0.2–7% and comprises mainly organic sulfur and pyrites with traces of
sulfate. Pyritic sulfur can to some extent be removed by standard wash-
ing techniques, while other forms of sulfur may have to be dealt with in
the process of application.
In selecting coal there has to be specific attention to properties like
calorific value, surface moisture, inherent moisture, and ash content. In
addition, it is important to know the composition of ash and its fusion
temperature. In clinker production, the composition and fusion tempera-
ture of ash are relevant as the ash available forms a part of the total reac-
tions taking place inside the kiln, modifying the clinker composition to
some extent.
It may be relevant to mention here that there is another parameter of
coal combustion, called “calorific intensity,” which may sometimes be
important for evaluating the coal combustion process. It is defined as
the maximum temperature reached when coal is completely burnt in the
theoretical amount of air. It depends upon: (i) quantity, (ii) nature, and
(iii) specific heat of the gaseous products of coal combustion. In most
cases, the heat liberated due to combustion preheats the air and thus
affects the calorific intensity. Calorific intensity, reflecting the flame
temperature, can be calculated theoretically as follows

flame temperature = (heat of combustion + sensible heat of air )

/Σ(combustion products × specific heat) (3.5)

The composition of coal varies widely and hence it is important to

analyze it and interpret the results for classification, economic justifica-
tion, and proper industrial application.
 Fuels commonly in use for clinker produc tion 77

Another property of coal and other solid fuels is their grinding behav-
ior, which is determined by an apparatus called a Hardgrove grindability
tester, which is a small ball bearing mill used to grind 50 g of material.
The feed size of the material is kept in the range of 590–119 μm and the
product size after 60 revolutions of the mill is measured by the residue
on a 74-μm sieve. The Hardgrove grindability index (HGI) is calculated
as (13 + 0.93 × quantity of material (g) passing through the sieve). The
lower the index, the harder it is to grind the material. For coal, the index
may vary widely, from 40 to 70.

Types and Although less in use today in the firing of cement kilns, liquid fuels cover
properties of a wide range and are important in many industrial sectors. Examples of
liquid fuels liquid fuels include petroleum, petroleum products, tar, alcohols, and
colloidal fuels. Since petroleum and its derivatives are used in some
countries for burning clinker, the salient features of these fuels are dis-
cussed below.
Petroleum, as we all now, occurs at various depths below the surface
of the Earth and is often associated with large quantities of natural gas
and some water. When water and natural gas are removed, the remain-
ing liquid is called crude oil. The approximate composition of petroleum
is: carbon 79–87%, hydrogen 11–15%, oxygen 0.1–0.9%, nitrogen 0.4–
0.9%, and sulfur 0.1–3.5%. Crude oil, after the removal of dirt, water,
sulfur, and other impurities, is subjected to a process of fractional distil-
lation. This process breaks the crude oil into various fractions with dif-
ferent boiling points. Each part of the process attempts to impart specific
properties in them. The whole process is better known as the refining of
petroleum. The three most important liquid fuels obtained from crude
oil are:

• petrol, consisting of a mixture of hydrocarbons ranging from C5

to C9, having calorific value of about 11,250 kcal/kg. The approxi-
mate overall elemental composition is 84% C and 15% H, with
N + S + O making up less than 1%
• kerosene oil, consisting of hydrocarbons ranging from C11 to C16,
having calorific value of about 11,100 kcal/kg. The overall elemen-
tal composition is close to that of petrol
• diesel oil, consisting of hydrocarbons ranging from C10 to C18,
having calorific value of about 11,000 kcal/kg

Of the above three derivatives, diesel oil, also known as fuel oil, is
used for combustion purposes. As per ASTM D 396, fuel oil is classified
into six types on the basis of its properties, as shown in Table 3.2.
“Flash point” is an important property of a fuel oil parameter as it
defines ignition conditions and storage requirements. It refers to the low-
est temperature at which a fuel oil can start a fire, if it is exposed to a
source of ignition, due to its volatility. Another parameter of significance
is viscosity, which is a measure of internal resistance to flow and is depen-
dent on temperature. Viscosity decreases with an increase in tempera-
ture. For liquid fuels, the minimum and maximum values of viscosity at
78 Cement Produc tion Technology

Table 3.2 Fuel oil characteristics

Properties Composition

Flash Specific API

Type point (°C) gravity gravity* C H N S O

#1 38 0.850 41.5 86.4 13.6 0.003 0.09 0.01

#2 38 0.876 33.0 87.3 12.6 0.006 0.22 0.04
#4 55 23.2 86.5 11.6 0.24 1.35 0.27
#5 light 55
#5 heavy 55
#6 low-S 60 0.986 12.6 87.3 10.5 0.28 0.84 0.64
#6 high-S 60 15.5 84.7 11.0 0.18 3.97 0.38

*API gravity = (141.5/specific gravity) − 131.5.

Table 3.3 Viscosity of fuel oils

Viscosity (mm2/s, at 40°C) Viscosity (mm2/s, at 100°C)

Type Min Max Min Max

#1 1.3 1.4 – –
#2 1.9 3.4 – –
#4 5.5 24.0 – –
#6 – – 15 50

40°C are generally specified. For heavier and high-sulfur oil, the viscosity
values at 100°C become important. Some illustrative values are given in
Table 3.3 (1).
The third important parameter of any fuel oil is its pour point, defined
as the lowest temperature at which it will pour or flow when cooled
under prescribed conditions. It is an indication of the lowest temperature
at which a fuel oil can be readily pumped. A few other parameters, such
as ash, sediment, water, and sulfur content, are also specified for the sup-
plies, as shown in Table 3.4 (2).
Usually, the heavier the fuel oil, the lower the price when compared
on the basis of a unit of energy. Inclusive of preheating and other pre-
paratory costs, fuel oil #6 appears more economical and, hence, has
become the preferred fuel for the cement industry (1). However, sulfur
content in this fuel oil may be as high as 5%. Hence, the refining pro-
cess must address the emission of SO2. Fuel oil #6 also has higher ash
content—up to 0.08%—but this is lower than ash generated in coal-fired
kilns and, hence, may not be a factor of concern. Nevertheless, economics-
permitting, operating plants would always prefer a cleaner, easily pour-
able, and readily pumpable fuel oil.
 Fuels commonly in use for clinker produc tion 79

Table 3.4 Comparison of the typical specifications of fuel oils in India

Low sulfur
heavy stock Light diesel
Properties Furnace oil (LSHS) oil (LDO)

Density (g/cm3 at 15°C) 0.89–0.93 0.88–0.98 0.85–0.87

Flash point (°C) 66 93 66
Pour point (°C) 20 72 18
GCV (kcal/kg) 10,500 10,600 10,700
Sediment (wt %), max 0.25 0.25 0.10
Sulfur (wt %) max 4.0 0.5 1.8
Water (vol %), max 1.0 1.0 0.15
Ash (wt %), max 0.1 0.1 0.02

Properties Natural gas is the primary gaseous fuel obtained from underground
of natural gas strata either as such or associated with crude oil. When it occurs along
and synthetically with petroleum in oil wells, it is called “wet gas” and contains appre-
produced ciable amounts of propane, butane, and other liquid hydrocarbons like
gaseous fuels pentanes, hexanes, etc. The wet gas is suitably treated to remove these
hydrocarbons, which are used as LPG. When the gas is associated with
crude oil, it is called “dry gas” and consists entirely of methane and
ethane along with small amounts of impurities such as CO2, CO, H2S,
N2, and inert gases. The approximate composition of natural gas is
methane (CH4) (70–90%), ethane (C2H6) (5–10%), and hydrogen (H2)
(3%). Besides these, CO and CO2 occur in small amounts. The calorific
value varies from 12,000 to 14,000 kcal/m3. Natural gas is used both as
domestic and industrial fuel, and its calorific value may be theoretically
calculated from its composition as follows:

gross calorific value ( kcal/m 3 ) = 90.3CH 4 + 159.2C2 H 6 + 229C3H8

+ 301.9C4 H10 + 373.8C5H12 + 57.6H 2S
(3.6)

Synthetic gaseous fuels include producer gas, water gas, coal gas, and
oil gas. Producer gas is prepared by passing a mixture of air and steam
through red-hot coal or coke maintained at about 1100°C in a special
reactor called a “gas producer.” A somewhat different manufacturing
process is adopted for water gas. Air is passed through the coke bed
at about 1000°C; the outgoing gases CO2 and N2 are used to preheat
the incoming air and steam, which is blown through the red-hot coke
to produce CO and H2. Coal gas is obtained by heating good-quality
coal in the absence of air to a high temperature at a pressure somewhat
higher than the atmospheric pressure; this is done by feeding coal into
a large vertical silica retort heated externally to about 1350°C. Oil gas