DELMAR PUBLISHERS INC.

A very special thanks to my wife, Linda, for her patience and time spent
helping to produce this text. It is to her and my beautiful daughters that /
dedicate this book.
Most of all, / thank God for the opportunities He has given me.

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COPYRIGHT © 1984
BY DELMAR PUBLISHERS INC.

All rights reserved. No part of this work covered by the copyright hereon
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Printed in the United States of America

Published simultaneously in Canada
by Nelson Canada,
A division of International Thomson Limited

10 9 8 7 6 5 4

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Luggen, William W., 1947-

Fundamentals of numerical control.

Includes index.
1. Machine-tools — Numerical control. I. Title.
TJ1189.L84 1983 621.9'023 83-71970
ISBN 0-8273-2162-7
CONTENTS

Preface . viii
Acknowledgments. x
Chapter 1 NUMERICAL CONTROL - HISTORY AND
EVOLUTION. 1
General History of Numerical Control
Types of Machines Controlled by N/C
Accuracy, Repeatability, and Reliability
Chapter 2 WHAT IS NUMERICAL CONTROL
PROGRAMMING?. 9
Importance of Numerical Control
Numerical Control - What It Consists Of
Advantages and Disadvantages of N/C
Planning for the Use of N/C
N/C Justification
Chapter 3 HOW NUMERICAL CONTROLS OPERATE. 21
What a Machinist Needs to Know
What a Programmer Needs to Know
What Makes a Good N/C Programmer
How N/C Collects Information
Machine Registers and Buffer Storage
Axis Relationships — Readout
Types of Feedback Systems
Types of Numerical Control Systems
Chapter 4 RECTANGULAR COORDINATES - ABSOLUTE
AND INCREMENTAL. 34
Cartesian Coordinate System
Two-Axis Tape Control
Z Axis Control
Four- and Five-Axis Tape Control
Incremental Systems
Absolute Systems
Zero Shift Systems
v
VI • CONTENTS

Chapter 5 TAPE CODING, SPECIFICATIONS, AND

FORMAT . 44
Tape Specifications and Standards
Tape Materials
Tape Coding
Tape Preparation Equipment
Types of Tape Format
N/C Tells a Story
Chapter 6 SIMPLE PART PROGRAMMING -
CONVENTIONS AND EXAMPLES. 59
Functions Controlled by N/C
Simple Programming Examples
Chapter 7 OTHER FUNCTIONS CONTROLLED BY N/C .... 80
Linear Interpolation
Circular Interpolation
Programmable Z Depth
Tool Length Compensation
R Work Plane
Random and Sequential Tooling
Adaptive Control
Cutter Diameter Compensation
Other Functions
Chapter 8 MODERN N/C TURNING CENTERS AND
PROGRAMMING. 97
N/C Lathe Axes
OD and ID Operations
Feed Rates
Spindle Speeds
Format Information
Operations Performed
System Subroutines
Example Programs
Chapter 9 N/C MACHINING CENTERS AND
PROGRAMMING. 131
Types of Tool Changers
Tool Storage Capacities
Tool Length Storage/Compensation
Work Tables
Format Information
Operations Performed
Example Programs
Chapter 10 NUMERICAL CONTROL PROGRAMMING
WITH COMPUTERS. 167
Characteristics of Computers
N/C and Computers
Computer Languages Available for N/C
 CONTENTS • VII

Chapter 10 (continued)
APT General Processor
Postprocessors
Writing an APT Program
Hardware Versus Software
CNC Versus DNC
Chapter 11 TOOLING FOR NUMERICAL CONTROL
MACHINES. 191
Tooling Considerations
Cutting Tools Used on N/C Equipment
Fixturing
Some Sound Tooling Practices
THE FUTURE OF NUMERICAL CONTROL 211
Chapter 12
Beyond the Processor Languages
Computer Aided Design
Computer Aided Manufacturing
Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP)
Manufacturing Systems
Looking Ahead
EIA and AIA National Codes .. 222
Appendix A 226
Appendix B General Safety Rules for N/C Machines.
Useful Formulas and Tables. 228
Appendix C 234
Appendix D Available N/C Motion Pictures.
237
Glossary . . 269
Index.
PREFACE

Since numerically controlled machine tools first began making their

way into industry around 1957, they have increased considerably in control
and machine tool capabilities. Related technological skills have increased as
well. As we look into the future of manufacturing, it is apparent that it
holds many opportunities for individuals who possess the process-type skills
of manufacturing in general and, more specifically, as applied to numerical
control and its manufacturing applications.
As manager of N/C programming, tool design, and manufacturing engi¬
neering systems for Cincinnati Milacron Inc. and teacher of N/C programming,
William W. Luggen is aware of the needs of students in this field. The author's
purpose in writing this textbook is to provide students with a fundamental yet
detailed knowledge of numerical control from a conceptual point of view.
Every aspect of this text, from content to format, was designed with
this one goal in mind — to lead students to a more thorough understanding
of the subject matter as easily as possible. Special features are purposely
incorporated into the text to help students attain this goal.
• Subjective review questions to promote original thinking, rather than
mere memorization.
• An appendix of useful formulas and tables to use while studying the
chapters to which they pertain.
• A resource list of films to supplement chapter study.
• Detailed glossary for definition of technical and key terms used in the
text.
• Objective questions in the Instructor's Guide with answers for testing
purposes.
• Suggested activities in the Instructor's Guide to aid in the students'
understanding of chapter material.
• Appendix of preparatory functions, miscellaneous functions, and other
address characters for quick and easy reference.
• List of safety rules to follow when using N/C machines.
As inflation continues to spiral, taking its toll on incomes and industrial
and educational budgets, it has become virtually impossible for schools to
afford modern numerically controlled machine tools. In addition, inflation
 PREFACE • IX

has outpriced schools' capabilities to provide adequate tooling and mainte¬

nance procedures. Students desiring a knowledge of numerical control
should not be denied the opportunity to learn its principles and concepts
simply because the sophisticated N/C machines are unaffordable.
The first three chapters provide the student with a history of numerical
control its real purpose, and how it basically works. Also included are con¬
cepts of basic coding systems, axis notation, tapes, and tape preparation
equipment. These chapters serve as a base for the rest of the text
Subsequent chapters emphasize concepts and fundamentals, first in a
general format and then in more specific formats of turning and machining
centers.
The coverage of numerical control includes a discussion of computer
applications to numerical control, specifically in the areas of APT program¬
ming Tooling is discussed as well, primarily because it is the most under¬
rated aspect of numerical control programming. Specific details of setup and
fixtures have been purposely omitted; they are a study in themselves and will
invariably differ from one manufacturer to another. Extensive caicu^ations
have not been included so as to concentrate more thoroughly on N/C pro¬
gramming principles and concepts.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author extends his sincere appreciation to Cincinnati Milacron Inc.

for some of the essential materials used throughout this text and also for
providing the atmosphere and opportunities to develop his talents. Special
thanks also are expressed to Jack Cahall for providing the support needed to
undertake and complete this project.
The author and publisher recognize with appreciation the technical assistance
and photographs which the following companies provided:
Bridgeport Machines
Cincinnati Milacron Inc.
Cleveland Twist Drill
DoAII Company
Industrial Controls Division, Bendix Corporation
Kearney & Trecker Corporation
Kennametal, Inc.
Lodge & Shipley Company
Monarch Machine Tool Company
Morse Cutting Tools Division, Gulf & Western Manufacturing Company
Portage Machine Company
Sharpaloy Division, Precision Industries, Inc., Centerdale, R.l.
The Valeron Corporation
Turning Machine Division, The Warner & Swasey Co., subsidiary of
Bendix Corporation
Wiedemann Division, The Warner & Swasey Co., subsidiary of Bendix
Corporation
For their critical comments and recommendations, the author is indebted to
the following reviewers:
Thomas F. Ury Clifford Oliver
N/C Instructor Engineering and Technology Department
Pikes Peak Community Chabot College
College Hayward, California
Colorado Springs, Colorado
Robert Swan
Gary A. Volk Chairman, Machine Shop Department
Assistant Professor, N/C Asheville-Buncombe Technical College
Illinois Central College Asheville, North Carolina
East Peoria, Illinois

x
CHAPTER 1
Numerical Control —
History and Evolution

OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:
. • Discuss the general history of numerical control.
• Understand the basic types of work performed on
numerically controlled machines.
• Identify some basic types of numerically controlled
machines.
• Discuss the general terms of accuracy, repeatability,
and reliability as applied to N/C equipment.

GENERAL HISTORY OF NUMERICAL CONTROL

Perhaps the first real numerical control (N/C) machine was thejl_725_
knitting machine, which was controlled by sheets of punched cardboard.
'’Then, around 1863, the player piano was introduced. The knitting machine
and the player piano are considered the true forerunners of modern numeri¬
cal control. Actually, numerical control as we know it began in 1947. John
Parsons of the Parsons Corporation, based in Traverse City, Michigan, began
experimenting with the idea of generating thru-axis curve data and using that
data to control machine tool motions. Numerical control originated as
Parsons discovered a way of coupling computer equipment with a jig borer.
In 1949, there was a demand for increased productivity for the U.S. Air
Materiel Command as the parts for its airplanes and missiles became more
complex. In addition, the designs were constantly being changed and re¬
vised. A contract was granted to the Parsons Corporation to search for a
speedy production method. In 1951, the Massachusetts Institute of Tech¬
nology (MIT) assumed the effort._inJ 952 MIT successfully demonstrated a
model of the N/C machine of todayTThe machine was a vertical spindle
Cincinnati Hydrotel with a lab-constructed control unit. The machine suc¬
cessfully made parts with simultaneous thru-axis cutting tool movements.
MIT actually coined the term numerical control.
In 1955 at the national machine tool show, commercial models of nu¬
merically controlled machines were displayed, ready for customer acceptance.
Those shown were different contour-milling machines, which cost several
hundred thousands of dollars. Some machines required trained and skilled
mathematicians and computers to produce tapes. By 1957, numerically
2 • CHAPTER 1

controlled machines were accepted by industry; several had been installed

and were in use in some production applications.
Numerical control rapidly evolved in the control industry as well as the
machine tool industry. At first, miniature electronic tubes were developed, and
controls were big and bulky. Then came solid-state circuitry and eventually
modular, or integrated, circuits. The size of the control units began todecrease.
Also, controls became more reliable and less expensive. Experimental and
developmental work continues on both machine tool and control unit
capacity and design.

FIGURE 1-1
Early model of an N/C machine (Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron Inc.)
 NUMERICAL CONTROL - HISTORY AND EVOLUTION • 3

TYPES OF MACHINES CONTROLLED BY N/C

At present, there are many types of N/C machines producing parts in
manufacturing plants. They range from the earlier models of N/C machine
tools, figure 1-1, to the advanced N/C profilers of today, figure 1-2. The
sizes, capabilities, and options vary with each N/C machine. The one com¬
mon factor is that they are N/C and can be programmed.
The most common types of N/C machines currently in use are of the
chip-making variety such as N/C turning and machining centers, figures 1-3
and 1-4. Other types of numerical control machines include drafting machines,
hole-punching machines, tube benders, inspection machines, riveting machines,

FIGURE 1-2
An advanced N/C profiler (Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron Inc.)
 4 • CHAPTER 1

-
FIGURE 1-3
A modern IM/C
turning center
(Courtesy of
Monarch Machine
Tool Company)

FIGURE 1-4
A typical N/C
machining center
(Courtesy of
Kearney & Trecker
Corporation)
 NUMERICAL CONTROL - HISTORY AND EVOLUTION • 5

FIGURE 1-5
An N/C hole-punching machine (Courtesy of Wiedemann Division, The Warner & Swasey Co., subsid¬
iary of Bendix Corporation)

welding machines, and flame cutters. Some examples are seen in figures 1-5
and 1-6.
Fortunately, a lot of the work needed to program the tremendous vari¬
ety of modern machines and controls has been simplified, much to the credit
of the manufacturers involved. The perforated or punched tape has become
the major input medium. It is still considered an important N/C standard
even though direct computer operation is the latest development, figure
1-7. Regardless of the type of machine N/C is controlling, the basic method
of calling for machine action is the same for most types of N/C machines.
6 • CHAPTER 1

FIGURE 1-6
An N/C laser contour cutting system (Courtesy of Wiedemann Division, The Warner & Swasey Co.,
subsidiary of Bendix Corporation

ACCURACY, REPEATABILITY, AND RELIABILITY

Accuracy is defined as being free from error. The machinist may be
able to produce a part that is free from error. Many machinists can work to
a tolerance of .001 inch on an old, worn machine if they are very familiar
with that machine. A tremendous amount of experience and time is needed
to develop this degree of accuracy. Some N/C machines today can produce
accurate workpieces with tolerances of ±.0002 inch or even ±.0001 inch.
The operator, however, may not need to be familiar with the individual ma¬
chine since the accuracy is built into the control and machine tool. These
degrees of accuracy are not uncommon; some N/C machines can be purchased
with systems capable of controlling much closer tolerances.
There are many factors which can affect a machine's accuracy. First,
the foundation must be solid and conform to the manufacturer's specifica¬
tions. Second, the lubrication schedule and all proper maintenance proce¬
dures must be strictly adhered to at all times. In addition, cutting loads and
forces, temperature of the environment, material to be machined, types of
 NUMERICAL CONTROL - HISTORY AND EVOLUTION • 7

FIGURE 1-7
CNC mill (Courtesy of Bridgeport Machines)

cutting tools, and toolholders can greatly affect the accuracy of an N/C
machine.
Repeatability is the comparison between the same dimensions of each
pieceTnachined. The repeatability of N/C is roughly about one-half of the
actual positioning tolerance. The greater the accuracy and repeatability of__
the machine, the higher the cost. Repeatability is similar to accuracy in that
the machine'must receive proper care. The other factors affecting accuracy
will also affect repeatability. Another element which should be pointed out
is the care the operator must exercise in locating the parts in fixtures, vises,
or whatever means are used to locate and clamp the workpiece. N/C operators
should be aware that parts must be accurately located in the work-holding
device, against positive stops. When the part is clamped, it is important to
make sure it has not moved or been distorted out of position due to clamp¬
ing forces. These simple checks ensure greater repeatability and quality of
parts produced.
Reliability is another important goal of modern N/C manufacturers and
users. The skilled hands of a good machinist are difficult to find; thus, the
reliability that was previously built into the hands of the machinist must
now be built into the N/C machine. Customers are demanding greater
accuracy and reliability of the products. In order to meet and surpass this
challenge, new types of slides, machine tables, bearings, and lead screws, are
constantly being tried and tested.
The quality of a machine's parts and the tolerances with which they are
manufactured and assembled are also important to machine reliability. Ma¬
chine tool users, faced with rising costs, decreasing productivity, and increasing
competition, must have a product they can depend on to produce accurate
8 • CHAPTER 1

parts. The machine tools should have few maintenance or downtime prob¬
lems. For this reason, reliability will continue to be of great importance to
machine tool builders in future years.

REVIEW QUESTION’S
1.
John Parsons is often considered the father of N/C. What education¬
al institution helped in the refinements of N/C?
2. What conditions in the United States added to the development of
M/C?
3. Why is it necessary to build the skill level into N/C machines?
4. Briefly explain the evolution of the N/C industry.
5. Name different types of N/C machines. Which types are the most
^--^^^^ammon today?
qoT -\c£P t J3. To what degrees of accuracy are N/C machines able to produce?
Define repeatability. What is considered the general rule of thumb
_■* for determining the repeatability tolerances of an N/C machine?
8. What is the difference between accuracy and repeatability?
.
CHAPTERS
What Is Numerical
Control Programming?

OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:
• Discuss the importance of numerical control to
manufacturing and productivity in the United States.
• Define numerical control.
• Explain the advantages and disadvantages of numeri¬
cal control.
• Understand the fundamental steps of planning for the
use of N/C.
• Describe general considerations and factors involved
in N/C justification.

IMPORTANCE OF NUMERICAL CONTROL

In the early 1940s, manufacturing in this country was heading in one
direction — mass production. The economy was demanding a large volume
of goods at competitive prices. Automation was the key to satisfying the
demands of the market. However, automatic machines were expensive, and
large lot sizes were required for these machines to be justifiable. At that
time, mass production was aimed at the median of consumer taste. This
resulted in mass mediocrity and, consequently, consumer dissatisfaction.
In the 1960s, the market, coupled with numerical control and other
new production technologies, turned around completely. People began
demanding a variety of products from which to choose. This required more
versatile production equipment and smaller production runs. Manufacturers
were concerned because universal machines were now needed where highly
specialized machines were previously used. These conditions placed a great
deal of responsibility on numerical control technology and the promise it
held for maximizing profits and increasing productivity.
So where does that leave us as to the importance of numerical control?
Numerical control is more important now than ever. In manufacturing
output, Japan and most of Europe have made monumental strides in recent
years. As a result, they are gaining on U.S. productivity levels. In certain
areas, foreign competitors have surpassed U.S. production levels.
10 • CHAPTER 2

The real importance of numerical control lies in the effects it has pro¬
duced in this country. N/C machines are faster, more accurate, and more
versatile where complex shapes are to be machined and where otherwise
manual operations would be required.
Numerical control has risen in popularity through its ability to manufac¬
ture products of consistent quality more economically than alternative meth¬
ods. Nevertheless, it is a popular misconception that numerical control is justi¬
fiable only for large-quantity production; just the opposite is true. An actual
comparison of numerical control to standard machining methods indicates that
the break-even point comes earlier with N/C production than with conven¬
tional production.
What exactly is numerical control, and what does it mean? Basically, it
is control of machine tools by numbers. Numerical control is a system in
which programmed numerical values are directly inserted, stored on some
form of input medium, and automatically read and decoded to cause a corre¬
sponding movement in the machine which it is controlling.

NUMERICAL CONTROL — WHAT IT CONSISTS OF

Since numerical control is the control of machines by numbers, what
numbers are used? How are they presented? These are only a few of the
questions that are basic to an understanding of numerical control. These
questions and many others will be answered in this text in the sequence
necessary to lead to a complete understanding of numerical control.
Two important points should be made about N/C. First, the actual N/C
machine tool can do nothing more than it was capable of doing before a control
unit was joined to it. There are no new metal removing principles involved. N/C
machines position and drive the cutting tools,butthesamemillingcutters,drills,
taps, and other tools still perform the cutting operations. Cutting speeds, feeds,
and tooling principles must still be adhered to. Given this knowledge, what is
the real advantage of numerical control? Primarily, the idle time or time to
move into position for new cuts is limited only by the machine's capacity to re¬
spond. Because the machine rece'w/escommands from the machine control unit
(MCU), it responds without hesitation. The actual utilization rate or chip mak¬
ing rate is therefore much higher than on a manually operated machine. The
second point is that numerical control machines can initiate nothing on their
own. The machine accepts and responds to commands from the control unit.
Even the control unit cannot think, judge, or reason. Without some input me¬
dium, e.g., punched tape or direct computer link, the machine and control unit
will do nothing. The N/C machine will perform only when the N/C tape is pre¬
pared and loaded and cycle start is initiated.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF N/C

To begin a discussion of the advantages ofjtumerical control, one must
first realize that the average part spends only 5% of its manufacturing time
 WHAT IS NUMERICAL CONTROL PROGRAMMING? • 11

on a machine in the shop. 0nly_1 1/2% of the time on a machine is spent

actually cutting metal, as shown in figure 2-1. N/C actually works to reduce
the nonchip making time. With N/C performing such manual functions as
selecting spindle speeds, feed rates, coolant control, and automatic fixture
indexing, it has become generally accepted that N/C machines are the most ef¬
fective manufacturing developments for reducing the unit cost of production.
As foreign competitors continue to capture a larger share of the U.S.
manufacturing market, management and labor become greatly affected by
numerical control and its manufacturing systems. Some basic advantages of
N/C have been mentioned already. However, a better understanding will
come from the following explanations.
There are four basic phases that occur in most manufacturing. The first
phase is engineering, or the determination of the product's size, shape, tol¬
erances, and material. The second phase is process planning, which includes
the decisions made concerning the selection of the manufacturing system
from order of operations to inspection standards. The third phase \seconomic
planning, which includes determining economic lot sizes, raw materials, and
inventory analysis. The fourth is the production phase, including training of
machine operators, machine setup, and actual machine operations.
In conventional manufacturing, the production phase was frequently
the only phase considered when judging the advantages of new developments
in metalworking. All phases must be considered when judging N/C machines.
N/C tends to reduce the importance of the production phase in relation to
the others. When skillfully employed, N/C provides cost savings throughout
the entire manufacturing process.
Before numerical control capability existed engineers were severely lim¬
ited in the designing of shapes using conventional machining. N/C makes it

An Average Part's
Time In The Shop

An Average Part's
Time On A Machine

FIGURE 2-1
Breakdown of the time spent by an average part in the shop
12 • CHAPTER 2

possible to produce even the most complex shapes without extremely high
costs. Another advantage of N/C is the ability to make changes or improve¬
ments with a minimum of delay and expense. With conventional machines, it is
often economically undesirable to make changes after the tooling is prepared.
In addition, costs associated with conventional machines increase as tolerances
become tighter. This factor has caused engineering problems in trying to
create parts with tolerances as loose as possible and still capable of function¬
ing properly. Wjth N/C, tolerances are somewhat independent of costs. The
machine always produces parts to maximize accuracy without special treat¬
ment. (This is true if the operator locates parts properly, and so on.)
As discussed in Chapter 1, N/C machines provide good positional accu¬
racy and repeatability. Complex jigs and fixtures are not required in all
cases. For most operations, the simplest form of clamping devices is ade¬
quate. In addition to the reduction of complex fixtures, it is possible to re¬
duce the use of expensive tooling. This factor greatly reduces the lead time
required to get a new job into production.
Time study, in the conventional sense, is eliminated since the program¬
mer now dictates how the part will be produced and how long it will take.
After the program is established, there can be no variations from part to part
and no deviation from the programmed time.
A high degree of quality is inherent in the N/C process because of its
accuracy, repeatability, and freedom from operator-introduced variations.
In-process quality inspection is seldom required after an inspection of the
first part produced from a new tape, as a check on the programming func¬
tion. A coordinate measuring machine, figure 2-2, is used to check position¬
al accuracy.
One of the basic functions of economic planning, as previously suggested,
is the determination of economic lot size. With conventional machining
methods, setup costs are high and cannot be calculated with any degree of
accuracy. Therefore, it is necessary to make a large number of parts for each
setup if the unit part cost is to be minimized. With numerically controlled
machines, the high process predictability ensures accurate cost determina¬
tions, and the simplified, low-cost setups enable parts to be run in small
quantities economically.
In addition, since the programmer selects the methods and the sequence
of operations, as well as operating feeds and speeds, cutting conditions are
under the complete control of manufacturing supervision. With N/C, actual
physical manipulation of the machine by the operator is greatly reduced
since feeds and speeds are, in most cases, automatically selected.
Some other advantages of numerical control are as follows:
• reduced scrap._Errors due to operator fatigue, interruptions, and other
factors are less likely to occur on N/C machines.
• improved production planning. N/C machines can often perform, at
one setting, work that would normally require several conventional
machines.
 WHAT IS NUMERICAL CONTROL PROGRAMMING? • 13

FIGURE 2-2
A coordinate measuring machine (Courtesy of Portage Machine Company)

• reduced space requirements. Since fewer jigs and fixtures are used, the
actual storage requirements of these expensive tools are reduced.
• simplified inspection. Once the first piece has passed inspection, mini¬
mal inspection is required on subsequent parts.
• lower tooling costs. There is less need for complex jigs and fixtures.
• reduced lead time. This is a result of lower tooling costs.
• complex machining operations are more easily accomplished. This is
due to advanced machine control and programming capabilities.
There are, however, some factors relating to numerical control which
some individuals might call disadvantages or inhibitors to using numerically
controlled equipment. Some of these disadvantages are worth mentioning,
but a detailed analysis will, in most cases, reveal that the advantages of
numerical control outweigh the disadvantages.
First, tools on N/C machines will not cut metal any faster than tools on
conventional machines. N/C machines merely position and drive the cutting
tools. Optimized feeds and speeds can be run on either conventional or N/C
machines.
14 • CHAPTER 2

N/C does not eliminate the need for expensive tools. Some jobs require
special and expensive fixtures and cutting tools. The most significant factor
is the greater initial cost of the N/C machine, compared to that of a conven¬
tional machine. Machines and tooling are costly today, and their purchase
requires extensive justification.
Another factor which must be considered is that, contrary to popular
belief, N/C will not totally eliminate errors^ Operators can still push the
wrong buttons, make incorrect aligrirTTeTTfsTand fail to locate parts properly
in a fixture. Some of these types of errors can be minimized by careful and
effective training. However, some errors will always be likely to occur; they
will never be totally eliminated.
The proper selection and training of programmers and maintenance
personnel is required. The support personnel are essential to the success of
any N/C installation, and must be given careful and adequate consideration.
These items may not be considered disadvantages of N/C as much as
inhibitors to purchase. Undoubtedly, many smaller companies have decided
not to purchase N/C equipment after weighing all costs and requirements
involved. Like any advanced technological equipment, N/C should be used
only where it will produce the work better, faster, and more accurately than
conventional methods. Many shops, after reluctantly purchasing their first
piece of N/C equipment, have found the actual savings and advantages to be
much greater than originally planned.

PLANNING FOR THE USE OF N/C

What are the actual steps a potential N/C user takes prior to purchasing
N/C equipment? There are ten factors which should be considered before
using numerically controlled equipment. Depending upon the requirements
of the facility, equipment to be purchased, and type of work to be produced,
additional consideration may be necessary.

BASIC KNOWLEDGE OF HOW N/C WORKS

For any prospective user, there is no substitute for firsthand informa¬
tion concerning N/C machine and control unit operations and capabilities.
One of the best ways in which potential N/C users can obtain this information
is by attending N/C training programs and demonstrations offered by machine
tool manufacturers and suppliers.

CAPITAL INVESTMENT REQUIREMENTS

As previously discussed, N/C machines require a substantial initial
investment in comparison to standard machines. In numerical control, as
applied to basic machine tools, the basic machine must be designed with a
more rigid frame and heavier lead screws, bearings, and other actuating
mechanisms. These allow the machine tool to achieve the acceleration
 WHAT IS NUMERICAL CONTROL PROGRAMMING? • 15

speeds required for efficient positioning times. Added to the initial cost of the
machine are tape preparation and data processing expenditures, as well as other
costs necessary to maintain an N/C environment. The net capital expenditure
may be in the range of $100,000 to $250,000 for an N/C lathe or machining
center to more than $2,000,000 to $3,000,000 for highly sophisticated five-
axis profilers. A careful survey will reveal that despite these high initial costs, a
properly operated N/C installation will pay for itself in a remarkably short
period of time.

PERSONNEL AND TRAINING

One of the most important points to keep in mind when considering the
purchase of N/C machinery is that, in order to get the maximum return from
the capital invested, good cooperation and communication must be maintained
among shop, programming, and engineering personnel. N/C opens up great op¬
portunities for the engineer and designer to use design techniques that were im¬
possible when only conventional manufacturing methods were available.
When selecting personnel for operator, programmer, and maintenance
positions, each company should survey its current employees for essential skills
that these high-technology jobs require. It may be necessary for a company to
hire outside its establishment rather than train existing personnel in order to
obtain the required skills. Selecting qualified and skilled personnel is critical
to the success of an N/C installation. This selection process must be ap¬
proached cautiously and objectively; considerable thought, discussion, and re¬
search must be conducted prior to the installation of equipment.

PROGRAMMING AND TOOLING

One hurdle that management must clear in any consideration of N/C
equipment is how to handle programming and preparation of tapes for the
control unit. Later chapters will discuss the data processing equipment
necessary to support the programming function and whether manual or
computer methods of programming should be used.
Tooling for N/C is closely related to programming since it involves the
choice, size, and shape of cutters to match the plan visualized by the pro¬
grammer. It is customary for the program to include tool specifications so
that the machine operator can get the complete set of tools for a given part
without initially having to work out a required list. The type of N/C system
under consideration will determine whether the programmer will use stan¬
dard tools from a tool store or whether an elaborate tool library must be
established for preset tools.

MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR

Another concern to management is maintenance. Some companies
have been discouraged from installing N/C machines because they felt they
16 • CHAPTER 2

did not have adequate facilities or personnel to service the electronically

controlled equipment. With the advent of integrated circuits, microproces¬
sors, and computer numerical control (CNC), there has been a general in¬
crease in the reliability of controls. Still, the lack of trained or capable
personnel is a concern for potential N/C users. However, maintenance
classes are offered by control manufacturers to educate new maintenance
personnel and update current personnel. It should be noted that mainte¬
nance, as well as programming and operation of the equipment, must be
restricted to trained and authorized personnel only for purposes of safety
and equipment protection. In order to facilitate maintenance, the electronic
controls are often assembled in modular units. By keeping spares of the
major units, time loss for correcting malfunctions within controls can be
reduced to a minimum.

COST ANALYSIS
Generally, when discussing the cost analysis of numerical control, the
programming costs and tape preparation time is being compared to the
design and upkeep of the jigs, fixtures, and setups required for conventional
machining operations. The elimination of elaborate jigs and fixtures proba¬
bly constitutes the largest area of savings in numerical control.
Another item of importance in cost analysis is the shorter lead time of
parts machined on N/C. Again, a typical part will spend about 5% of its
manufacturing life being machined and the other 95% sitting in flats, being
inspected, and waiting. With N/C, parts are routed to fewer machines, thus
cutting down the total manufacturing time.

QUALITY CONTROL
One benefit of numerical control is the repeatability of parts produced
and the reduced inspection time. N/C has made it possible to produce part
after part with consistent accuracy. The adverse effects of operator skill,
fatigue, and human reliability have been reduced to a minimum. More
complex parts can now be produced with much lower rejection rates than
conventional methods.

REDUCTION OF INVENTORY ^
With the advent of N/C, shorter lead times are needed, thereby reducing
the total amount of inventory required. Finished inventory can be held to
an absolute minimum because of the care and repeatability with which a part
can be put in process and the resulting speed with which inventory can be
replaced. Raw material inventories can also be cut since it is no longer
necessary to schedule long runs.

ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS
One of the most important factors to be considered in studying a plant
layout for an N/C installation is accessibility. The flow of work to and from
 WHAT IS NUMERICAL CONTROL PROGRAMMING? • 17

the machines is important due to the tremendous appetite of N/C machines.

All plant layouts should be based on the maximum use factor of these units.
Other environmental considerations should be given to cleanliness and pos¬
sible extensive chilling or heating conditions.

SERVICE RESPONSIBILITY
As greater emphasis is placed on numerical control systems for manu¬
facturing, it is essential that these systems be kept in operation as much as
possible. It is often difficult to determine whether a problem originated
with the control or the machine tool. This sometimes results in a situation
where the user does not know whether to contact the machine tool service
representative or the control service representative. Consequently, much
time can be wasted trying to determine the source of the problem. Many
companies will purchase both machine and control from the same manufac¬
turer, thereby eliminating the question of who will make the repair.

N/C JUSTIFICATION
N/C justification has already been discussed in relation to the advantages
of numerical control and planning for its use. However, some additional
concepts should be examined.
At present, there are several approaches to equipment justification. One
method is the cost-savings approach. It has the distinct advantage of being
easy to calculate. It is basically conservative, based on equipment replace¬
ment with some degree of improved productivity and performance. The
disadvantage to this approach is that there is no disciplined effort to review
the entire operation for improvement.
Another widely used justification technique is aggressive justification.
This method makes an advantage of the cost savings approach disadvantage.
Aggressive justification questions whether the present methods are the best,
and it may involve substantial changes in manufacturing methodology. There
are tremendous opportunities for processing improvements with this method,
but the translation into dollars and cents is complex.
Whenever an N/C justification is needed, an analysis of the parts to be pro¬
grammed is an ideal place to start. Once it is determined that a realistic N/C
work load exists, the second step is to determine the return on investment
(ROD. In calculating the ROI, it is necessary to study the different compo¬
nents of the business that are affected by the use of this new equipment, not
just the machine itself. One of the questions that should be answered is,
"Will N/C help produce a better and consistent quality part in an economical
manner?" The calculation is computed by dividing the average savings per
year by the initial investment cost. The result is a rate of return.
Avg. savings/yr.
Rate of return
Investment
Perhaps some productivity comparisons will also have to be made by esti¬
mated production lot size, figures 2-3 and 2-4.
18 • CHAPTER 2

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Productivity comparison — production lot sizes
WHAT IS NUMERICAL CONTROL PROGRAMMING?
• 19
 20 • CHAPTER 2

Regardless of the method of N/C justification that is used, much more

detailed work and analysis is needed than is mentioned in this chapter. These
are merely two of the many different types of N/C justification techniques.

REVIEW QUESTION'S
1. What were some of the important factors leading to the popularity of
numerical control?
2. In your own words, briefly define numerical control.
3. The average part spends only 5% of its manufacturing time on a
machine. What comprises the other 95% of an average part's time on
the shop floor?
£ce>>Jon\ci. 4. What are the four basic phases that occur in most manufacturing?
p(Z.OCU£’S‘i IVOC Briefly explain their importance and relationship to one another.
5. List and briefly describe the major advantages of numerical control.
What are the disadvantages or inhibitors to numerical control?
e dvcso
ti vmcdst/ 6. What is the major advantage of numerical control over conventional
.ooucg wo^ic machining?
' D KVs(JjT ■ftCC.U'feArg Ff List and briefly describe the ten basic considerations in planning for
the use of N/C.
8. Name two techniques used for successful N/C justification, and
briefly explain their functions. Which approach is most likely to
yield the greatest overall savings? Why?
CHAPTER 3
How Numerical
Controls Operate

OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:
• Explain how a workpiece is processed for numerical
control application.
• Understand the function of tape readers.
• Describe axis relationships and tape readout charac¬
teristics.
• Explain how numerical controls collect and store in¬
formation.
• Compare the different types of numerical control
systems.
• Discuss the common types of N/C feedback systems
and their primary purpose.

WHAT A MACHINIST NEEDS TO KNOW

Since the number of skilled machinists in this country is on the decline,
these skills must be compensated for in another manner. The machine and
control unit, through the direction of the programmer, now perform many
of the functions of the skilled machinist.
The entire process of N/C programming is being able to visualize the
actual cutting motions and table movements that are taking place on the
machine. These movements are then translated into a coded format. Conse¬
quently, many interactive decisions and judgments are made by programmers
as well as machinists.
Let us study some of the judgments and functions of a machinist. A
machinist will begin a workpiece with a thorough study of a blueprint,
sketch, or sample workpiece. In addition, a machinist will check the record
or process routing sheet, if available, to determine the specific machining to
be performed for that particular operation. If specific tolerance requirements
are needed, such as an allowance for grind stock, the process sheet should
contain this information for the machinist's review prior to machining. An¬
other important step in machining a workpiece is planning the sequence of
machining operations. The concept of "What do I do first; what do I do
next?", along with determining how the individual setup is to be made, is of

21
22 • CHAPTER 3

prime importance. These decisions are closely related to the experience level
of the machinist. A machinist also calculates the speeds and feeds, and
selects cutting tools, materials, and machine tools where appropriate.
There may be more detailed items that an individual machinist must be
concerned with, but essentially the machinist has visualized a program. This
program tells what and how a particular workpiece is to be machined. The
machinist then guides the cutting tools in their relationship to the workpiece
by means of the operating dials and levers. After the machining operations
are complete and the material is removed from the workpiece, an accurate
part is produced. In essence, a skilled machinist has programmed, accumu¬
lated, stored, and transmitted detailed information in order to produce a
particular workpiece.

WHAT A PROGRAMMER NEEDS TO KNOW

A programmer must use all the skills of a machinist in processing a
part. In addition, a programmer must study the blueprint and process sheet,
know how to set up the workpiece, and be familiar with the sequence of
machining operations. A programmer's selection of cutting tools, feeds and
speeds, and basic programming methodology are critical to efficient use of
the machine used to process the part. In addition to visualizing the entire
process, the programmer must also be familiar with the particular machine
being programmed and its general operating characteristics and requirements.
The programmer must also understand the specific tape format that the
particular machine control unit will accept. An understanding of computer
programming languages may be necessary to obtain the desired output
results. Essentially, the programmer has accumulated, stored, and transmitted
data, resulting in the completed N/C program. A flow diagram of the steps
in processing an N/C program is illustrated in figure 3-1.

WHAT MAKES A GOOD N/C PROGRAMMER?

A clear description of an N/C programmer may be necessary to answer
this question. Some companies may require a programmer to write an N/C
code according to a prepared production plan, using previously selected
tooling and fixtures. Other firms may require the programmer to plan the
sequence of machining operations, selecting the appropriate tools and
fixtures, as well as preparing the N/C coding. Actually, an N/C programmer
can vary from being a coder to a comprehensive manufacturing engineer.
One of the most important qualities of a successful N/C programmer is
skill in print reading. The programmer must be able to visualize, in three di¬
mensions, parts depicted on a two-dimensional blueprint. Another desirable
quality, but one that is becoming increasingly more difficult to obtain, is
time on the shop floor solving the multitude of manufacturing problems. This
type of individual represents the optimum mix.
 HOW NUMERICAL CONTROLS OPERATE »23

FIGURE 3-1
A flow diagram of the steps in processing an N/C program

Many talented individuals are currently being trained by colleges and

universities. These individuals have the related academic skills and, with a
little patience and effort on the part of manufacturers, they can obtain the
necessary manufacturing experience needed to become competent and
successful programmers.

HOW N/C COLLECTS INFORMATION

Information is passed from the N/C tape to the machine control unit by
means of the tape reader. A photoelectric tape reader and the actual load¬
ing of an N/C tape into a tape reader is shown in figures 3-2 and 3-3. Tape
24 • CHAPTER 3

FIGURE 3-2
A typical numerical control cabinet with a tape reader and tape reels (Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron
Inc.)

readers generally are classified as mechanical or photoelectric (light). They

may read a single row of information at a time, or they may read a complete
block of instruction. Reader speeds will vary considerably; mechanical
readers are capable of reading approximately sixty characters per second,
and photoelectric readers can read approximately 300 to 500 characters per
second.
Mechanical readers, sometimes called electro-mechanical readers, are
used mainly on point-to-point N/C systems, although limited contouring
work may be done with mechanical readers. The advantages of mechanical
readers are that they are extremely reliable, easy to maintain, and relatively
 HOW NUMERICAL CONTROLS OPERATE • 25

FIGURE 3-3
Loading a tape reader (Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron Inc.)

inexpensive. Their slower reading speeds, however, present a prime disad¬

vantage in some contouring situations. This occurs when hundreds of char¬
acters are needed to complete a large radius or other configuration. Mechan¬
ical readers operate by mechanically sensing, using pins, the codes punched
into the tape. When the pins enter a hole present in the tape, contact is
made and an impulse is created that is transmitted to the control unit. The
sprocket on the tape reader actually feeds the tape over these pins and, at
the same time, guides the tape through the reader.
Photoelectric readers are the most commonly used because of their
speed. They shorten the time between reading and performance. Photo¬
electric readers operate by light beams which pass through the holes in the
tape and impinge on a photocell. The lightbeams are then converted to elec-
26 • CHAPTER 3

—_trjcal impulses and passed on to the controMer. Light readers have no drive
sprockets to drive the tape; therefore, direct drive or rotating/braking
capstans are used. The actual braking and accelerating are almost instan¬
taneous, and the reading speed of 300 to 500 characters per second enhances
the smooth and continuous motion of the machine. The only drawback
to photoelectric readers is that they are very sensitive to dirt,, unaiighecT
sprocket holes, and imperfections in tape and hole punching. These prob¬
lems can, at times, cause erroneous tape readings. Consequently, a displaced
machine move or command will occur, or the control will display a tape
error situation. Every effort should be made to ensure that only clean,
quality tapes are used on machine control units equipped with photoelectric
readers.

MACHINE REGISTERS AND BUFFER STORAGE

After the tape has been read by the tape reader, the coded information,
now in the form of signals, is passed on to the control. Registers within the con¬
trol accept the information, which consists of proper coordinates, preparatory
functions, and miscellaneous functions. This information is transmitted to the
respective register sections where actuation signals are relayed to the machine
tool drives. A fundamental sketch of this process is illustrated in figure 3-4.

FIGURE 3-4
Fundamental sketch of tape input information being read, decoded, and passed to machine actuation
registers, resulting in corresponding table movements
 HOW NUMERICAL CONTROLS OPERATE • 27

Machine control unit

FIGURE 3-5
Fundamental sketch of tape input information being read, decoded, and stored in buffer storage until
machine actuation registers have completed previous move and commands. Information is then passed
from buffer storage to actuation registers.

Most modern N/C and CNC controls are equipped with buffer storage.
As shiownlrTfigure 3-5, this feature allows the control to accept information
into a buffer register while an operation is being performed from the active
machine registers. When that operation is completed, the information is
transferred from buffer storage to the machine actuation registers. This
transfer of information is instantaneous, thereby reducing the time between
tape reading and machine performance. Buffer storage reduces the amount
of dwell time between machine operations because the next block of tape is
read and stored while the machine is executing the previous block. Part
finish is also better because the cutter does not come to a halt to process the
next block of information in the middle of curves, angles, or other part
configurations.

AXIS RELATIONSHIPS — READOUT

Once the N/C tape has been read, decoded, and the machine actuation
registers loaded, the machine responds with its appropriate coordinate axis
movements and other commands. The primary axis movements to be studied
in terms of their relationship to each other are the X and Y axes. Axis refers
to any direction of motion which is totally controlled by specific tape com¬
mands. Machines with only X and Y positioning capability are known as
28 • CHAPTER 3

r—<Z2

Machine
spindle
(fixed X and Y position)

FIGURE 3-6
A machine table movement to the left in the X
direction is needed to move from point A to
point B.

two-axis machines. On machines of this type, distances in the Z direction

are controlled by the operator or by preset stops similar to that of a conven¬
tional drill press. On some two-axis N/C machines, the Z depth is controlled
by a system of cams or operator-set micrometer stops which can then be
selected by tape command. An example of table movements in the X-Y plane
is shown in figure 3-6. The three basic motions, as designated by the Elec¬
tronic Industries Association (EIA), are X, Y, and Z. The principle X
motion is parallel to the longest dimension of the primary machine table. The
primary Y movement is normally parallel to the shortest dimension of the
primary machine table. The Z motion is the movement that advances or
retracts the spindle. The Z axis movement becomes complicated by the fact
that N/C machines are made with vertical and horizontal spindles. To help
understand the Z axis, it can be said that a line through the center of the
machine spindle is actually the Z axis. It is only when the actual depth of
cut (Z axis) is controlled by the tape that the machine is considered a true
three-axis N/C machine. That is, the machine is capable of simultaneous
motion in X, Y, and Z. As will be shown later, there are N/C machines
which will call for a set of preset depths and Z motion. These are not
considered true three-axis machines even though the machine does accept
tape-actuated Z motions. Explanation of the machine axes in relation to
coordinate positions will be detailed in Chapter 4. Additional machine/axis
relationships can be seen in figures 3-7, 3-8, 3-9, and 3-10.
As the N/C machine positions itself, corresponding to the programmed
positions in the tape, the positions obtained are displayed by tape command
readouts. The readouts are generally for sequence number and X, Y, and
sometimes Z axes, although additional information can be displayed on more
 HOW NUMERICAL CONTROLS OPERATE • 29

FIGURE 3-7 FIGURE 3-8

A vertical N/C machine A horizontal N/C machine

sophisticated controls. These readouts consist of lighted numbers mounted

in the machine control unit and/or on the operator's console or display
screen.
The individual sequence numbers identify the block or line of informat¬
ion being read. The X- and Y-positioned readouts are constantly changing as
the program advances, and are mainly provided so that the operator can
identify specific positions and lines or blocks of information relative to the
program manuscript.

TYPES OF FEEDBACK SYSTEMS

Once the command signals have been sent from the machine control
unit to the machine, the slide motion and spindle movement occurs. How
30 • CHAPTER 3

FIGURE 3-9
An N/C turret punch press

+X

FIGURE 3-10
An N/C turret lathe
 HOW NUMERICAL CONTROLS OPERATE »31

Feedback

FIGURE 3-11
Closed loop

then does the N/C control know that the machine is properly positioned?
Unless the control and machine form a closed-loop system, the control really
has no way of knowing if the machine is properly positioned. Figure 3-11
illustrates a basic closed-loop system. Closed-loop systems are similar in
operation to driving an automobile. When driving an automobile, an individ¬
ual will check the speedometer to determine speed. The actual speed is
compared to the desired speed which is designated by the speed limit signs.
The driver's brain detects the difference between the posted speed and the
actual speed, and the brain then instructs the foot to adjust the condition
until the correct speed has been achieved.
Open-loop systems provide no check or measurement to indicate that a
specific position has actually been achieved. No feedback information is
passed from the machine back to the control. The system components may
be affected by time, temperature, humidity, or lubrication, and the actual
output may vary from the desired output. The main difference between
open- and closed-loop systems is that with closed-loop systems, the actual
output is measured, and a signal corresponding to this output is fed back to
the input station where it is compared to the input registers. Such a system
automatically attempts to correct any discrepancy between desired and
actual output.
_Fpgdhank systems mav be either digital or analog. Digital systems
generate^ pulses which are fed back to the control and count down linear or
rotary motion in minimum movements on machine lead screws. Analog
systems sense and monitor variations in levels of voltage. Moving tables on a
machine may overshoot in both directions and then search for the exact
position to stop.
32 • CHAPTER 3

TYPES OF NUMERICAL CONTROL SYSTEMS

Numerical control systems are generally classified into two basic types:
positioning or point-to-point; and continuous-path or contouring.
Positioning, or point-to-point programming, as illustrated in figure
3-12, is best described as moving or directing a tool to a specific locationjan
'a-work piece to perform operations such as drilling, tapping, boring, reaming,
and punching. The process of positioning from one coordinate (X, Y) position
to another, performing these basic operations, continues until all work has
been performed for programmed locations. The important aspect of posh,
tioning systems is that, on a true positioning system, the cutting tool is never
in constant contact with the workpiece. The spindle or the table may move
to locate the desired position directly under the spindle. When the X and Y
position is satisfied, the spindle will then advance the cutting tool into the
workpiece. There are some positioning systems that do possess limited
contouring capabilities such as straight-line milling along either the X or Y
axis. In addition, 45-degree-angle milling is possible on some positioning
systems with limited contouring capabilities.
Contouring, or continuous-path, systems maintain a constant cutter-
workpiece relationship. The cutting tool remains in constant contact with
the workpiece as the corresponding coordinate movements are attained. This
process is illustrated in figure 3-13. The most common of the continuous-
path operations are milling and lathe operations which profile workpieces to
exact specifications. The actual contouring control system must have speed
control independent of the X and Y driving motors. This enables the rate of
travel to be regulated on at least two axes at the same time.
The distinction between positioning and contouring control systems has
significantly decreased; the majority of control units possess both positioning

FIGURE 3-12 FIGURE 3-13

Positioning Contouring
 HOW NUMERICAL CONTROLS OPERATE *33

and contouring capabilities. Control units have advanced this far because of
the progress made in sophisticated electronics, and the need due to work-
piece complexity, tighter tolerances, and improved part finishes. In addition,
the requirements needed to program and operate these advanced controls
have increased substantially, resulting in greater usage of available computer
languages.

REVIEW QUESTIONS__
1. Compare a machinist's and programmer's processes of producing a
workpiece.
2. What are the two major types of tape readers available? What are the
advantages and disadvantages of each?
3. Describe in detail the kinds of applications in which slow reading
speeds are a drawback?
4. What type of tape reader is best suited for contouring applications?
5. Describe how buffer storage operates. What is its main advantage?
6. How is the Z axis on an N/C machine determined?
7. Discuss the basic process which occurs within the control unit
between the tape being read and actual machine movement.
8. What are the primary differences between point-to-point and con¬
touring N/C systems?
9. What is the difference between a closed-loop system and an open-
loop feedback system?
10. In your own words, describe the function of a closed-loop system.
11. What is the primary advantage of a closed-loop system?
12. Explain why the distinction between positioning and contouring N/C
systems has become less significant.
CHAPTER 4_
Rectangular Coordinates —
Absolute and Incremental

OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:
• Understand the Cartesian coordinate system in con¬
junction with numerical control coordinate systems
and machine axes.
• Discuss absolute and incremental dimensioning and
control systems.
• Understand the difference between fixed zero and
full floating zero control systems.
• Explain the advantages and capabilities of floating
zero systems.

CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEM

Numerical control is based on the principle of rectangular coordinates
discovered by the French philosopher and mathematician, Rene Descartes:
This mathematical development of over three hundred years ago is better
known as the Cartesian coordinate system. Through the use of rectangular
coordinates, any specific point in space can be described in mathematical
terms along three perpendicular axes. The idea relates perfectly with machine
tools since their construction is generally based upon two or three perpen¬
dicular axes of motion.
The system of Cartesian coordinates is illustrated in figure 4-1. As in
algebra, the X axis is horizontal (left and right), and the Y axis is vertical (up
and down). The Z axis is then applied by holding a pencil perpendicular to
the paper with its point at the location where the X and Y lines cross each
other. The point where the X and Y axes cross is called the origin or zero
point. Four quadrants are formed when the X and Y axes cross. Each
quadrant is numbered in counterclockwise rotation (figure 4-1).
The plus (+) and minus (-) signs indicate a direction from the zero
point along the X and Y areas. As seen from figure 4-1, all positions plotted
in the first quadrant have positive X and positive Y values (+X,+Y). All
positions in the second quadrant have negative X and positive Y values (-X,
+Y). Points plotted in the third quadrant have values of negative X and
negative Y (-X,-Y). In the fourth quadrant, all positions have values of
positive X and negative Y (+X,-Y).
 RECTANGULAR COORDINATES - ABSOLUTE AND INCREMENTAL • 35

FIGURE 4-1
Cartesian coordinate system

At first glance, it appears it would be easier if all work could be done in

the first quadrant since all values are positive and no signs would be needed.
However, any of the four quadrants may be used on different machines. In
some applications, the use of minus signs is a distinct advantage. Therefore,
programmers must be thoroughly familiar with the use of both plus and
minus signs in all four quadrants.

TWO-AXIS TAPE CONTROL

Two-axis tape control normally consists of the X and Y axes. In figure
4-1, it can be seen that the point labeled (5,4) actually means X = 5.0000
and Y = 4.0000 from the zero point. The point (-7, -5) means X = -7.0000
an(j y = -5.0000 in relation to the zero point. It is generally agreed that in
this kind of notation, the X dimension is written first, followed by the Y
dimension (X,Y).
36 • CHAPTER 4

FIGURE 4-2
A typical two-axis N/C machine

A two-axis N/C machine is shown in figure 4-2. In most cases, the

machine table moves left and right to position the cutter. A longitudinal
movement of the machine table on this machine is an X axis move. A cross
or saddle movement is a Y axis move. In order to obtain identical X-Y
movements, on some two-axis machines the table remains stationary, and the
spindle moves to satisfy X and Y locations. The movement of the cutter
remains the same regardless of whether the spindle or table positions the
workpiece. This consideration is taken care of by the machine and control
manufacturers. The programmer must specify only the dimensions and the
plus or minus signs in relation to the zero point. How the coordinate system
relates to the machine table will be explained in detail later.
In numerical control programming, all plus signs may be written beside
all positive locations. However, to make the work easier, a plus sign does not
need to be written if the value is positive unless it is required by that particu¬
lar N/C machine. In all cases, minus signs must be written to distinguish
between negative and positive values when the sign has been omitted.
 RECTANGULAR COORDINATES - ABSOLUTE AND INCREMENTAL • 37

FIGURE 4-3
Vertical Z axis drawn in relation to the X and Y axes, workpiece, and machine table

Z AXIS CONTROL
Any type of advanced work in numerical control will involve the Z axis.
As was explained earlier, a line through the center of the machine spindle is the
Z axis. The principle applies regardless of the machine type. Z axis motionscan
be operator-controlled with preset stops or programmer-controlled through the
N/C tape. Figure 4-3 illustrates a vertical Z axis with the X and Y axes drawn in
relation to the workpiece and machine table. A positive Z movement is de¬
scribed as moving the tool away from the work. A negative Z movement is de¬
scribed as a plunge cut or moving the tool into the workpiece. Figure 4-4 illus¬
trates a horizontal Z axis, with the X and Y axes drawn in relation to the work-
piece and machine table. Positive Z movement moves the tool away from the
work, and negative Z movement moves the tool into the work. Notice that as
the workpiece is positioned in relation to the zero point, all positions on theXY
plane surface will have positive values and will be situated in the first quadrant.

FOUR- AND FIVE-AXIS TAPE CONTROL

Some of the most advanced N/C machines are equipped with four- and
five-axis contouring capabilities. These capabilities are generally secondary
and tertiary axes which parallel the X, Y, and Z axes, plus some additional
38 • CHAPTER 4

FIGURE 4-4
Horizontal Z axis drawn in relation to the X and Y axes, workpiece, and machine table

rotational movements within the coordinate locations. The rotational move¬

ments can usually sweep through all axes in complex cutting tool movements
and applications. These other axes are given letters. Their programming be¬
comes quite complex even with advanced computer techniques.
It is important for the student to realize that such four- and five-axis
capabilities exist, but the three major axes to consider are X, Y, and Z. This
text concentrates on these primary axes, beginning with X and Y program¬
ming examples and then Z axis capabilities.

INCREMENTAL SYSTEMS
Prior to any discussion involving incremental programming systems, the
students must have a thorough understanding of incremental dimensioning.
Carefully study the part in figure 4-5. The distance from the left edge of the
part to hole 1 is 1.25. From hole 1 to hole 2, the distance is 1.50. The
distance from hole 2 to hole 3 is 1.50, and 1.62 from hole 3 to hole 4. This
is known as incremental dimensioning. It is also referred to as delta dimen¬
sioning. The word "delta” is derived from a Greek letter used to denote the
difference between two quantities. In figure 4-5, each dimension is given
incrementally from the last position to the next position.
An incremental system works according to the same principle; it positions
the work or cutter in increments from the immediately preceding point. Calcu¬
lations are made from the location of the tool or table to where it is going. The
use of plus and minus signs involves a new aspect when used in the incremental
mode. A positive X move does not refer to a specific rectangular quadrant, but
directs the tool to move to the right along the X axis from its current position.
 RECTANGULAR COORDINATES - ABSOLUTE AND INCREMENTAL • 39

FIGURE 4-5
Incremental dimensioning

A negative X move directs the tool to the left. Similarly, a positive Y move
positions the cutter up from the present location, and a negative Y is a com¬
mand to move down. A positive Z directs the cutter away from the work-
piece, while a negative Z is a move toward or into the workpiece.

ABSOLUTE SYSTEMS
A close examination of the workpiece in figure 4-6 will reveal its simi¬
larity to that shown in figure 4-5. The difference is the way the actual part
is dimensioned. This type is known as absolute or baseline dimensioning
because all positions must be given as distances from the same zero location
or reference point. All dimensions are calculated from one zero point as
indicated in figure 4-6.
An absolute system operates similar to absolute dimensioning. All
positions are figured and punched in the tape relative to the same zero or
reference point. All positional moves come from the same leading edge at all
times, as opposed to an incremental system, where each succeeding move is
an incremental distance from the last.
One advantage of absolute systems over incremental systems concerns
positioning errors. If a positioning error occurs in an incremental system, all
subsequent positions are affected and all remaining moves are incorrect.
When a positioning error occurs in an absolute N/C system, a particular
location is in error but subsequent positions are not affected. This is because
all dimensions and each succeeding positional move are always based from the
same zero or reference point. This is not to say, however, that the absolute
system is superior to the incremental system. This philosophy originated in
the early days of numerical control because purchasers were forced to choose
between an absolute system and an incremental system. Consequently, all
detailed workpiece drawings had to be dimensioned to conform with the
40 • CHAPTER 4

particular control mode, or the programmer was forced to make the transla¬
tion when preparing the program tape and manuscript.
Both absolute and incremental systems have their logical areas of applica¬
tion, and neither is always right or wrong. There are certain applications in
which both systems can be used most efficiently, sometimes even within the
same program. Most controls today are capable of working in either mode with
just a simple instructional code inserted to make the change. With the adapta¬
bility of modern controls, the controversy over which is better is of little
importance. In many cases, the burden of decision is placed directly on the
programmer, who must have a thorough understanding of both modes and
be able to make the best use of each.

ZERO SHIFT SYSTEMS

Some type of zero shift capability exists on most N/C machines. This
capability implies shifting the zero location of the workpiece to any reason¬
able location on the machine table. Machines and controls range from no
zero shift, or fixed zero to full range offset to full floating zero.
With fixed zero machines, there is no capability of changing the zero
location. The zero location is permanent and cannot be adjusted. Zero off¬
set is used on fixed zero machines, and the control remembers the permanent
location of zero. A full floating zero machine has no fixed reference point
(zero point). For such a machine, the zero is established for each setup.

FIXED ZERO
Using a fixed zero system, the zero location on the machine table is
fixed; it cannot be moved or altered. This is illustrated in figure 4-7. The
 RECTANGULAR COORDINATES - ABSOLUTE AND INCREMENTAL • 41

FIGURE 4-7
Fixed zero N/C system

operator is instructed by the programmer to set up the workpiece. The opera¬

tor then dials in X 10.0000 and Y8.0000 on the control decade switches and
presses the cycle start button. The machine table moves so that the center of
the spindle is positioned above the (10,8) point on the machine table. The op¬
erator must now clamp the workpiece on the table, push and tap the work-
piece, and tighten and loosen the clamps until the previously machined hole
"trams" in as centered in the spindle. This manual effort of adjusting clamps
and moving the workpiece by small movements is required each time a setup is
made with a fixed zero system. A small amount of shifting may occur with a
fixed zero system. This amount can vary from manufacturer to manufacturer,
but is generally only a few hundred thousandths of an inch.

FULL RANGE OFFSET

The machine zero in this type may be adjusted to any point on the
machine, figure 4-8. Programmed dimensions must still be in the first
quadrant, and all coordinate values must be positive. Most controls with the
full range offset feature have no negative reading capability. The machine
zero is still located in a permanent position, and the workpiece may be
moved to any convenient location in the first quadrant.

FULL FLOATING ZERO

When using an N/C system equipped with full floating zero, the operator
may locate the workpiece in any convenient location on the machine table.
Once the workpiece is set up or positioned on the table, the operator then
42 • CHAPTER 4

FIGURE 4-8
Full range offset N/C system

obtains the alignment positions for the particular workpiece program from
the program manuscript. In figure 4-9, the alignment positions in X and Y
are X = 0 and Y = 0 (0,0). These values are then dialed into the control. The
operator depresses the cycle start button, and the machine rapid traverses to
some location which, at this point, may not be relative to the workpiece
setup just completed. The operator then uses the zero shift dials to change
or move the zero location of the machine table to the setup location just
completed.
Using the manual zero shift dials on the pendant station, shown earlier
in figures 1-1 and 4-2, the operator changes or moves the machine table
without changing the actual readout on the control for X and Y. The zero
shift dials merely operate the table drive motors in X and Y, but their signal
does not enter the memory section of the control unit. Turning these zero
shift dials moves the table zero to the tram position for this particular
workpiece.
Once the new workpiece is "zeroed" or "trammed" in, the zero shift
dials are locked. The operator can then consistently run parts according to
tape commands relative to the manuscript alignment position and the con¬
venient zero location.
Full floating zero greatly enhances actual machine spindle cutting time
by reducing setup time. The programmer and operator gain flexibility be¬
cause the programmer now can make zero any place on the machine table,
enabling positive and negative programming. The operator can leave high-
production setups in place, and zero shift the machine to a new setup loca¬
tion on the machine table.
 RECTANGULAR COORDINATES - ABSOLUTE AND INCREMENTAL • 43

Machine table

FIGURE 4-9
Full floating zero N/C system

REVIEW QUESTIONS_
1.What is the importance of the Cartesian coordinate system to numer¬
ical control systems?
2. What two axes are normally considered when referring to a two-axis
machine?
3. When programming for an N/C machine, is it necessary to write plus
signs with all positive values? Why?
4. Who controls Z axis motion?
5. What is considered a positive Z movement? What is considered a
negative Z movement?
6. Of the two N/C systems, absolute and incremental, which one would
be most advantageous to you in a shop of your own? Why?
7. What is the relationship between absolute and incremental dimen¬
sioning of parts to absolute and incremental control systems?
8. What is a disadvantage of an incremental system that is an advantage
of an absolute system?
9. Explain the difference between fixed zero, full range offset, and full
floating zero shift.
10. What should a programmer know about absolute and incremental
N/C systems?
11. On an N/C machine with a fixed zero, can a programmer write a
manuscript using more than one quadrant? Explain your answer in
detail.
 CHAPTER 5
Tape Coding, Specifications,
and Format

OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:
• Understand the importance of N/C tape specifications
and standards.
• Distinguish between the different types of tape mate¬
rial available.
• Demonstrate an awareness of the different types of
input media developed.
• Explain tape coding systems, their specifications and
primary differences.
• Understand the physical processing of N/C tape.
• Discuss the different types of tape format in use
today.
• Understand the fundamentals of the interchangeable
or compatible tape format.

TAPE SPECIFICATIONS AND STANDARDS

A variety of control systems have been developed since the beginning of
numerical control. Consequently, a wide variety of different methods for
N/C data input has also been developed. In order to standardize this N/C
information, an EIA subcommittee was formed to recommend a set of
standards which would be acceptable to control system manufacturers and
machine tool manufacturers and users.
Several types of input media were tried as numerical control evolved.
The most common types were manual input, punched cards, magnetic tape,
and punched tape.
Manual data input (MDI) is a means of telling the control system what
to do through push buttons, dials, and switches. This system is completely
operator-controlled and, therefore, is subject to human error. Speed and
accuracy depend entirely on the operator's ability to find, interpret, and
code in the correct information. Nearly all N/C machines today are capable
of being operated in a manual mode even if just to position the X, Y, and Z
slides.

44
 TAPE CODING, SPECIFICATIONS, AND FORMAT • 45

Punched-card input was tried in some of the earlier N/C systems. All of
the codes necessary to operate the machine tool were keypunched into a
series of cards, and then run through the control system and decoded by
"fingers," which activated electric circuits. Punched cards have been replaced
as an input media for three main reasons. First, the card-reading device was
much slower than a punched tape reader. Second, the individual cards were
greatly affected by dirt and atmospheric changes. Third, the deck of punched
cards was bulky and difficult to handle; the program could be scrambled if
the cards were dropped.
Magnetic tape input was also tried with some early N/C applications.
This consists of magnetic impulses located on a plastic tape. This tape is
similar to that used on large-scale computers, and the stored information is
formed in a manner similar to that of the punched-tape format. A magnetic
tape the same length as a punched tape is capable of holding much more data.
In addition, the tape is reusable once the magnetic information is erased.
There are four prime disadvantages of using magnetic tape. First, the
tape reader and control system are more expensive than a punched tape
system. Second, information on the tape can be accidentally erased if the
tape is taken near a magnetic field. Third, the tape can become contaminated
with metal particles and dust. Fourth, the information on the tape cannot
be read to check for errors in programming.
Currently, manufacturers of numerical control systems commonly use
the input form of punched tape. This method of communicating with the
machine tool is economical and simple to prepare.
Punched tape has appeared in several different types of materials, sizes,
and coding systems. The tape materials are primarily grouped under three
main headings, although there are many combinations and variations. These
will be discussed later.
The specifications for the size of punched tape have varied tremendously
since the early years of N/C development. For example, the width of tapes
has ranged from 1/2 inch to about 5 inches. Standardization became neces¬
sary in order to cut costs and establish common methods of programming
between machine tool manufacturers. This was done through the coopera¬
tion of the EIA and the Aerospace Industries Association (AIA). Standardi¬
zation covers two important categories: character coding, which will be
discussed later, and physical dimensions.
As shown in figure 5-1, the physical dimensions of the tape have been
standardized — one inch in width with eight tracks. It was determined that
these tracks or channels were to run the length of the tape. The actual
dimensions for thickness, hole spacing and size, and tolerances were also
established at that time.

TAPE MATERIALS
The method of communication with an N/C machine tool through a
punched tape input is quite economical and relatively easy to prepare.
46 • CHAPTER 5

FIGURE 5-1
Standard one-inch wide, eight-track tape with dimensions and tolerances shown

Several different types of materials have been used for punched tape. These
materials are grouped in three categories: paper. Mylar (Du Pont Company's
trade name for a tough plastic), and foil.
Paper tape is fairly inexpensive. It can be treated for oil and water
resistancy. However, paper tape can be damaged, and photoelectric tape
readers are somewhat sensitive to dirt, oil, and grease stains.
Mylar tape is more expensive; however, it is fairly indestructible and is
not affected by oil, etc. Mylar tapes are sensitive to heat, and they will
stretch when they become warm. However, when laminated with paper or
aluminum, Mylar tapes are tougher and more durable for shop use. Many
companies have standardized mylar tapes or the lamination of paper-mylar
for use on their N/C machines in production.
Foil tape is a metallized material that is often used on high-production
runs. High part production means that the tape is cycled continuously.
Therefore, the metallized tape will wear better and last longer. In many
situations, foil tape is not recommended because it is extremely hard on the
tape preparation equipment punches.
Tapes can be purchased in other material combinations such as aluminum-
mylar laminates, and new materials are constantly being tried and tested.
Most of the N/C tapes, regardless of the material, can be bought in a variety
of colors such as green, blue, yellow, and red.
 TAPE CODING,SPECIFICATIONS, AND FORMAT • 47

TAPE CODING
Standardization was also necessary in tape coding. El A assigned to
each letter and number particular configurations of punched holes. These
punched holes form codes across the width of the tape, and also use from
five to eight tracks or longitudinal channels of holes. In numerical control
work, eight-channel tape and two coding systems are used.

BINARY-CODED DECIMAL SYSTEM (BCD)

EIA adopted the "binary-coded decimal" (BCD) system for coding
tapes. This is a system of number representation in which each decimal digit
is represented by a group of binary digits forming a character. It incorporates
the best features of both the binary and decimal systems, and gives a com¬
pact, easily simulated method of converting decimal dimensions into the
analog voltage ratios which control the machine tool.
Binary code means base 2 as compared to our standard number system,
base 10. In terms of electrical circuits, binary means that a signal is either
ON or OFF. It is generally agreed that in specifying these signals, a zero (0)
means "circuit off" and a one (1) means "circuit on." In an N/C tape with
punched holes, the 0 is indicated by no hole and the 1 is indicated by a hole
punched in the tape. With this limited amount of information, numerical
control equipment must be able to send signals involving letters, numbers,
and some special characters.
The binary system begins to the right with 0 or 1 and raises the digit 2
to a higher power as it moves to the left.
2° = 1 (zero power)
21 = 2 (first power)
22 = 4 (second power)
23 = 8 (third power)
The BCD system uses only the first four positions of the binary code (1,2,
4, and 8), as well as some additional codes.
The decimal part of the system means that each number (0 through 9)
can be written by the programmer and read by the machine control unit.
The tape reader reads one digit at a time. The advanced electronic circuitry
then places each number or digit in its proper decimal position. Figure 5-2
shows all character codes and the appropriate punches for one-inch-wide,
eight-track tape (EIA RS-244).
Numbers 0 through 9 are formed in channels 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6 using the
values determined by the binary system (base 2).
2° = 1 value of channel 1
21 = 2 value of channel 2
22 = 4 value of channel 3
24 = 8 value of channel 4
Channel 6 zero, a special binary code
Channel 5 odd-parity bit, used for checking
48 • CHAPTER 5

<$$*■
TAPE PUNCH 8 7 6 5 4 * 3 2 1
EL X 0 CH 8 4 2 1
0 A •
.A• w
1
z
o A A
W A
W
W
4 •+ Aw

Vs-
5 -99 V
A
V •- WW
A A
6
7 -•• V A A A
WW~
8 A , w•
a W•
w a A-
W
9
A A A
a
b -• • • •
c
A A A
d V V • W
e W WV .a
• WWa
T
A A a A A
g * W w W
A A A
h w ww•
i A
W A A W•
WW A • _WA-
a
V A
W•W A
j
k A A A
A A A
1 V • W W
m •-•-• W
A . A A
n V W W
A - A A
0 w• w w
a a
WWWWW - AAA
p
A A A
WwW•
g
A A A
r - W w • W
a a a
s w w • w
A A A
t W * V V
u -w w • w
A « A A
V w w w
A A A
w 9 w W
X W w * w w w
AAA
y ww w••
A A A
Z w w • w
A A a A A
. (PEHIUD) w w w ♦w w
AAA A A
, (LUMIVIA/ WW W•W W
A A A
/ w w • W
AAA
+ IrLUb) w w w•
A•
(IVIINUo) W•
A
SPACE
a A A
DtLt1t W W W A
W .
* AAA
WWW
A•
CAHn. Htl . UK tNU Ur bLULK. W 9
dAU\ brAtb w w • w
AA A a A
TAB WWW • w W
A A A
tNU Ur nbUUHU w w w
LtAUtn
BLANK 1 Yrb
a A A A «. A
UPPER CASE W W W W ♦ W
LOWER CASE A A
w w w A A
w t A
w

FIGURE 5-2
Character codes and punches for the BCD system (RS-244)
 TAPE CODING, SPECIFICATIONS, AND FORMAT • 49

Method of coding letters

Punch in CH. 6 & 7 Punch in CH. 7 Punch in CH. 6
plus numerical value plus numerical value plus numerical value
1 =A 1 =J
2= B 2= K 2 =S
3= C 3= L 3 =T
4= D 4= M 4 = U
5= E 5= N 5 =V
6= F 6= 0 6 =W
7=G 7 = P 7=X
8= H 8= Q 8= Y
9= 1 9= R 9= Z

FIGURE 5-3
Letters are formed with the BCD system.

Alphabetical codes are formed using the number codes 1 through 9 in

combination with channel 7 (X channel) and/or channel 6 (0 channel). The
alphabetical codes are also subject to the odd-parity check code in channel
5. Figure 5-3 shows how letters are formed with the BCD system. (Refer to
figure 5-2 also.)

ASCII CODE
American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) is
another coding system available on some N/C machines. This particular code
was compiled by a committee from several different groups working with the
United States of America Standards Institute. The overall objective of this
group, now named American National Standards Institute (ANSI), is to
obtain one coding system which will be an international standard for all
information processing and communication systems.
There are several coding differences between BCD (EIA) and ASCII.
ASCII provides coding for both uppercase and lowercase letters, while BCD
codes are the same for both. The ten-digit codes (0 through 9) in ASCII are
the same as BCD coding, but holes are punched in two additional tracks to
identify the numbers and certain symbols. The ASCII letter codes, however,
are quite different from those used in BCD. A comparison of the two
systems is shown in figure 5-4.
Many of the more advanced control units now contain the necessary
electronic circuits to handle both BCD and ASCII coding. A switch usually
provides a choice of coding systems, or the control senses whether BCD or
ASCII has been coded. Therefore, the machine is able to use either code.
50 • CHAPTER 5

BCD (RS-244) CHARACTER AS CM ( RS-3 58)

• 0 • • •
•
• 1 • • • • •
•
• 2 • • • • •
•
• 3 • • • • •
• • •
• 4 • • • • •
•
• 5 • • • • •
• • •
• 6 • • • • •
• • •
• 7 • • • • • • •
• • •
• 8 • • • • •
•
• 9 • • • • •
• • •
• a • • •
• • •
• b • • •
• • •
• c • • • • •
• • • • •
• d • • •
• • •
• e • • • • •
• • • • •
• f • • • • •
• • • • •
• g • • • • •
• • • • •
• h • • •
• • •
• i • • • • •
• • • • •
• j • • • • •
• • •
• k • • • • •
• • •
• 1 • • • • •
• • •
• m • • • • •
• • •
• n • • • • •
• • •
• 0 • • • • • • •
• • •
• p • • •
• • • • •
• q • • • • •
• • •
• r • • • • •
• • •
• s • • • • •
• • •
• t • • • • •
• • •
• u • • • • •
• • •
• V • • • • •
• • •
• w • • • • • • •
• • •
• X • • • • •
• • • • •
• V • • • • •
• • •
• l z • • • • •
• • •
• • • • • •
• • • • •
• f • • • • •
• • • • •
• / • • • • • • •
• • •
• + • • • • •
• • •
• - • • • • •
•
• Space • • •
•
• Delete • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • •
• Car. Ret. or End of Block • • • • •
•
• Back Space Not Assigr ed
• e •
• • • • • • Tab • • •
• End of Record Not Assigned
• • •
• Leader Not Assigned

• Upper Case Not Assigned

• • • • •
• Lower Case Not Assigned
• • • • •
BCD - Binary Coded Decimal system
ISO - International Standards Organization
ASCII - American Standard Code for Information Interchange
The systems ISO and ASCII are the opposite of BCD in that they are even-parity coded.

FIGURE 5-4
Comparison of BCD and ASCII coding systems
V

TAPE CODING, SPECIFICATIONS, AND FORMAT • 51

TAB CODES
Tab codes are required by some N/C units to identify and arrange the
information in the proper format. A tab is a nonprinting spacing action on
tape preparation equipment. A tab code is used to separate words or groups
of characters in the tab sequential format. The spacing action sets type¬
written information on a manuscript into tabular form. Tab codes can best
be related to an office typewriter, on which the tab key returns the carriage
to a preset position. In using this key, all characters will be lined up in
columns. Tab codes are punched in N/C tapes to provide ease in reading a
printout or manuscript, but they have no effect on machine action or
movement.

PARITY BIT
Channel or track 5 on N/C tape, labeled CH, is used strictly as a parity
check. This is a necessary function. Even though the equipment for tape
reading and tape punching is extremely reliable, errors can still be made.
El A specifies an efficient method of correcting most mistakes; however,
there is no system for identifying all the punching errors. Punching errors
(partially punched, blocked, or unpunched holes) can cause mistakes in
reading rows of information. Accuracy can be checked as follows: there
must be an odd number of holes in every row for every character code
punched in the tape. This is best illustrated in figure 5-2. For example, look
at numbers 3, 5, 6, and 9 and at letters C, E, F, and I. The codes punched
into the tape are correct without the parity check. However, when counting
the number of holes across, you get an even number 2 or 4. The tape prep¬
aration equipment automatically punches a hole in track 5 to make an odd
number of holes in that row. This is called an odd-parity system.
N/C systems are constantly checking for mispunched holes by sensing
for an odd number of holes in each row. The parity check on N/C units is
actually a safety device to help reduce the chances of error. When an even
number of holes is detected in an N/C tape, the machine will stop automati¬
cally and the N/C system will indicate a tape error.
All systems do not have odd parity. The ASCII system uses an even-
parity check; the N/C unit checks for an even number of holes in every row.

END OF BLOCK
The end of line (EL) or end of block (EOB) character indicates the end
of a block of information, and is used primarily to indicate the end of an
N/C instruction. It is also punched at the beginning and end of most N/C
tapes. This is a punch in track 8 and is never combined with any other
punches. The EOB code at the start of each program readies the parity
check circuits and signals the control system that a program is about to
start. This code at the end of a block of information signals the machine
52 • CHAPTER 5

that it has received all the information necessary to perform that instruction,
and the machine should satisfy that command. The EOB code is similar to a
period at the end of a sentence. It signifies the end of one thought, com¬
mand, or instruction.
Regardless of whether an N/C tape has been prepared by manual or com¬
puter methods, longer tapes have leader at the front and trailer at the rear of the
coded section of tape. Tape leader is the portion of tape which contains only
the sprocket holes. Leader is necessary if the machine tool must read the tape
from a spool in the console reader. Enough leader is required on the spool for
approximately two turns prior to reaching the first tape code. A trailer or tape
tagger is the same as the leader except it trails after the program information.
When the program has completely run through the tape reader, there should
be approximately two turns on the spool to prevent a reading error and allow a
tape rewind.

TAPE PREPARATION EQUIPMENT

When an N/C program or manuscript is completed, the next step is the
actual punching of the tape. If the N/C program has been prepared by
manual methods (listing all the codes and functions required for the ma¬
chine to produce the workpiece), the N/C tape is punched by manual meth¬
ods. This does not mean that someone punches each hole in the tape; how¬
ever, the specific keys on a tape typewriter are depressed to type the manu¬
script and punch the tape. Several types of machines are available to prepare

FIGURE 5-5
Manual tape preparation equipment (Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron Inc.)
 TAPE CODING, SPECIFICATIONS, AND FORMAT • 53

FIGURE 5-6
Another type of manual tape preparation equipment (Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron Inc.)

N/C tape, as shown in figures 5-5 and 5-6. The electronic circuits allow the
machines to punch the correct codes in the tape for every key on the tape
typewriter. While the tape is being punched, a typed copy is made. These
tape typewriters can duplicate a tape, type out the words or numbers from
an N/C tape, and verify and correct tapes.
If the N/C program has been prepared by computer methods, the actual
punching of the N/C tape is done through computer tape-punching equip¬
ment. An example of a computer tape-punching device which interfaces
directly with a central computer is shown in figure 5-7. Since the program
and tape are being generated by computer methods, there is no need for a
typist to type the manuscript.

TYPES OF TAPE FORMAT

Tape format is the general sequence and arrangement of the coded
information on a punched tape. This information conforms to El A stan¬
dards, and appears as words made of individual codes written in horizontal
lines, as shown in figure 5-8. For example, there are five words that make up
a block (one instruction) for this particular tape format. The most common
type of tape format in current use is the word address or interchangeable
format. However, some earlier control systems used the fixed sequential tab
ignore and tab sequential format. There are still several of these types of
control systems in use; therefore, they deserve some consideration in the
discussion of tape formats. To illustrate the different types of tape formats.
54 • CHAPTER 5

FIGURE 5-7
Computer tape-punching equipment (Courtesy
of Cincinnati Milacron Inc.)

a five-word format consisting of sequence number, preparatory function, X

dimension, Y dimension, and Z-axis depth selection will be used.

FIXED SEQUENTIAL FORMAT

Early generations of control systems used fixed sequential format. It
contains only numerical data, arranged in a rigid sequence, with all codes
necessary to control the machine appearing in every block. This format,
illustrated in figure 5-9, has three main disadvantages. First, the typewritten
copy of the tape is difficult to read because all the numbers appear as one
long word. Second, the repetition of codes in every block means more work
for the programmer and a longer tape. Third, no word address letter is used
to identify the individual words.

BLOCK

11001 , .081, 'X095000/ Y087 50/

TAB
.M5r,x
TAB WORD
WORD WORD WORD WORD

FIGURE 5-8
A block of information and the individual words
 TAPE CODING, SPECIFICATIONS, AND FORMAT • 55

Drill three holes. Drill three holes.

Y Y

Prep. Function X Dim. Y Dim. Prep. Function X Dim. Y Dim.

001105000050001 001 1 05000 05000 1

002110000050001 002 1 10000 05000 1
003115000050001 003 1 15000 05000 1

FIGURE 5-9 FIGURE 5-10

Fixed sequential format Tab ignore format

TAB IGNORE FORMAT

This tape format employs the fixed sequential format with tab codes
placed between each word. These codes make it easier to read the tape, and
a neat printout is also produced. Tab codes cause no action in the control
system. This feature gives rise to the name "tab ignore" format, figure 5-10,
which contains unnecessary, repeated information and lacks the codes to
make it more efficient.

TAB SEQUENTIAL FORMAT

The tab sequential format uses tab codes to a better advantage than
does the tab ignore format. The tab code is not only used to separate words
on a printout, but also to replace words that are unnecessarily repeated. As
a result, the programmers' and typists' time and control reading time are
reduced. Figure 5-11 illustrates the tab sequential format.

WORD ADDRESS FORMAT

The word address format, standardized by the El A, uses a letter address
to identify each separate word. By assigning an alphabetical code to each
coordinate word and function word, the block format becomes more flex¬
ible. The purpose of a letter address is for word identification and to mini¬
mize the amount of data on a tape. Words do not have to appear in a rigid
56 • CHAPTER 5

Drill three holes. Drill three holes.

Prep. Function X Dim. Y Dim. Prep. Function X Dim. Y Dim.

001 1 05000 05000 1 H001G81 X05000Y05000M51

002 10000 N002X10000
003 15000
N003X15000

FIGURE 5-11 FIGURE 5-12

Tab sequential format Word address format

format, and tapes are more interchangeable with machines in the same
class. As seen in figure 5-12, the codes that change from one block to the
next are the only ones that need to be programmed. Repeated codes can be
omitted. Tab codes have been eliminated, and once again the printout of the
program is relatively difficult to read.

INTERCHANGEABLE OR COMPATIBLE FORMAT

This format, which meets El A standards, is probably the most sophisti¬
cated tape format in use today, although decimal point programming has
recently proven successful and acceptable. The interchangeable format is
basically the word address format, as illustrated in figure 5-13. This format
permits the use of tab codes and the interchanging of words within a block
of information. The length of the block is variable, as in the word address
format. The tab ignore feature allows the tape to contain tabs because they
are ignored by the control reader. As a result, a neat printout is produced.
It should be pointed out that even though the general tape format is
followed, the specific tape format for a particular machine tool must also be
followed. For example, an N/C lathe and an N/C machining center are two
different N/C machines. Both are programmed using the interchangeable or
compatible format, but the N/C lathe tape will not work in the machining cen¬
ter and vice versa. This is because each machine and control system has its own
set of words that are recognizable. If the N/C control is fed unrecognizable
 TAPE CODING, SPECIFICATIONS, AND FORMAT • 57

Drill three holes.

Prep. Function X Dim. Y Dim.

H001 G81 X05000 Y05000 M51

N002 XI0000
FIGURE 5-13
N003 XI500
Interchangeable or compatible format

information, e.g., an N/C lathe tape accidentally loaded in a machining

center control, a system failure will occur and the machine will not make
any movements. Therefore, it is important to understand the particular tape
format for the machine being programmed.

N/C TELLS A STORY

N/C does tell a story. It tells a story about the processing of a particu¬
lar part on a particular machine. Essentially, much of the grammatical struc¬
ture is the same when writing a story or a program. Look carefully at figure
5-14, and notice the similarities.

ENGLISH N/C TERMS

STORY PROGRAM
Sentence Block
Word Word
Letters Letters & Numbers
Spacing Tabs
FIGURE 5-14
Punctuation End of Block
N/C tells a story
REVIEW QUESTION’S
1. Name the four types of input media, and briefly describe the advan¬
tages and disadvantages of each.
2. What were the two major categories covered under tape standardiza¬
tion? What two groups were responsible for the progress made in
tape standardization?
3. Name the three types of tape materials, and discuss in general the
advantages and disadvantages of each.
4. Explain the principle behind the binary-coded decimal system (BCD).
Briefly explain how numerical and alphabetical codes are formed.
5. What are the basic differences between the BCD and ASCII coding
systems?
6. What is the purpose of tab codes, and what effect do they have on an
N/C unit?
7. What is the purpose of the parity check? What happens when a tape
punch error is detected in the tape?
8. Why is the end of block (EOB) code punched at the beginning and
end of every tape?
9. Explain the purpose of leader and trailer on an N/C tape.
10. What are the different methods of preparing N/C tape?
11. What are the five basic types of tape format? Which format is the
most used and sophisticated?
12. Explain what is meant by tape format.
CHAPTER 6
Simple Part Programming —
Conventions and Examples

OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:
• Understand basic part programming methodology as
applied to a vertical N/C machine.
• Identify the various codes and functions in a typical
block of N/C tape.
• Discuss related machine tool movements resulting
from N/C coordinate information.
• Demonstrate a knowledge of various auxiliary func¬
tion commands and their importance.

FUNCTIONS CONTROLLED BY N/C

Generally, an N/C program, regardless of machine type, consists of the
heading, machine tape information, and operator information. The heading
contains such clerical information as part name and number, drawing and
fixture number, date, and programmer's name. Machine tape information
contains all information necessary for proper machine operation, such as
function codes. This information will vary, depending on the particular
machine tool being used. The operator information section of an N/C
program contains position number, depth of cut, operation description, and
cutting tool information. Also included in this section is information on
setup and machine alignment, as well as any other information the pro¬
grammer feels the operator should know. This information is used strictly as
an aid to the operator for a better understanding of the job.
The functions controlling N/C are part of the machine tape information,
and are printed on a manuscript for operator and programmer reference. These
functions consist of the following: sequence numbers; preparatory and mis¬
cellaneous functions; X, Y, and Z coordinate information; spindle speeds;
feed rate; and depth selection. Each word consists of alphanumeric codes,
which relate to a specific register in the machine control unit and cause an
appropriate machine tool movement or action to occur.
This detailed information, in the form of letter and number codes, is
best understood when applied to simple N/C machines like those in figure
6-1. Such a machine would have the following capabilities: a vertical, single¬
spindle machine with X and Y positioning and readout capabilities; full

59
60 • CHAPTER 6

A B
FIGURE 6-1
Simple N/C machine tools (A, Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron Inc.; B, Courtesy of Bridgeport Machines)

floating zero; canned cycles for the various machining functions; and operator-
controlled spindle speeds, feed rates, and depth selection.

SEQUENCE NUMBER
Normally, the first word in a block of information is the sequence num¬
ber. This word, and others, appears as lighted numbers on the operator's
console. Its primary purpose is to identify each block of information so that
it can be distinguished from the rest and to indicate the block of tape being
performed. The sequence number is usually a three-digit word but can occa¬
sionally be two or four digits if specified by a certain manufacturer. The
sequence number is preceded by the letter H, 0, or N, as shown in figure
6-2. Sequence numbers normally are progressive and informational rather
than functional. The programmer may use the sequence number to indicate
any nonfunctional information. The sequence number may be omitted if
necessary. An example of this would be 0001, N002, and N003.

SEQ. PREP. X Y F MISC.

CAM
NO. FUNC. POSITION POSITION FEED RATE FUNCT.
0- G- x+-~jt —- Y+-~i — F—j - W~ M-
-1-
1 1 i
FIGURE 6-2
Typical tape format and word structure for a basic N/C machine
 SIMPLE PART PROGRAMMING - CONVENTIONS AND EXAMPLES • 61

An H or 0 block should be used for the first block of information

in every program; after every tool change; and for alignment and
realignment blocks. Depending upon machine and control type,
these rules are generally followed as full blocks of permanent infor¬
mation. They are frequently referred to through tape search. This
feature, which is incorporated into most N/C units, allows the sys¬
tem to search the tape, through operator intervention, for a partic¬
ular sequence number and stop when the number is found. Informa¬
tion may be temporarily bypassed and then recalled when needed.
The letter N is used for all other sequence blocks. It is not
necessarily a full block of information and is, therefore, never used
for searching.

X AND Y WORDS
Regardless of the type of N/C machine programmed, coordi¬
nate information is necessary for the machine tool to position itself.
This coordinate information may be expressed using X, Y, and Z
words. However, in this preliminary discussion, we will concentrate
on X and Y words.
Coordinate input is normally a seven-digit number and the sign
of the number, preceded by the letter X to indicate the X axis and
the letter Y to indicate the Y-axis. The coordinate input normally
occupies the third- and fourth-word positions in a tape format, as
shown in figure 6-2. The X and Y words are written as X±*******
and Y±*******. The position of the decimal point in coordi¬
nate information is also normally fixed in the tape format to al¬
low four places to the right of the decimal point. The command of
X+0043750 specifies the dimension of 4.3750 in the X axis and is
accepted by the control system. Most controls have the capability
of retaining the sign of the programmed word. Because of this,
and depending upon the machine and control system, the sign of
the number need only be programmed when it changes from the
previous block of information. In an H or 0 block, the sign of the
number should always be programmed to ensure the correct
sign input when starting a series of operations.
It is important to remember when programming X and Y
words that the actual centerline of the cutter is always programmed,
as shown in figure 6-3. Establishing X and Y values for point-to-
point (hole pattern) operations is easier because the direct X- and
Y-word input consists of specific locations. Milling, in contrast, is
more involved since the cutter radius must always be allowed for
in programming for X and Y (centerline) locations.
Many N/C machines are equipped with manual input dials
which allow the operator to enter specific X and Y coordinate
information when needed. As a result, the machine can be moved
62 • CHAPTER 6

FIGURE 6-3
Importance of cutter radius compensation in calculating and programming centerline locations

to an operator-selected position in the manual mode of operation. This

capability is extremely important and valuable in using X and Y coordinate
input for setup, fixture, and workpiece alignment.

LEADING AND TRAILING ZERO SUPPRESSION

Decimal point positions in coordinate information are normally fixed to
give four places to the right of the decimal point. Decimal points are not
usually programmed. However, they can be in the more modern controls.
As mentioned, the machine actuation registers accept word-addressed
information, and the machine tool responds to the corresponding signals.
The coordinate information in the word-addressed X and Y registers enters,
in most cases, in a right-to-left sequence, as shown in figure 6-4. This auto¬
matically positions the decimal point four places to the left of the X or Y
word.
Study figure 6-4. While there are seven digit positions available, only
five are needed. This means that the word could be written as X+0041250,
and the two preceding zeroes could be programmed and punched into the tape.
Either format would be acceptable to the control and machine. However,

^-

+ - - 4. 1 2 5 0
X

FIGURE 6-4
Fixed decimal location and right-to-left registration order
 SIMPLE PART PROGRAMMING - CONVENTIONS AND EXAMPLES • 63

because the words enter the registers from right to left, the two leading
zeroes, to the left of the significant digits, are insignificant and do not need
to be programmed. Therefore, they can be suppressed. The zeroes are insig¬
nificant and have no effect on the programmed word. This omission of an
insignificant digit is called leading zero suppression.
Some N/C systems have trailing zero suppression capabilities. This type
of format works just the opposite of leading zero suppression. Machine actu¬
ation registers are filled from left to right rather than from right to left. The
coordinate word X+41250, written with the leading zeroes suppressed,
would be written as X+004125 with trailing zero suppression. The decimal
point would be fixed, in this case, at three places to the right. The preceding
two zeroes now become significant as the machine actuation registers fill
from left to right.

PREPARATORY FUNCTIONS
The preparatory function or cycle code is a two-digit number preceded
by the word address letter G (G**). This code, referred to as the G code,
determines the mode of operation of the system. The preparatory function
denotes some action of the X, Y, and/or Z axes. The X and Y axes will
usually always position before the Z axis under conventional canned cycles.
A canned cycle is a combination of machine moves resulting in a partic¬
ular machining function such as drilling, milling, boring, and tapping. A
control with canned cycles may be more expensive than one without, but
there is a definite gain to offset this cost. By programming one cycle code
number, as many as seven distinct movements may occur. These seven
movements would normally take at least six blocks of programming on a
control without canned cycles. Using canned cycles, it is possible to realize a
savings of up to 50% in programming time and up to one-third less data
processing time. Tape length can also be reduced by at least one third with
canned cycles. Most control manufacturers today have both canned and
noncanned cycles as part of their standard control package.
Any further discussion of preparatory functions warrants the definition
of two important terms.
1. Rapid. Positioning the cutter and workpiece into close proximity
with one another at a high rate of travel speed, usually 150 to 400
inches per minute (IPM) before the cut is started.
2. Feed. The programmed or manually established rate of movement
of the cutting tool into the workpiece for the required machining
operation.
The following examples and descriptions of preparatory functions are some
of the basic and more common canned cycle codes assigned by El A. They
are similar to the numbering systems used by many N/C machine and control
manufacturers.
64 • CHAPTER 6

FIGURE 6-5
G81 - Drill cycle

Drill Cycle - G81. Figure 6-5 illustrates the G81 drill cycle. When a G81
cycle is programmed, the tool will:
1) rapid in X and/or Y.
2) rapid in the Z axis to gage height. (Gage height is the rapid dis¬
tance the tool advances prior to contacting the part surface or the
rapid distance the tool retracts after completing the cycle.)
3) feed in the Z axis to the Z depth.
4) rapid retract to gage height.
These four steps will occur in the same order every time a G81 cycle is
called.

Dwell Cycle - G82. The G82 dwell cycle is illustrated in figure 6-6. When
G82 is programmed, the tool will:
1) rapid in X and/or Y.
2) rapid in the Z axis to gage height.
3) feed in the Z axis to the Z depth.
4) dwell for the amount of time selected (usually .1 to 6 seconds).
5) rapid retract to gage height.
These five steps will occur in the same order every time a G82 cycle is called.

FIGURE 6-6
G82 — Dwell cycle
 SIMPLE PART PROGRAMMING - CONVENTIONS AND EXAMPLES • 65

FEED

RAPID

FIGURE 6-7
G85 — Bore cycle

Bore Cycle — G85. Figure 6-7 shows the G85 basic bore cycle. When the
G85 is programmed, the tool will:
1) rapid in X and/or Y.
2) rapid in the Z axis to gage height.
3) feed in the Z axis to the Z depth.
4) feed retract to gage height.
These four steps will occur in the same order every time a G85 cycle is
programmed.

Tap Cycle — G84. Figure 6-8 demonstrates the G84 tap cycle. When the
G84 is programmed, the tool will:
1) rapid in X and/or Y.
2) rapid in the Z axis to gage height.

-V\AA*- FEED
--► RAPID
SPINDLE DIRECTION

FIGURE 6-8
G84 — Tap cycle
66 • CHAPTER 6

3) feed in the Z axis to the Z depth.

4) reverse spindle direction and feed retract to gage height.
5) reverse spindle direction again at gage height.
These steps will occur in the same order every time a G84 cycle is called.

Basic Mill Cycle - G79. The G79 basic milling cycle is shown in figure 6-9.
When the G79 is programmed, the tool will:
1) feed in X and/or Y.
2) rapid in the Z axis to gage height.
3) feed in the Z axis to the Z depth.
4) feed to following positions.
These four steps will occur in the same order whenever a G79 is programmed.

Cancel Cycle — G80. Figure 6-10 shows the G80 cancel cycle. When a G80
is programmed, the tool will:
1) rapid in X and/or Y.
2) cancel any Z motion.
These steps will occur in the same order every time a G80 cycle is called.

X+Y

AWA—*}

GAGE HEIGHT

"Z" DEPTH
POSITIONS IF PROGRAMMED

FIGURE 6-9
G79 — Basic mill cycle

^ RAPID

FIGURE 6-10
G80 — Cancel cycle
 SIMPLE PART PROGRAMMING - CONVENTIONS AND EXAMPLES • 67

These codes illustrate some of the more common canned cycles currently
in use. Additional preparatory functions will be introduced in later chapters.

FEED RATES
Feed rates govern the amount and rate of metal removal for a particular
tool and type of workpiece material to be machined. Feed rates are normally
measured in inches per minute (IPM) but can also be measured in inches per
revolution (IPR).
For most machine tool and control manufacturers, the feed rate (F)
word is coded directly in inches per minute. This is usually a four-digit num¬
ber; the decimal point is assumed to be between the third and fourth digits
(F***.*).
Example: .5 IPM F0005
30 IPM F0300
100 1PM FI000
The maximum and minimum feed rates per axis of the machine tool will
vary depending on the machine and control manufacturer. These feed rates
dictate the permissible feed range.
For some of the simpler tape formats in use, (figure 6-2), the feed rate
(F) word is used only for milling operations. Feed rates for drilling, tapping,
reaming, and boring are generally operator-controlled through machine
adjustment and do not require tape input. On some of the more advanced
machines and controls, feed rates govern rapid and feed movements for all
cycles with operator override available.

SPINDLE SPEEDS
Spindle speeds (RPM) are not programmable for the type format dis¬
cussed here. However, they are extremely important to tool life and the
success of an N/C machine installation.
For the particular type of tape format displayed in figure 6-2, the spin¬
dle speed is totally operator-controlled as no S word may be either coded or
direct RPM programmed. Spindle speed ranges, like feed rate ranges, will
vary among machine and control manufacturers. Additional consideration
will be given to spindle speeds in the chapters discussing N/C turning and
machining centers.

DEPTH SELECTION
Other than tape-controlled Z-axis motion, operator-controlled Z-axis
motion probably contains more variations among machine and control
manufacturers than any other aspect of numerical control.
The method most commonly used with operator depth selection is to
set manually several pairs of cams. Each pair of cams controls:
68 • CHAPTER 6

FIGURE 6-11
Rapid depth gage height being set using a .375 feeler gage

• the amount of rapid advance (downward motion) to the feed engage¬

ment point or gage height (rapid depth).
• the depth of travel at the operator preset feed rate to the depth required
(feed depth).
In the format example in figure 6-2, the W word is the two-digit cam
number word. Cam numbers generally range from WOO to W09. WOO selects
manual operation and W01 through W09 selects cams 1 through 9 respectively.
As already mentioned, each cam has two settings: rapid depth and feed
depth. The rapid depth point may be set by using a feeler gage, as shown in
figure 6-11. With the tool in this position and the console and cam selector
properly set, the rapid ring may be rotated until the ''on'' cam light is illumi¬
nated. This means the limit switch is engaged and the rapid distance is set.
The feed depth may be established with the tool positioned on the
workpiece surface, as shown in figure 6-12. If this method is used, the F
(feed) ring should be set to compensate for the tool tip. In this case, with a
1.000 depth, the ring should be set at 1.000, plus an allowance for the drill
point to ensure a one-inch deep hole. This drill point allowance is approxi¬
mately .3 times the drill diameter for a 118° drill point. The remaining cams
are set in the same manner.

FIGURE 6-12
Feed depth being set with the tool
positioned on the workpiece.
 SIMPLE PART PROGRAMMING - CONVENTIONS AND EXAMPLES • 69

The WOO is a manual cam code which does not have a setting position.
When programmed, the WOO code stops the reading cycle and allows the
operator to perform manually the operation desired.
Several types of N/C machines use a rotating group of micrometer stops
to control Z depth; others use electronically adjusted stops. In each case, for
most of the simpler tape formats, the rapid and feed depths are operator-
controlled, easy to set, and quite accurate.

MISCELLANEOUS FUNCTIONS
Miscellaneous functions perform a variety of auxiliary commands in
numerical control. Generally, they are multiple-character, on/off codes that
determine a function controlling the machine. These special features,
functional at the beginning or end of a cycle, are two-digit numbers preceded
by the letter M (M**). They activate auxiliary functions such as spindle
start, coolant control, and program stop.
The following is a list of explanations of basic miscellaneous functions
in accordance with El A coding:
• MOO (Program Stop). This code inhibits the reading cycle after the
movement or function has been completed in the block in which the
program stop was coded. In addition, this code will also turn off the
spindle and coolant if activated.
• M01 (Optional Stop). This code, like the (MOO) program stops, inhibits
the reading cycle after the movement or function has been completed
in the block in which the optional stop was coded. This code will also
turn off the spindle and coolant if activated. However, the code will
only function if the operator has the control unit optional stop selector
switch in the ON position. If the optional stop selector is in the OFF
position, the (MOD will be read but no action stop will occur. For an
automatic restart of either the spindle or coolant or both, it will be
necessary to recode the proper miscellaneous function.
• M02 (End of Program). After the movement or function has been
completed in the block in which the (M02) end of program was coded,
this code will stop all interpolation (slide motion) and turn off the
spindle and coolant. In addition to stopping the spindle and coolant
and inhibiting any further slide motion, the (M02) end of program will
rewind the tape to the leader (front) portion of the tape. The tape can
also advance to the first H or 0 block if a loop tape is used, depending
on which method is selected by the console switch. All registers are
cleared when the M02 is read, and no information remains in the
control unit's memory.
• M06 (Tool Change). This function should be coded in the last block of
information in which a given tool is used. The specific machine tool
70 • CHAPTER 6

design determines the sequence of events during the tool change. This
code also stops the spindle and coolant, if activated, and retracts the
tool to the full retract position.
• M26 (Pseudo Tool Change). Although this code will vary from one
machine tool manufacturer to another, it is primarily used to generate a
retraction from gage height to the tool change position. The M26 code
will initiate the next tape command without stopping other than for
reading time. This particular miscellaneous function is primarily used
to avoid clamps and part obstructions.
For most machines and controls, the MOO, M01, M02, M06, and M26
codes are effective only in the specific blocks coded. If they are to be used
in two successive blocks, they must be repeated. It is generally not necessary
to repeat other miscellaneous codes. In addition, the M02, M06, and M26
codes will generate full retract from the gage height only. Depending on the
machine and control manufacturer, a suitable code (such as G81) must be
used in the block with these codes to bring the tool to gage height.
Miscellaneous and preparatory functions are usually classified as either
modal or nonmodal. Modal miscellaneous functions, such as M03 (spindle on
clockwise), and preparatory functions, such as G81 (cycle drill), mean that
these codes stay in effect until changed. These codes, as well as many
others, remain operational regardless of how many succeeding blocks are
programmed, until the code itself is changed. The modal condition can be
changed or cancelled by programming a new miscellaneous or preparatory
function.
Nonmodal codes, e.g., MOO, M01, M02, M06, are effective only in the
specific blocks programmed. As stated earlier, if they are to be used in two
successive blocks, they must be repeated. Nonmodal codes, therefore, do
not stay in effect until changed. They are operational only a block at a time.

SIMPLE PROGRAMMING EXAMPLES

In order to illustrate and explain practical applications of some basic
N/C functions, specific examples have been detailed and illustrated. This
method focuses attention on one particular element at a time and enables
the student to understand and comprehend the process step by step.
In figure 6-13, sequence number 015, a drill cycle (G81) is used to
move the table to position #1 from the previous position at a rapid rate.
When position #1 is reached, the tool will rapid to gage height. At this point
the tool will feed to depth. After reaching depth, the tool will rapid retract
to gage height, and the next block of tape will be read (N16). Upon reading
this block, the tool will rapid in X at gage height to position #2. When
position #2 is reached, the tool will feed to depth. After reaching depth, the
tool will rapid retract to gage height, and the M06 will retract the tool from
gage height to the back or upper limit.
 SIMPLE PART PROGRAMMING - CONVENTIONS AND EXAMPLES • 71

PREVIOUS _ POS. POS. 2 BACK OR

Jl UPPER LIMIT

.500 DIA. DRILL

|" DEEP-2 HOLES

H/0
or N
SEQ NO.

015
G
PREP
FUNCT.

G81
X
,
POSITION
--
X+4|0000
Y
POSITION
-1-
Y+2 |0000
1
POSITION

1
1
j
POSITION

1
i
F
FEED
RATE

-4
1
1
ROTARY
TABLE
i
ROTARY
FEED
RATE
W
CAM

W3
MISC.
FUNCT.
POS
NO.

1 r~ 1 1 M06 2
N16 x+ejoooo 1
-\ _i_ _i- _1_

FIGURE 6-13
G81 — Example of drill programming

NOTE: The Z depth in the example was calculated as follows:

Z feed Depth of cut Drill point
1.0000 (.3 X diameter of drill)
1.0000 (.3 X.5000)
1.1500
The value of .3 is normally used for standard 118° drills.

In figure 6-14, sequence number 015, a drill dwell cycle (G82) is used
to move the table to position #1 from the previous position at a rapid
rate. When position #1 is reached, the tool will rapid to gage height. The
tool will then feed to depth and dwell. After the dwell has terminated, the
tool will rapid retract to gage height, and the next block of tape will be read
(N16). Upon reading this block, the tool will rapid in X at gage height to
position #2. When position #2 is reached, the tool will feed to depth and
dwell. After the dwell has terminated, the tool will rapid retract to gage
height, and the M06 will retract the tool from gage height to the back or
upper limit.

NOTE: There is generally a selector switch on controls which can be set to

determine the amount of dwell. The setting is usually from .1 to 6
seconds.

Study figure 6-15. Sequence number 015, a bore cycle (G85) is used
to move the table to position #1 from the previous position at a rapid
72 • CHAPTER 6

H/0 G F ROTARY
or N PREP. X Y 1 J FEED ROTARY FEED W MISC. POS
SEQ NO. FUNCT. POSITION POSITION POSITION POSITION RATE TABLE RATE CAM FUNCT NO.

015 G82
!
X+4|0000
i-1- -
Y+2 |0000 1
l
r -- 1
W3 i
1 i l
N16 J
X+6 0000 1 1 1
_1_ _i_ _i_
i 1
_i_ M06 2

FIGURE 6-14
G82 — Example of dwell programming

H/O G F ROTARY
or N PREP X Y 1 j FEED ROTARY FEED w MISC. POS.
SEQ. NO. FUNCT POSITION POSITION POSITION POSITION RATE TABLE RATE CAM FUNCT NO.

015 G85
1
X+41 0000
i
Y+2 |0000
1
1
! r 1
W4 i
i 1
N16 X+61 0000 1 ~r
-1- _i_ _1_ i 1 M06 2
_1_

FIGURE 6-15
G85 — Example of bore programming
 SIMPLE PART PROGRAMMING - CONVENTIONS AND EXAMPLES • 73

1/4"-20 TAP
2 HOLES - 3/4" DEEP

H/0 G F ROTARY
or N PREP. X Y 1 J FEED ROTARY FEED W MISC. POS
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FIGURE 6-16
G84 — Example of tap programming

rate. When position #1 is reached, the tool will rapid to gage height. At
this point, the tool will feed to depth. After reaching depth, it will feed
retract to gage height, and the next block of tape will be read (N16). Upon
reading this block, the tool will rapid in X at gage height to position #2.
When position #2 is reached, the tool will feed to depth. After reaching
depth, it will feed retract to gage height, and M06 will retract the tool from
gage height to the back or upper limit.
In figure 6-16, sequence number 015, a tap cycle (G84) is used to move
the table to position #1 from the previous position at a rapid rate. When
position #1 is reached, the tool will rapid to gage height. At this point, the
tool will feed to depth. At depth, the spindle will reverse its direction and
feed retract to gage height, and reverse the spindle direction again. The next
block of tape will be read (N16). Upon reading this block, the tool will
rapid in X at gage height to position #2. When position #2 is reached, it will
feed to depth. At depth, the spindle will reverse and feed retract to gage
height where the spindle direction will reverse again. The M06 will retract
the tool from gage height to the back or upper limit.
In figure 6-17, sequence number 010, a G80 cancel cycle is used to posi¬
tion the table in X and/or Y at a rapid rate. The cam (W2) is stored in the con¬
trol. In sequence Nil, a G79 is used to rapid the tool to gage height and feed
the tool to depth (.125 depth of cut). It is very important not to put an X
and/or Y coordinate value in this block because the coordinate position would
be satisfied first and then the Z motion would be satisfied. The sole purpose of
this block is to feed the tool to depth. In sequence N12, the tool will move
across the part at the programmed feed rate to position #2. In sequence N13,
the G81 - M06 combination will retract the tool to the back or upper limit. A
G80 along with an M02 or M26 could also be used for retraction.
74 • CHAPTER 6

PREVIOUS POS. I
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BACK OR
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FIGURE 6-17
G80 and G79 programming example

Figures 6-18 and 6-19 illustrate a complete and basic part and N/C
program as applied to a vertical Cintimatic N/C machine. The routing for
N/C processing the part would be to drill and tap complete along with mill¬
ing the .25-inch deep step.
Examine the part in figure 6-18. There are two .500-inch holes drilled
through, along with two .250-20-inch holes to be drilled and tapped com¬
pletely through. In addition, a .25-inch deep step must be milled .38 inch
wide across the entire width of the part. The material is 1018 steel.
The programmer, as discussed earlier, will determine the setup, align¬
ment position, and coordinates to be used. In this particular case, the pro¬
grammer has elected to use setup coordinate values of X = 10.0000 and Y =
10.0000. Consequently, all coordinate values will be positive and in the first
quadrant, as illustrated in figure 6-20. This diagram indicates how, when
calculating X and Y coordinates, actual part dimensions must be added to or
subtracted from the alignment positions used by the programmer.
The following part program explanation is detailed on a block by block
basis.

0001 .375 spot drill- spot first .250-20 hole- cam 1

X position = 10.0000 + 6.5000 = 16.5000
Y position = 10.0000 - 2.0000 = 8.0000
 SIMPLE PART PROGRAMMING - CONVENTIONS AND EXAMPLES • 75

.500 drill through

FIGURE 6-18
Mounting plate

N002 spot 2nd .250-20 hole X position = 10.0000 + 4.0000 = 14.0000

same Y value (8.0000), does not need to be repeated
N003 spot 3rd hole- first .500 hole
X position = 10.0000 + 1.0000 = 11.0000
Y position = 10.0000 - 3.5000 = 6.5000
N004 spot 4th hole- 2nd .500 hole
same X value (11.0000), does not need to be repeated
Y position = 10.0000 - 1.0000 = 9.0000-tool change
0005 tool remains at same location (X = 110000, Y = 90000)
new block of information- all values repeated-
new cam-drill 1st .500 dia. hole
76 • CHAPTER 6

PART NAME: Mounting plate SETUP INFO: Locate part in vise — end stop on left end.
MATERIAL: 1018 Steel Set X = 10.0000 and Y = 10.0000.

SEQ. PREP. X Y FEED W MISC.

RPM DEPTH REMARKS
NO. FUNC. POSITION POSITION IPM CAM FUNC.
0001 G81 X +165000 Y + 80000 4.8 W01 800 .300 .375 spot drill
N002 X +140000
N003 X +110000 Y + 65000
N004 Y + 90000 M06
0005 G81 X +110000 Y + 90000 4.8 W02 600 .900 .500 drill
N006 Y + 65000 M06
0007 G81 X +140000 Y + 80000 5.6 W03 1400 .060 .203 drill
N008 X +165000 M06
0009 G84 X +165000 Y + 80000 45 W04 1000 1.25 .250-20 tap
N010 X +140000 M06
0011 G80 X +179950 Y + 45250 4.8 W05 400 .750 dia. two-flute end mill
N012 G79 .25
N013 Y +103750 F40
N014 G80 M26
N015 M02

FIGURE 6-19
Mounting plate — basic N/C program

FIGURE 6-20
Diagram illustrating part to coordinate system location based on X and Y setup points as selected by programmer
 SIMPLE PART PROGRAMMING - CONVENTIONS AND EXAMPLES • 77

N006 drill 2nd .500 dia. hole same X value (11.0000),

does not need to be repeated- Y value changes to
Y = 65000- tool change
0007 drill 1st .203 drill
X value (X + 140000) and Y value (Y + 80000) repeated
from center drill operation- new block of information-
all values repeated- new cam
N008 drill 2nd .203 hole
X value changes to X = 16.5000
Y value remains same at Y = 8.0000- tool change
0009 tool remains at same location (X + 165000, Y + 80000)
new block of information- all values repeated-
new cam- tap 1st .250 -20 hole
N010 tap second .250-20 hole
X value changes to X = 14.0000
Y value remains same at Y = 8.0000- tool change
O011 rapid traverse to position (G80) to begin milling step
coordinates calculated as follows: new cam
X
10.0000 — X align position
+ 8.0000 — length of part
18.0000
- .38 — subtract step width
17.6200
+ .375 — add half of .750 cutter dia.
17.9950 — X coordinate value
Y
10.0000 — Y align position
- 5.0000 — width of part
5.0000
.375 — subtract half of .750 cutter dia.
4.6250
- .100— subtract. 100 additional clearance
4.5250 — Y coordinate value
N012 G79 milling cycle actuated- quill rapids down to cam
depth at X + 179950 and Y + 45250 position
N013 .750 cutter feeds to end position at 4 IPM
machine feeds in Y direction- generally towards positive
stop- calculation is as follows (refer to figure 6-20):
Y
10.0000 — Y position
+ .375 — half of .750 cutter dia.
10.375 — ending Y coordinate value
N014 cancel G79 milling cycle (G80)
retract quill (M26)
N015 end program (M02)
 PART NAME PART NO.

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 SIMPLE PART PROGRAMMING - CONVENTIONS AND EXAMPLES • 79

As was discussed earlier, these examples represent only some of the

more widely used basic codes and functions. Most N/C machines have more
capabilities than those discussed here. Some of the other capabilities will be
discussed in detail later.
A full-page manuscript form is illustrated in figure 6-21. This is typical
of a manual part programming form for the type of machine and format dis¬
cussed in this chapter. Before actual programming begins, all information on
speeds, feeds, hole locations, and so on must be assembled in an orderly
arrangement to simplify the process and reduce errors. Forms similar to that
in figure 6-21 help organize all necessary information on machining sequence,
tool numbers and description, feeds and speeds, etc. Having this information
tabulated simplifies manual and computer methods of part programming.

REVIEW QUESTIONS_
1. Name and describe briefly the three main parts of an N/C program.
2. What is the primary purpose of the sequence number in an N/C
program? What are the general rules determining when a 0 block
should be used?
3. How is the position of the decimal point accounted for when coding
N/C coordinate information?
4. What important cutter-to-workpiece relationship must be considered
when programming an N/C milling operation?
5. Explain leading zero suppression and its significance to loading the
machine actuation registers.
6. In general, what is meant by a preparatory function?
7. What is the difference between canned cycle and noncanned cycle
preparatory functions?
8. Name and describe some advantages of canned cycle preparatory
functions.
9. What is the basic difference between the G81 and G82 codes?
10. What occurs each time the G84 tap cycle is programmed?
11. Describe in detail the importance of programmed feed rates in an
N/C program?
12. Briefly explain how operator-controlled cams function.
13. What are miscellaneous functions? What type of machine commands
are controlled by these codes?
14. What types of information should be organized and completed prior
to beginning an N/C program?
 P.HAPTER 7
Other Functions
Controlled by N/C

OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:
" • Understand linear and circular interpolation and their
functional operations.
• Explain the importance of preset tooling and tool
length compensation.
• Describe how work surfaces and related changes are
programmed.
• Discuss the primary differences between random and
sequential tooling.
• Understand how varying differences in cutter diame¬
ters are compensated and programmed.
• Demonstrate a knowledge of additional tooling func¬
tions and their importance.

LINEAR INTERPOLATION
Linear interpolation is programmed points connected by a series of
straight line movements. These straight line movements will result in the
desired contour when programmed correctly and in sufficient supply.
The best way to represent linear interpolation and related moves is to
first review figure 7-1, a circle with a hexagon inside. Each of the sides of
the hexagon is a chord or straight line segment connecting extremities of an
arc. If more chords were added inside the circle, the chords together would
come closer to being a perfect circle. The number of straight line segments
required for machining is determined by the maximum tolerance allowed
between the design of the contour and the programmed line segment. The
accuracy, then, of the arc or contour to be machined will depend on the size
of the line segments and the number of programmed points.
Figure 7-2 illustrates the relationship between the desired cutter path
and the actual cutter path along with programmed points for one linear
interpolation move. A programmer using linear interpolation to program a
circular path must determine the maximum allowable part error and center-
line error. As the acceptable part error gets smaller, more programmed points
are required to generate the curve. In figure 7-2, only two programmed

80
 OTHER FUNCTIONS CONTROLLED BY N/C • 81

FIGURE 7-1
A circle with hexagon inside illustrating a chord-to-circle relationship

points are shown, but all coordinate positions necessary to complete the curve
with an acceptable surface finish must appear in the program. This means the
more programmed points that are needed to define the line segments, the great¬
er the length of the N/C program. It also means that the amount of program¬
ming time increases as the number of line segments increases because each
point, regardless of the distance between them, must be programmed.

FIGURE 7-2
Diagram depicting the relationship between the desired cutter path and the actual cutter path
82 • CHAPTER 7

Linear interpolation moves to generate the desired contour are controlled

by the rate of travel in two directions proportional to the distance moved. A
linear interpolation cut requires the X and Y drive motors to run at unequal
speeds, thus dictating an elaborate control/drive system. Most of the more
advanced controls contain sophisticated control/drive systems and are capa¬
ble of linear interpolation moves.

CIRCULAR INTERPOLATION
Circular interpolation allows the programmer to move the cutting tool
in a circular path ranging from a small arc segment to a full 360-degree span.
The cutter path along the arc is generated by the control system. Arcs up to
90 degrees can be handled by the control in one block of information. On some
control systems the programmer will have to program four blocks of informa¬
tion to obtain a 360-degree arc. The total number of blocks programmed nor¬
mally will vary depending on the specific type of circular interpolation used.
There are different versions of circular interpolation available on modern
equipment, along with different programming techniques. On some MCUs, cir¬
cular interpolation is limited to the XY, XZ, or YZ axes; the control cannot si¬
multaneously interpolate circular movements for all three axes. This text will
concentrate on the concept of circular interpolation and a specific application.
The four basic points necessary to program this particular type of circu¬
lar interpolation are shown in figure 7-3. The points are:

Workpiece

FIGURE 7-3
The four basic elements of circular interpolation
 OTHER FUNCTIONS CONTROLLED BY N/C • 83

• preparatory function (G02/G03)

• start point

• center point
• end point

The preparatory function codes G02 and G03 are EIA standard codes.
They are used for programming circular interpolation. These codes determine
the direction of the circular path as viewed from the positive end of the axis
that is perpendicular to the plane of interpolation (3:00 position in X and
V).

G02 = circular interpolation clockwise (CW)

G03 = circular interpolation counterclockwise (CCW)

These codes are programmed in the block where circular interpolation be¬
comes effective. They remain effective until a new preparatory function
code is programmed.
The start point, an X, Y, and/or Z coordinate, is usually the result of a
previous arc (circular interpolation) or the end point of a line (linear inter¬
polation). The start point is always described by X, Y, and/or Z words, and
it normally positions the cutting tool for the following circular move.
The center point (an X, Y, and/or Z coordinate) is the center of the
circular arc. The center point is described by I, J, and K words. The I
word describes the X coordinate value; the J word describes the Y coor¬
dinate value; and the K word describes the Z coordinate value. Usually,
the I, J, and K words are absolute values regardless if they are programmed
in the absolute or incremental mode. The center point is modal in the ab¬
solute mode but must be programmed in each block in the incremental
mode.
The end point, and X, Y, and/or Z coordinate, is the final point where
the centerline of the cutter path completes the circular arc. The end point
is described by X, Y, and/or Z words, and must be programmed in every
block using circular interpolation. When programming circular interpola¬
tion, arcs using more than one 90-degree quadrant, the point where the arc
crosses into another quadrant must be programmed as an end point. The
control assumes this end point to be the start point for the next 90-degree
circular span. In the next block of information, it is necessary only to pro¬
gram a new end point. A new center point is programmed only if the cen¬
ter coordinates of the arc are changed. If the end point does not fall on
the arc defined by the center and the calculated radius, the cutter path
and its rate are unpredictable as no program error will be indicated in most
cases.
The following program illustrates the use of circular interpolation for
the part depicted in figure 7-4.
84 • CHAPTER 7

FIGURE 7-4
Part programmed with linear and circular interpolation

H001 G80 X + 060000 Y + 080000- PI

N002 G79 -DEPTH- PI
N003 Y +120000 P2
N004 X +100000 P3
N005 G02 X + 120000 Y + 100000 I + 100000 J + 100000 P6
N006 X + 100000 Y + 080000 1 + 100000 J + 100000 P5
N007 G79 X + 060000 PI
N008- -FULL RETRACT- PI
N009 G80 X + 100000 Y + 100000 M02 P4

NOTE: (N005 and N006) The end point of the first arc becomes the start
point of the second arc.

If the part in figure 7-4 was programmed with linear interpolation, it

would require approximately thirty-six linear spans to program the 180-
degree arc. The programming of the 180-degree arc using circular interpola¬
tion requires only two blocks of information to be programmed for two
 OTHER FUNCTIONS CONTROLLED BY N/C • 85

90-degree arcs. Additionally, the tape length for this program would be
approximately 1.5 feet as compared to a tape length of approximately 6.3
feet for the linear program.
There are other types of interpolation available with modern MCUs,
including parabolic, cubic, and helical interpolation. Parabolic interpolation
is used to approximate curved sections that conform to either a complete
parabola or a portion of one. Cubic interpolation is applicable to automo¬
tive shapes requiring third-degree curve interpolation of sheet metal forming
dies. Helical interpolation lends itself to helical cutting applications where
the control must calculate the radius of the helix from the start of the arc to
the center. If the end point does not fall on the arc defined, the control will
interpolate a helical arc as far as possible and then move to the programmed
end point with a linear move.
Parabolic, cubic, and helical interpolation are specialized applications
for the particular needs of industries that manufacture components with
complex shapes. The most common interpolation routine is circular. It
lends itself to a variety of common manufacturing applications.

PROGRAMMABLE Z DEPTH
Most modern machine tools have programmable Z motion. Although
the procedures differ in some aspects between manufacturers, the Z motion
must be programmed accurately by the programmer if the machine tool is to
produce quality workpieces.
Generally, the Z word is a seven-digit word preceded by a plus or minus
sign and the Z-word address. It controls the depth to which a particular tool
enters the workpiece for each machining operation. The Z motion is relative
to a rapid to-position move of some type, through either an R word (to be
discussed later) or a rapid traverse fixed rate with a specific Z.
If only the Z word is programmed to control the entire Z axis move¬
ment, the following formula can be used in most cases:

Z = PS + CL + TL

where: Z = distance from ZO to spindle gage line

PS = distance from ZO to the part surface
CL = clearance (if needed)
*TL = tool set length from spindle gage line to cutting edge

To find the Z value for the part and tool in figure 7-5, the following
calculation is made:

*Since many systems are arranged with a tool length storage feature, the control in some cases will add
the tool set length (TL) to the programmed Z value. In this case, the programmer need not include
the tool set length dimension when calculating the Z word.
86 • CHAPTER 7

SPINDLE GAGE
PART LINE

Z10.0000

PS ^
ZO

\\W
4"

CONTOURING
’ MODE ZO 6" TL-

PROGRAM
VALUE

FIGURE 7-5
Z value calculation, showing part and tool

Z = PS + CL + TL
Where: PS = 4.0000
TL = 6.0000
CL = 0.0000 (cutter positional to part surface)

Z=4+0+6
Z= 10.0000
Additional applications of Z motion will be discussed later in a section on R
work plane as applied to fixed cycle programmable Z.

TOOL LENGTH COMPENSATION

Allowances must be made for differences in tool lengths because they
may vary considerably from one tool to the next. Most companies overcome
these differences in tool length by having all tools preset. Presetting tools
establishes consistency of length each time that particular tool is required.
Some companies have prepared too! assembly drawings for each tool.
These tool layouts are prepared to describe the cutting tool and its setting
length, figure 7-6. Each tool is given a symbolic number. On machines and
controls equipped with tool assembly number storage, this is the number
accessed on the machining center and stored within the control.
The standard center drill for the tool assembly shown in figure 7-6 must
be set with dimensions consistent as described on the drawing. Generally,
individuals in tool stores, a tool preset area, or the machine operator will
assemble the drill in its holder according to the tool assembly drawing each
 OTHER FUNCTIONS CONTROLLED BY N/C • 87

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88 • CHAPTER 7

FIGURE 7-7
An electronic preset tool gage
(Courtesy of Cincinnati Mila-
cron Inc.)

time the tool is required. Preset and tool store personnel will sometimes
maintain a duplicate set of drawings consistent with tools selected for use
in N/C programming. When the part is ready to be processed, the preset area
assembles all the tools specified by the part programmer according to each
tool assembly number.
In some cases, an electronic tool gage is used to obtain the overall
length of the tool. An example of this type of tool preset gage is shown in
figure 7-7. Recent advances in tool presetting have allowed electronic tool
gages to be interfaced directly to the MCU for direct tool length entry into
the control system. This type of gaging and machine control interface helps
obtain accurate tool lengths and reduce human error.
It is important to remember that the machine must be made to cut
metal as constant as possible to maximize productivity. Therefore, arrange¬
ments must be made to replace dull cutting tools in a minimum amount of
time and still maintain accurate tool lengths. Additional consideration of
tool lengths and tool length compensation will be covered in Chapter 9.

R WORK PLANE
The R word in N/C programming refers to the work surface or rapid
distance being programmed. The Z rapid position, as the work plane is
 OTHER FUNCTIONS CONTROLLED BY N/C • 89

FIGURE 7-8
Establishing and calculating R000000

sometimes called, is established as the R work surface location at a specified

height on the part. All other work surfaces are relative to this location and
thus height or distance is established. On some N/C machines, this is the
highest part surface and will be used in our example.
As can be seen in figure 7-8, R000000 is sometimes established at the
highest work surface by setting all tools at this surface. When setting up the
job, the operator places a .100 gage block on top of the highest work surface
(or any other location the programmer has specified). The turret is lowered,
or the spindle is brought up to the workpiece, by jog control, so that the tool in
the spindle just touches this .100 gage block. The operator then sets the tool
length compensation switches if applicable, and the setting to R000000 is com¬
plete for that tool. This same process is repeated for all tools as they are all
random length at the same height. The gage height distance is normally
.100. Generally, it is not necessary to add in this distance when changing
work surfaces, as can be seen from our example. In most cases, the gage
height distance of .100 is built into the MCU. Whenever a Z feed motion is
called for, the .100 will be automatically added to the programmed Z depth.
When programming the R word, the programmer must always know the
location of each tool's tip, particularly when changing work surfaces. When
changing work surfaces, the programmer simply programs the R or rapid
distance as indicated on the blueprint. As shown in the example, a rapid
distance of one inch is specified as an R10000 and will position the tool .100
above the part surface.
The programmed Z depth of .375 (Z3750) at R000000 could also be
programmed at an R10000. In addition, a programmed R is modal. That is.
90 • CHAPTER 7

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 OTHER FUNCTIONS CONTROLLED BY N/C • 91

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92 • CHAPTER 7

the programmed R plane or work surface stops or locks in the MCU until a
new R word is programmed.
When a new R word is programmed, a change in work surface will re¬
sult. Whether the programmer wants to move the tool to a higher or lower
work surface is of considerable importance. Machine tools that require an R
word to be programmed usually have a specific order of processing blocks of
information. For a block of information which contains an X, Y, R, and Z
word, the X and Y words have the highest priority and will be satisfied first.
The R word has the second highest priority and will be satisfied second. The
machine tool will respond with a rapid traverse move to satisfy these words
at the rapid traverse rate of the machine tool (sometimes 400 I PM). The Z
word has the lowest priority, and the tool will feed to depth only after the X
and Y words have positioned the cutting tool and the R word has satisfied
the programmed work surface. No problems are presented when changing
from a higher to lower work surface, figure 7-9, because of the order in
which the priorities are followed — X and Y first, R second, and Z feed last.
When changing from a lower to a higher work surface, the priorities are
the same but must be programmed differently. Programming a block of in¬
formation with X, Y, R, and Z in the same line of information, when moving
from a lower to higher work surface, will result in a collision of the tool at
rapid traverse against the side of the workpiece. This could cause tool
breakage, injury to the operator, and considerable damage to the toolholder
and machine spindle, as well as other serious effects. This problem must be
overcome by retracting the tool to the higher work surface first with a G80,
then reinstating the desired code plus the new X and Y positions, as shown
in figure 7-10. Being aware of clamp locations when programming is also
important. The programmer may find it necessary to avoid accidents by
programming Z avoidances in order to move over or around clamps.
When preparing a program, the programmer must know on what surface
the programmed tool is, where the tool will rapid to next, and the path the
tool will follow to reach the next position. Herein lies a serious problem
when programming N/C equipment. Programmers often overlook these
potential collisions when checking their manuscripts, and critical and expen¬
sive accidents occur.
Additional examples of programming the R word are illustrated and
discussed in Chapter 9. It should be noted that each machine tool and
control manufacturer has its own programming specifications and require¬
ments for its equipment. The correct programming manual should always be
consulted before attempting to program a specific machine tool and control
system.

RANDOM AND SEQUENTIAL TOOLING

Both random and sequential tooling are used on a variety of modern
machine tools. Random refers to a lack of a specific pattern of tool selection.
 OTHER FUNCTIONS CONTROLLED BY N/C • 93

Sequential means that tools are accessed in a particular order of succession.

Sequential tool selection requires the tools to be loaded in the exact order
they will be used in the program. When the program begins, the tools are
selected and used one after the other, maintaining the established sequence.
The correct sequential loading of the tools is of primary importance to the
operator for the successful execution of the part program. If, for some
reason, the tools are placed out of order, the N/C machine will not know the
difference; it will just change to the next tool in sequence and place it in the
spindle. Consequently, it may try to drill with a tap. This may cause
significant injury to the operator, plus damaged tools and equipment. In
addition, once a tool takes its turn in sequence and is returned to the tool
storage drum, it cannot be used again. This would mean breaking the
sequence to reuse a particular tool. Normally, if a tool of the same diameter
is required more than once in a program, two tools of the same diameter are
programmed in their proper sequence. Sequential tooling has its merits, but
extreme care must be taken to maintain the proper sequence of tools used.
Random tooling is more widely used in industry because of the versatil¬
ity it provides over sequential selection. When a tool change is called for, the
tool changer arm removes the previous tool, puts the next tool in the spindle,
and replaces the previous tool in the tool magazine in the specific pocket as¬
signed to that tool assembly number. The CNC, in most cases, will remember
the location of the tool by the tool assembly number initially input to the
control and assigned a pocket location. The important feature of random
tooling is that any tool can be accessed by the MCU and loaded into the
machine spindle at any time. The MCU does not care about the order of the
tools or if they have been used previously.
The programmer must be especially careful to ensure that the workpiece
is moved far enough away from the spindle before a tool change is executed for
either random or sequential tooling. Such precautions help prevent collisions
resulting from a tool being loaded into the spindle. The programmer will often
direct the machine tool to its full retracted position prior to any tool changes.

ADAPTIVE CONTROL
When programming N/C equipment, the programmer usually deter¬
mines the feeds and speeds based upon the tool type and diameter, material
type, setup rigidity, etc. Usually, optimum feeds and speeds are approached
to make the N/C machine and cutting tool as productive as possible. This
does not occur often due to excessive material hardness and dull cutting
tools. Tool breakage may occur until the feeds and speeds are cut back to
accommodate the particular machining circumstances.
Adaptive control, or torque controlled machining, was developed to
speed up or slow down a cutting tool while the tool is engaged in the actual
cutting operation. The function of adaptive control is to sense machining
conditions, figure 7-11, and adjust the feeds and speeds accordingly. Sensing
94 • CHAPTER 7

Altered speed (RPM) conditions

FIGURE 7-11
Diagram illustrating sensing and feedback adaptive control signals

devices are built into the machine spindle to sense torque, heat, and vibration.
These sensing devices provide feedback signals to the MCU, which contains the
preprogrammed safe limits. If the preprogrammed safe limits are exceeded,
the MCU alters or adjusts the feeds and speeds.
Programming requirements are basically the same with adaptive control.
However, it may be necessary to insert specific codes in order to turn the
function on or off. The types of adaptive control and how they are used will
vary, of course, among machine and control manufacturers.
The use of adaptive control is becoming increasingly popular as more
companies try to optimize machine spindle time and reduce tooling require¬
ments. Adaptive control provides automatic optimization of N/C machining
operations to part manufacturing facilities.

CUTTER DIAMETER COMPENSATION

Most builders of numerical control units offer some type of cutter
diameter compensation (CDC). This feature provides the capability to use a
cutter of a different diameter than that originally intended when the part
was programmed. The operator may use either an oversize or undersize
cutter and still maintain the programmed part geometry.
The difference in cutter diameters, between the one programmed and the
one used, can range from -1.0000 inch to +1.0000 inch. This compensation
 OTHER FUNCTIONS CONTROLLED BY N/C * 95

value can be input to the control in increments of 0.0001 by using the

keyboard input panel. A positive (+) value indicates an oversize cutter; a
negative (-) value indicates an undersize cutter.
Using this feature, a CDC value can be entered into the control for each
tool number programmed. Inputting a CDC value for one tool does not
affect CDC values for other tools. The CDC value becomes active when the
appropriate tool is loaded into the spindle. If the value is changed after the
tool is loaded, it becomes active on the next span prepared by the control
system. The CDC value usually is not effective unless the appropriate codes
are programmed on the tape. CDC can also be programmed with both linear
and circular interpolation, but usually only in the XY plane.
Cutter diameter compensation enhances the capability of the machine
and control system. It permits accurate cuts to be made with undersize or
oversize cutters. Methods of input vary, but the function still provides the
same increased capability.

OTHER FUNCTIONS
Many machine and control options exist which provide increased tech¬
nical capabilities for both programming and operation of N/C equipment. Al¬
though it is impossible to list and discuss all options, the following terms
introduce additional tooling functions on a variety of modern equipment.

TOOL TRIM
The tool trim function permits the operator to adjust the Z axis com¬
mand positions to compensate for inaccuracies which could result in varia¬
tions of machining depths. Tool trim codes are usually two-digit words pre¬
ceded by a letter (sometimes D). The code specifies the trim value, from a
group, that is to be operative during a portion of the program. The trim
value is entered into the CNC by the operator. The values normally range
from ±0.0001 to ±1.0000 inch. Negative values move the tool tip closer to
the work surface, and positive values move it away from the surface. Tool
trims for a particular tool stay in effect until cancelled by a new tool trim
code, tool change, end of program, or data reset.

TOOL USAGE MONITOR

This feature monitors the actual tool usage time as compared to the
predicted effective tool life for the particular tool. The predicted tool life
can be entered by the operator via the CNC keyboard. If the tool cycle time
expires while the tool is in the spindle, an error message will be displayed on
the CRT screen. The machining cycle will not be inhibited but the operator
will be notified that the tool should be replaced.
96 • CHAPTER 7
,■ .
*■''')• O -t •• •
'\;t\ ..
TOOL SETUP IDENTIFICATION
The tool setup identification feature allows tooling to be assigned to a spe¬
cific set-up. Tools may also be shared between setups and common tools left
resident in the tool storage mechanism. When placing a new setup on the ma¬
chine or when coordinating tooling for dual fixturing or pallet shuttle ma¬
chines, the CRT displays tools that are to be added or deleted during job set¬
up and removal.

TOOL DATA TAPE ENTRY

In addition to keyboard entry, tooling data can be entered froma punched
tape and loaded into the control via the tape reader. This tape can be prepared
on an off-line perforator/printer. Once loaded into the system, an updated
copy of the tool data tape can also be punched directly from the control tool
data file if the system is equipped with an optional tape punch feature.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is linear interpolation? What factors must be considered when
programming circular cuts with linear interpolation?
2. What is circular interpolation? What four points must be programmed
in circular interpolation? Why? How should arcs greater than 90
degrees be programmed using circular interpolation?
3. Name other types of interpolation available on modern MCUs and
briefly discuss what they are used for.
4. Explain how some programmed Z depths are calculated. What
important factors must be considered when programming Z depths?
5. What are preset tools, and why are they important? What consistency
is achieved by maintaining a library of tool assemblies?
6. What is the significance of the R work surface? How is it calculated?
What gage height distance is automatically allowed for when program¬
ming work surfaces?
7. When a specific work surface is programmed, what must be initiated
to change the programmed work surface? Are programmed Z depths
relative to a specific work surface? Explain in detail.
8. What is the order of processing a block of information which con¬
tains X-, Y-, R-, and Z-word information?
9. What types of problems may arise when changing from a lower to a
higher work surface? How can these problems be avoided in program¬
ming? What must the programmer be aware of at all times?
10. Explain the difference between sequential and random tooling. Which
is most widely used today? Why?
11. Describe adaptive control and its primary purpose. What advantages
can be gained from adaptive control?
12. Why is cutter diameter compensation (CDC) needed? Briefly explain
its function.
13. Name some other tooling control features that exist on modern N/C
equipment, and briefly explain their functions.
CHAPTER 8_
Modern N/C Turning
Centers and Programming

OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:
• Understand the importance of N/C turning centers to
the metal-working industry.
• Discuss the traversing and positioning of the machine
axes.
• Explain the basic tape controlled functions for an
N/C lathe.
• Identify the types of operations performed on an N/C
turning center.
• Describe system subroutines and their primary impor¬
tance.

The lathe, one of the oldest and most productive machine tools, main¬
tains its position today as an efficient producer of rotational parts. Modern
N/C lathes, figures 8-1, 8-2, and 8-3, look nothing like their predecessors, but

FIGURE 8-1
A modern N/C
turning center
(Courtesy of Cin¬
cinnati Milicron
Inc.)

97
98 • CHAPTER 8

FIGURE 8-2
A modern IVI/C turning center (Courtesy of Turning Machine Division, The Warner 8i Swasey Co., subsid¬
iary of Bendix Corporation)

FIGURE 8-3
A modern N/C turning center (Courtesy of Lodge 8( Shipley Company)
 MODERN N/C TURNING CENTERS AND PROGRAMMING • 99

they accomplish the same basic functions in a much more efficient, precise,
and expedient manner. Studies indicate that the sales of N/C turning centers
for the next ten years will increase substantially in the manufacturing mar¬
ketplace. The increase in popularity of these mechanical and electrical en¬
gineering wonders is attributable to the competition. The ability to manu¬
facture a product faster, better, and more economically, and to sell at a
profit, has always been the motivating force of our free enterprise system.
The N/C lathe is one such tool that helps to achieve that goal.

N/C LATHE AXES

A basic N/C turning center, figure 8-4, uses only two axes: Z and X.
The Z axis, as mentioned before, travels parallel to the machine spindle.
Therefore, a line drawn through the center of the spindle is the Z axis. For
both OD (outside diameter) and ID (inside diameter) operations, a negative
Z (-Z) is a movement of the saddle toward the headstock. A positive Z (+Z)
is a movement of the saddle away from the headstock. The X axis travels
perpendicular to the spindle centerline. A negative X (-X) moves the cross
slide toward the centerline of the spindle, and a positive X (+X) moves the
cross slide away from the spindle centerline. Some machine tool builders
mount the cross slide on a slant bed. Other manufacturers mount their cross
slides on a vertical support. Both designs allow the chips to fall free and
provide very rigid support.
The N/C lathe movements are, for the most part, controlled by EIA and
AIA codes, although each manufacturer uses its own specific coding format.
Additional or auxiliary N/C lathe movements, such as rotating turrets,
circular interpolation, and swing-up tailstocks, are also controlled through
the specific tape format.
For positioning turning center axes, both absolute and incremental pro¬
gramming are used. It was not until recently that absolute became available.
Most older turning centers were limited to incremental positioning only. Even
when incremental positioning is used, the program manuscript form usually
contains two extra columns (Z and X) for the programmer to keep track of
the absolute dimensions from the zero point. Absolute programming, in
contrast, simplifies the effort involved in manual part programming, depend¬
ing on how the part is dimensioned, and helps to ensure accuracy.
Absolute and incremental programming are equally effective. For
modern turning centers, the choice is up to the N/C programmer. If the
dimensions on the blueprint are given incrementally, the programmer simply
programs a G91 for incremental and the system immediately readies itself to
accept incremental input. If workpieces are dimensioned in absolute form,
the programmer uses a G90 for absolute input.

OD AND ID OPERATIONS
Regardless of the type of N/C turning center used, a variety of OD and
ID operations are performed. In this discussion of OD and ID operations, we
100 • CHAPTER 8

will refer to a slant bed machine with both OD and ID tooling mounted on
the same turret indexing mechanism. Figure 8-4 shows a seven-position
turret indexing mechanism which possesses the capacity for seven OD tools
and seven ID tools. Most OD and ID tools have clearance offsets to avoid
interference with the chuck. In addition, there is automatic compensation
of the offsets when changing tools and going from an OD to an ID operation
or from an ID to an OD operation.

1. HI/LOW CHUCK PRESSURE

2. ACRAMATIC 900TC REMOTE CONSOLE
AND TAPE READER
3. ROLLING SHIELD PANEL
4. TAILSTOCK QUILL PRESSURE (IF SUPPLIED)
AND AUTO STEADY REST PRESSURE (IF
SUPPLIED) ARE MOUNTED ON THE RIGHT SIDE
OF BED. ROLLING SHIELD IN ILLUSTRATION
HIDES THESE CONTROLS.
5. CHIP CONVEYOR
6. ROLLING SHIELD
7. TURRET
8. CHUCK
9. HEADSTOCK PANEL

FIGURE 8-4
Typical N/C turning center with axis description and major components indicated
 MODERN N/C TURNING CENTERS AND PROGRAMMING • 101

OD COMMON TOOL POINT

FIGURE 8-5
A qualified OD toolholder

ENCLOSED
CIRCLE D1 A. . 250 .3125 • 375 . 500 .625 . 750 1 . 000
(1C)

TOOL POINT . 0^7 .094

.015 .031
RAD 1 US
WT3-55

FIGURE 8-6
Standard qualified tool point insert radii
102 • CHAPTER 8

Qualified toolholders must be used to perform OD operations. The

location of the tool insert is held to close tolerances with respect to the rear
and opposite sides of the toolholders. This allows holders to be changed
without setting gages, figure 8-5. OD tools are "qualified” for a standard
nose radius for each insert, figure 8-6. When an insert with the standard radius
is used, the intersection of lines parallel to the X and Z axes and tangent to the
nose radius are located in the same position for all OD tools when indexed to
the machining position. This point is the common tool point. It serves as a
common reference point for programming axis coordinates.
The centerline of ID tools is located on the face of the turret at the
same place for inch and metric tool blocks. The centerline of ID tools is
located at a fixed distance from the OD common tool point along the X
axis. The distance from the ID tool centerline to the tip of the tool (inter¬
section of tangent lines) varies with the size and construction of the particu¬
lar tool. For this reason, the distance between the OD common tool point
and the ID tool tip of each ID tool must be determined and compensated for
when establishing program coordinates for the X axis. This is illustrated in
figure 8-7.
The distance from the tip of the tool to the OD common tool point
along the Z axis also varies with the size and adjustment of each tool. These
distances must be determined and compensated for when determining pro¬
gram coordinates for the Z axis.
The distance by which each tool is offset from the OD common tool
point must be established before writing the program. This must be done to
determine axis coordinates and axis movements necessary to avoid interference
with the tooling and workpiece. This information must be provided to the
operator so the tools are set correctly.
A tool setting gage similar to the one in figure 8-8 is used to set the
length of the ID tools. Scales mounted on the gage indicate the Z axis dis¬
tance from the OD common tool point to the tip of the tool in both inches
and millimetres. The operator mounts the tool and bushing in the gage,
sets the gage block to the length specified by the programmer's instructions,
and adjusts the tool to contact the gage block. The tool and bushing may
then be mounted into the machine turret.
To change tools on an N/C turning center, the new turret station along
with the tool change code (M06) must be programmed. The turret station
and tool offsets are programmed usually with a four-digit number preceded
by the letter T. The first and second digits normally designate the turret
station; the third and fourth digits designate the tool offset;

Format: Txxxx

Tool offsets are then dialed in at the control panel. They are used to
compensate for tool wear or for minor setup adjustments.
A variety of turning centers offer four-axis capability in order to perform
simultaneous OD and ID cutting operations. Four-axis lathes with individual
 MODERN N/C TURNING CENTERS AND PROGRAMMING • 103

FIGURE 8-7
Relationship of OD and ID tooling
104 • CHAPTER 8

FIGURE 8-8
A typical tool setting gage

programmable slides allow considerable savings to be made because there is

more than one tool in the cut at a time. This feature is illustrated in figure
8-9. The use of four-axis lathes constitutes considerable improvement
in productivity over conventional turning centers (one tool in the cut at a
time). However, extreme care must be exercised in programming machines
of this technical complexity as the chance for errors and accidents is much
higher due to two independent slide movements.
Other turning centers have two spindles with two independent slide mo¬
tions for its respective OD and ID operations, figure 8-10. Machines of this na¬
ture are also capable of achieving high productivity levels with considerable
savings.
It is extremely important to mention that on any N/C lathe, the turret
must be positioned to a location free from interference with the chuck, work-
piece, and machine elements before any tool changes are programmed. Fail¬
ure to comply with this cardinal rule of N/C programming may result in
bodily injury and/or machine and tool damage.

FEED RATES
The traverse rate of N/C lathe axes may be programmed in several
ways. Usually these include vector rapid traverse, feed per minute, and feed
per revolution. When the programmed movement requires the traversing of
both axes, the axes move simultaneously along a vector path. The rate of
 MODERN N/C TURNING CENTERS AND PROGRAMMING • 105

BALANCED CUTS (EITHER SIDE) SIMULTANEOUS OD AND

DRILLING OF CHUCKED WORK

FULL-LENGTH SIMULTANEOUS CUTS SIMULTANEOUS OD CUTS ON

FIGURE 8-9
Four-axis N/C lathe operations showing simultaneous operations performed on a single-spindle machine

travel of each axis is set automatically by the control so the rate along the
vector is equal to the programmed feed or rapid rate, as depicted in figure
8-11.
When a vector rapid traverse is active, the axes move simultaneously
from the current position to the command position along a straight vector.
Usually, the traverse rate along the vector is around 300 inches per minute.
The rapid traverse rates may be modified by the operator usually by means
of a feed rate override percent switch.
When the required preparatory function for feed per minute feed rate is
programmed (G94), the feed rate is usually independent of the spindle speed.
The axis feed rate for most turning centers is controlled by a four-digit
number preceded by the letter F. The maximum and minimum feed rates
will vary from manufacturer to manufacturer, but the ranges are somewhere
around .1 to 300 inches per minute.
106 • CHAPTER 8

FIGURE 8-10
Dual-spindle N/C turning center with independent slide movements (Courtesy of Turning Machine
Division, The Warner & Swasey Co., subsidiary of Bendix Corporation)

The format would be similar to the following:

Inch format — Fxxx.x

Metric format — Fxxxx.

If the programmed feed rate exceeds the allowable feed rate range, the
cycle will continue but the feed rate will be set to the maximum allowable
rate. If the feed rate is less than the minimum allowable rate, it will be set to
the minimum allowable value.

Current
position

Vector path

Feed rate or rapid

FIGURE 8-11 traverse rate measurement Command
Vector movement along the vector path position
 MODERN N/C TURNING CENTERS AND PROGRAMMING • 107

Another preparatory function (G95) may be used to specify feed rate

in terms of vector feed per revolution of the spindle. In this mode, the rate
of axis travel varies as a function of spindle speed. The feed rate is programmed
by an F word, usually in increments of .0001 inch per revolution of the
spindle.
Inch format — F.xxxx
Metric format — Fx.xxx
Regarding feed per minute feed rate, if the programmed feed rate exceeds or
drops below the allowable feed, the rate per revolution will be set to either
the maximum or minimum allowable values.

SPINDLE SPEEDS
Spindle speeds are normally programmed on N/C turning centers with a
four-digit number preceded by the letter S. The spindle speed can be pro¬
grammed in either direct RPM coding or in the constant surface speed (CSS)
mode.
Format: Sxxxx. RPM
Sxxxx. Feet per minute
Sxxxx. Metres per minute
Maximum and minimum speeds available will vary, depending on the size
and type of N/C lathe.
Other types of N/C lathes use only a two- or three-number code. The
code usually refers to a table of speeds on a particular lathe. In addition,
different speed ranges may be used, thereby increasing the number of available
spindle speeds. Most modern CNC systems maintain a built-in system check
to make sure the active spindle S word is within the allowable headstock
range. A spindle speed word is also normally programmed in every block
containing a headstock range change. Some N/C turning centers will display
an error message, and the cycle will be stopped if the spindle speed pro¬
grammed is not within the designated headstock range.
Most N/C lathes use some type of CSS feature. CSS varies the spindle
automatically as a function of the X axis position to maintain the programmed
value of workpiece surface speed at the point of the tool. CSS is normally
input through coding of a specific G function as in direct RPM coding. The
appropriate G function tells the N/C system to vary the spindle speed by
speeding up, slowing down, or remaining unchanged.

FORMAT INFORMATION
Most modern controls for turning centers accept the word address, tab
ignore, and variable block length tape format with either the EIA (BCD) or
ASCII coding. Decimal point programming is also gaining wide acceptance.
Modern CNCs will automatically sense the method used (BCD or ASCII),
and will decode the tape accordingly.
108 • CHAPTER 8

The following list explains words used for a typical N/C turning center.
However, not all of these words are used for every N/C system and program.

Word 1
O/N The sequence number is composed of four digits preceded by
the letter 0 or N (Oxxxx or Nxxxx). This word is used to
indicate the block of information which is being processed by
the control.
Word 2
G The preparatory function code is a two-digit number preceded
by the letter G (Gxx). These codes are used throughout the
program to define the various modes of operation.
Word 3
X/Z Axis dimensions are used to denote the position of the axes.
The axes are addressed with a seven-digit number preceded
by the letter X or Z. The sign denotes the direction of travel,
using the incremental mode, and the position relative to pro¬
gram zero, using the absolute mode. (X±xxx.xxxx)
Word 4
l/K Center point coordinates are used to define the center loca¬
tion when programming circular arcs. Center point coordi¬
nates are addressed with a seven-digit number preceded by a
plus (+) or minus (-) sign and the letter I or K. The center
point coordinates can be either absolute or incremental,
depending upon the input mode. I represents the X axis, and
K represents the Z axis. (I/K±xxx.xxxx)
Word 5
l/K The axis feed rate for threading is controlled by programming
a lead value. This is normally a seven-digit, unsigned number
preceded by the letter I or K. Values for thread lead are not
affected by the absolute or incremental input modes. The lead
values are always positive, and the sign is not programmed.
Programming a negative value will usually result in a program
error. I represents X-axis lead, and K represents Z-axis lead.
(I/Kxx.xxxxx)
Word 6
A The rapid traverse increment is programmed with an unsigned,
seven-digit number preceded by the letter A. This word is used
with the automatic repeat cycle feature to define the incre¬
mental rapid approach of the tool to the work. (Axxx.xxxx)
Word 7
F The axis feed rate is controlled by a four-digit number pre¬
ceded by the letter F. Feed rates may be programmed in
either distance of travel per minute or distance per revolution
of the spindle, depending on the selected preparatory func¬
tion. (Fxxx.x — IPM or F.xxxx — IPR)
 MODERN N/C TURNING CENTERS AND PROGRAMMING • 109

Word 8
R The radius dimension used for CSS programming is a seven¬
digit number preceded by a plus (+) or minus (-) sign and
the letter R. The R dimension is always an incremental val¬
ue measured from the spindle centerline to the tool tip.
(R±xxx.xxxx)
Word 9
V The tool retract feature is programmed with a two-digit V
word. This feature programs a tool retraction along an
interference-free path. The two digits of the V word represent
the X and Z axes, respectively. The value of the digit that is
programmed determines the direction and distance the tool
will travel when the operator initiates the tool retract feature.
(Vxx)
Word 10
S Spindle speeds are programmed with a four-digit number pre¬
ceded by the letter S. The spindle speed can be programmed
in either direct RPM coding or in the CSS mode. (Sxxxx.)
Word 11
T The turret station and offsets are programmed with a four¬
digit number preceded by the letter T. The first and second
digits usually identify the turret station, and the third and
fourth digits represent the offset. (Txxxx)
Word 12
C The C word is used to define the total number of thread
starts and the thread start to be machined when machining
multiple-start threads.
Word 13
D The taper trim feature compensates for taper in the work-
piece. This feature is programmed using a two-digit D word.
The D word designates the number of the active taper trim
pair. The operator must manually input the compensation
values. Both leading and trailing zeroes must be programmed.
The D word uses the same format for both inch and metric
values. However, it will vary with the mode selected. (Dxx)
Word 14
M The miscellaneous function codes are two-digit codes preceded
by the letter M. These codes are used throughout the program
to perform functions such as spindle starting and stopping,
coolant control, and transmission range selection. (Mxx)

OPERATIONS PERFORMED
The absolute input mode is selected by programming a G90 word. In
the absolute mode, all dimensions input into the control are referenced from
a single zero point. The algebraic signs (+ and -) of absolute dimensions
110 • CHAPTER 8

denote the position of the axis relative to the zero point. They do not
directly specify the direction of axis travel. Some N/C units assume the G91
incremental mode when starting or when data reset operations are performed.
The G90 code should be programmed at the beginning of every operation
using a new tool when the program is written using the absolute mode.
The incremental input mode is selected by programming a G91 word.
All dimensions input into the control are referenced from the present axis
position. The input dimensions denote the distance to be moved. The
algebraic sign (+ or -) in this case specifies the direction of axis travel. When
an entire program is written in the incremental mode, the X and Z axes must
be returned to the point where the program was started, the program start
point. If this procedure is not accomplished, the axis will not be in the cor¬
rect position for the start of the next workpiece. This can cause interference
between the tool and workpiece or other components, resulting in tool
breakage, damage to the machine, and personal injury.

LINEAR INTERPOLATION
The G01 linear interpolation preparatory function commands the slides
to move the tool in a straight line from the current position to the command
position. The rate of traverse is measured along the vector connecting the
two points and is equal to the programmed feed rate. This mode of opera¬
tion is used for turning, drilling or boring straight diameters, facing shoulders,
and turning or boring chamfers and tapers.
The tool path is generated by programming the coordinates of the imagi¬
nary tool point of the tool insert radius. When turning or boring straight
diameters or making facing cuts, the programmed coordinates represent tool
tangent points created by constructing lines parallel to the machine axes.
When using qualified OD tools with the proper tool insert radius, the
imaginary tool point and the common tool point are in the same location.
When turning chamfers or tapers, the tool tangent point is at some point
other than the points shown in figure 8-12. When turning a chamfer or
taper, therefore, the machine axes must be offset to compensate for the new
tangent point location. The amount of compensation depends on the angle
of the taper and the radius of the tool insert.
Figure 8-13 illustrates the position of the imaginary tool point at the
start and end of the chamfer. It also shows the path which the imaginary
tool point follows during the cut. To maintain workpiece tolerances, the
axes must be offset at both the start and end of the chamfer by an amount
equal to A and B. When the angle of the chamfer is 45 degrees, A and B are
equal.

CIRCULAR INTERPOLATION
Circular interpolation on an N/C turning center moves the tool in a
circular arc along a path generated by the control system. The rate of travel
 MODERN IM/C TURNING CENTERS AND PROGRAMMING • 111

FIGURE 8-12
Tool radius tangent points — cuts parallel to a machine axis

is the same around the arc with a tangential vector feed rate equal to the
programmed feed rate. Circular interpolation is specified by a G02 prepara¬
tory function for the clockwise direction and G03 for the counterclockwise
direction. Coordinate information is also programmed to define the start
point, the end point, and the center point (I = X coordinate value; K = Z
coordinate value).

FIGURE 8-13
Imaginary tool point at start and end of a chamfer
112 • CHAPTER 8

Figure 8-14 illustrates the tool moving from the start point through a
circular arc to the end point. A G02 preparatory function is used since the
tool travels in a clockwise direction. At the start point, the centerline of the
tool nose is placed on the arc centerline in the Z axis. The tool nose center-
line is placed on the arc centerline in the X axis at the end point. While using
the absolute mode, the I and K programmed center point coordinates are
referenced from program zero. They are offset from the part radius center
point by an amount equal to the tool nose radius. The information required
to position the tool through the circular arc movement is:
N420 G02 X23188 Z20000 123188 K29688
Figure 8-15 illustrates the tool moving from the start point through a
circular arc to the end point. A G03 preparatory function is used since the
tool travels in a counterclockwise direction. The tool nose centerline is
placed on the arc centerline in the X axis at the start point. At the end
point, the centerline of the tool nose is placed on the arc centerline of the Z
axis. While using the absolute mode, the I and K programmed center point
coordinates are referenced from program zero. They are offset from the part
radius center point by an amount equal to the tool nose radius. The infor¬
mation required to position the tool to the start point is shown in block
N430. Block N440 shows the information required for the circular arc
movements.

FIGURE 8-14
Inside arc — absolute mode
 MODERN N/C TURNING CENTERS AND PROGRAMMING • 113

FIGURE 8-15
Outside arc — absolute mode

WT 10 80
FIGURE 8-16 -
Inside arc — incremental mode
114 • CHAPTER 8

N430 G01 XI4688 Fxxx

N440 G03 X30000 Z9688 114688 K9688
In figure 8-16, the tool is moving through a circular arc in the incre¬
mental mode. A G02 preparatory function is used since the tool moves in a
clockwise direction.
While in the incremental mode, the X axis and Z axis departure com¬
mands for 90-degree inside arcs, which start on an axis crossover point, are
calculated by:
Xd = part radius — TNR
Zd = part radius — TNR
The I and K dimensions are incremental values measured from the imaginary
tool point while the tool is positioned to the start point.
In this example, the I value is determined by the formula:
I = part radius — TNR
- 1.0000- .0312
= .9688
The K value is equal to zero (KO) since the tool nose radius is on the part
radius centerline in the Z axis.
The example in figure 8-17 illustrates the tool moving through an
outside circular arc in incremental mode. Since the tool moves in a counter¬
clockwise direction, a G03 preparatory function is used.

FIGURE 8-17
Outside arc — incremental mode
 MODERN N/C TURNING CENTERS AND PROGRAMMING 115

The X axis and Z axis incremental departure commands for 90-degree

outside arcs, which start on an axis crossover point, are calculated by:
Xd = part radius + TN R
Zd = part radius + TNR
The I and K dimensions are incremental values measured from the imaginary
tool point while the tool is positioned to the start point. In this example,
the K value is:
K = part radius + TN R
The I value is equal to zero since the tool nose radius centerline falls on the
part radius centerline in the X axis.

THREADING
Modern turning centers are capable of machining constant lead straight,
tapered, and multiple-start threads. The tool is first positioned to depth and
to the correct starting distance away from the workpiece. A G32 or G33
block is then programmed to cut the thread. The tool is retracted and
returned for the next pass. The process is repeated, making successively
deeper cuts until depth is reached. Each of these movements normally
requires a separate block of information.
The slide feed rate is controlled in the constant lead threading mode by
programming I and K words. I, in this case, designates lead or threads per
inch of the X axis, and K designates lead or threads per inch of the Z axis.
Lead is defined as the amount the thread advances in one revolution of
the spindle.
1 _1_
threads per inch threads per millimetre
Lead and the number of threads per inch are always considered to be posi¬
tive. The I and K words must be programmed in every block containing a
threading command.
Before any threading operation begins, the tool point must be positioned
away from the workpiece before entering the thread. The minimum starting
distance isi
Starting distance = (RPM X Lead X .006) + CO, where CO is compound
in-feed offset, the offset generated by advancing the tool to depth or on a
29-degree angle, figure 8-18. The compound in-feed offset is calculated as:
Offset = tan 29°(Full thread depth - depth of 1st pass)
A calculation similar to the starting point offset must be performed for
each threading pass when compound in-feed is used to advance the tool to
depth. Figure 8-19 illustrates the compensation required for the Z axis when
an .0080-inch depth of cut pass is made.
When the threads end near a shoulder, figure 8-20, space must be pro¬
vided for the slide to stop. The minimum stopping distance is computed as:
Stopping distance = RPM X LEAD X .013
The following section illustrates the programming of a one-inch diameter,
eight threads per inch, constant lead, single thread, and is illustrated in figure
116 • CHAPTER 8

TOOL POSITION
TOOL POSITION START OF FIRST
START OF SECOND PASS
PASS-

Z= X t a n 2 9U X DIFFERENCE
Z= .0080 x . 55 4 3 ^ (DEPTH OF CUT)
Z= .0044

FIGURE 8-19
n -«. . 0044 = Z DIFFER

Shoulder -v
\ ,8
/WWV\

-Stopping distance
FIGURE 8-20
Minimum stopping distance
 MODERN N/C TURNING CENTERS AND PROGRAMMING *117

FIGURE 8-21
Example of constant lead threading showing passes required

8-21. The program example also uses incremental mode, compound in-feed
of 29 degrees, and a 45-degree pullout.
Before writing the program, the following calculations are made:

Lead

threads per inch

1_
8
= .12500 (K12500)
Compound Offset
CO = tan 29°(Full-thread depth - 1st pass depth
= tan 29°(.0600- .0300)
= .0166
Starting Distance (with 500 RPM spindle speed)
SD = (RPM X lead X .006) + CO
= (500 X .12500 X .006) + .0166
= .375 + .0166
118 • CHAPTER 8

Pullout Amount - X and Z

In this example, an amount equal to the lead is used for both the
X and Z axis.
X pullout = .1250
Z pullout = .1250
Z Departure Distance
Zd = TL + PO + (SD - CO)
where TL = thread length
PO = pullout distance (Z axis)
SD = starting distance
CO = compound offset
Zd = 1.5000 + .1250 + (.3916- .0166)
= 2.0000
X Departure = X
Xd = X pullout
= .1250
This sample program is presented to illustrate only the tool path
movements. Spindle speeds, turret indexes, and other machine-related
information have been omitted from the program.

N480 G90
N490 GOO XI0000 Z50000 PI
N500 G91
N510 GOO X-5300 Z-2938 P2
N520 G33 XI250 Z-20000 K12500 P3
N530 GOO Z19917 P4
N540 X-1400 P5
N550 G33 XI250 Z-20000 K12500 P6
N560 GOO Z19945 P7
N570 X-1350 P8
N580 G33 XI250 Z-20000 K12500 P9
N590 GOO Z19972 P10
N600 X-1300 PH
N610 G33 XI250 Z-20000 K12500 PI 2
N620 GOO
N630 G90
N640 XI0000 Z50000 PI

Sample Program Description:

Block N480:
The G90 is used to define the starting point PI using the absolute
mode.
Block N490:
The GOO is used to rapid the tool to PI.
Block N500:
The G91 selects the incremental input mode.
 MODERN N/C TURNING CENTERS AND PROGRAMMING 119

Block N510:
The tool rapids to depth for the first pass. The first cut depth is .030
inch.
Block N520:
The G33 code selects the threading mode. The XI250 command will
cause a 45-degree pullout at the end of the thread. The Z command
includes an additional .1250 inch for the pullout. The K word defines
the lead.
Block N530:
The GOO is programmed to rapid the Z axis to P4. The Z command
includes the compensation value for the 29-degree compound in-feed.
This is calculated by multiplying the tan 29° by the new cut depth.
Zd = 2.0000 - tan 29° X .0150
= 2.0000 - .0083
= 1.9917
Block N540:
The X command rapids the tool to P5. This dimension is obtained by
adding the amount of retraction to the depth of the cut for the second
pass. The sign is negative since the movement is toward the centerline
of the spindle.
Xd = . 1250 + .0105 + .1400
Block N550:
The G33 selects the threading mode for the second pass to P6.
Block N560:
The GOO is used to rapid the Z axis to P7.
Block N570:
The X command rapids the tool to P8. The depth of cut for this pass is
.010 inch.
Block N580:
The G33 is used to make the third threading pass to P9.
Block N590:
The GOO is used to rapid the Z axis to P10.
Block N600:
The tool rapids to P11. The depth of cut for this pass is .005 inch.
Block N610:
The G33 is used to make the final threading pass to PI 2.
Block N620:
The GOO is programmed to cancel the G33 and select rapid traverse.
Block N630:
The G90 selects the absolute input mode.
Block N640:
The X and Z commands return the tool to PI.

Some N/C turning centers provide a finish threading feature which

allows for programming rough and finish threading passes, using different
spindle speeds without introducing thread form errors. The threads may be
120 • CHAPTER 8

rough machined at a low spindle speed and finished at a high speed. This is
accomplished by compensating for changes in following error.
When a slide moves, the actual motion lags behind the command signal.
This lag is characteristic of all servo systems, and is called following error.
Following error is a function of feed rate. The feed rate when threading is
determined by spindle speed (assuming a given lead). Changes in spindle
speed will result in slight shifts of the tool position due to following error
changes. This in turn produces an error in thread form.
When the finish threading feature is used, the control measures the
following error of the initial pass. When the finish pass is made, the control
automatically compensates slide position to hold the following error the
same as the original pass when making the final passes. The thread form
error is thereby eliminated.

SYSTEM SUBROUTINES
A subroutine is a set of commands or instructions that are identified
and stored in the CNC system. When called upon, these instructions are put
into action. The process of activating a subroutine, sometimes referred to as
a program within a program, is completed by calling for this set of blocks or
instructions.
Most CNC turning centers contain stored parametric variable subrou¬
tines as an optional feature which programs frequently used data, stores that
data in memory, and then calls the data into action by the part program.
Once stored, the subroutine is viewed by the control in the same man¬
ner as a part program. Usually a maximum number of subroutines, part
programs, or any combination of the two may be stored depending upon
control specifications. The number of blocks which can be programmed in a
subroutine is limited only by the total amount of storage capacity of the
manufacturer's control.
Subroutines are made active by a call statement in the part program.
The subroutine can be repeated many times with a single call statement and
can be called any number of times by the part program.
A parametric subroutine may be programmed with variable commands
so that it may be used for a variety of workpiece configurations. Ten or
more variable commands can usually be used in a subroutine program. The
variable commands are assigned values by the call statement of the part
program.
Systems containing parametric subroutines are usually stored separate
from, but in the same area as, a part program. Subroutines may be perma¬
nently or temporarily stored in memory. A permanently stored subroutine
is loaded into memory by means of a multiple-program store feature. A tem¬
porarily stored subroutine is normally loaded from the beginning of the part
program.
A typical example of a permanently stored subroutine is seen in figure
8-22. The subroutine defines the tool movements required to drill the part.
 MODERN N/C TURNING CENTERS AND PROGRAMMING • 121

/
► Z +40000 Move

1/
1 j Drill extension =4"

X-112500 (X OF 4.0000 + 7.25

offset OD to ID tool)

Subroutine Call Statement

0010 (PGM, 125)
Main Part Program N20 G91
010 G97 5400 M41 N30 GOO Z & 0
N20 G90 Ml4 N40 X & -1
N30 G70 F80 N50 G01 Z & -2
N40 GOO X40000 Z40000 N60 GOO Z & 2
N50 G95 Til M06 N70 X& 1
►N60 (CLS, 125, & 40000, & 112500, N80 Z & -0 M30
& 45000)
N70 G90
Return to Main Part Program

— Subroutine call statement-CLS = call subroutine

statement-125 = program name-& 40000 = variable
symbol (&) and value (40000) to move Z & 112500
Variable symbol and value to move X to spindle
centerline & 4500 variable symbol and value to
move Z (drill hole in part)-return to home
position

FIGURE 8-22 . . .......

Example of a permanently stored parametric subroutine to offset in Z, move into position in X, drill
hole in part, and return to home position (X = 4.0000 and Z = 4.0000). Subroutine may be called as
many times as needed.

The subroutine call statement is programmed to repeat the subroutine as

many times as called by the main program.

EXAMPLE PROGRAMS
The following programs illustrate the machining operations for typical
sample parts shown in figures 8-23 and 8-24. The first example is a part
illustrating a rough face, rough turn, and finish profile operation. The
machining necessary to produce the second part is performed in eight
operations and is illustrated in figures 8-25, 8-26, and 8-27. The second
program shown is representative of basic turning, boring, and threading
operations performed on an N/C turning center. It does not illustrate all
phases of machining operation, programming techniques, or optional equip¬
ment.
122 • CHAPTER 8

Program start point

- -i
X05.0000

Z7.0000

FIGURE 8-23
Example part for rough face, rough turn, and finish profile (Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron Inc.)

BAR STK. 4.0" x 6.5

T01 (ROUGH FACE AND ROUGH TURN)
T04 FINISH PROFILE (.0468 TNR)

010 G97 S300 M41 300 rpm — low-gear range

N20 G90 M13 Absolute positioning, spindle on w/coolant
N30 G70 Inch programming
N40 GOO X50000 Z70000 Rapid to program start pt.
N50 G95 T0101 M06 Inches per rev. — index to tool 1 + assn, offset #1
N60 G96 S400 R50000 Constant surface speed (400 sfm)
N70 GOO X22000 Z63850 Rapid to position to rough face

Example part program for figure 8-23

 MODERN N/C TURNING CENTERS AND PROGRAMMING • 123

N80 G01 X-312 FI 50 Face end of stock (leave .010" for finish)
N90 Z65000 Feed away from end of stock
N100 GOO XI7500 Rapidtopos.forroughturn (,25"depth) leave.010onshldr.forfinish
N110 G01 Z13500 Make 1st rough turn to 1.25 shldr.
N120 XI8500 Z14500 Feed + .100 in X + Z (clearance away from part)
N130 GOO Z65750 Rapid out in Z axis .200 from end of part
N140 XI6000 Rapid down to next depth of cut
N150 G01 Z13500 Make second rough turn to 1.25 shldr.
N160 X16100 Z14500 Feed + .100 in X + Z (clearance)
N170 GOO Z65750 Rapid out in Z .200 from end of part
N180 XI2500 Rapid down to next depth
N190 G01 Z27250 Make rough turn to 2.625 shldr.
N200 XI6100 Z22750 Rough 1/4 x 45° chamfer
N210 GOO Z65750 Rapid out .200 from end of part
N220 XI1000 Rapid down to next depth
N230 G01 Z27250 Make rough turn to 2.625 shldr.
N240 XI2000 Z28250 Feed + .100 in X + Z (clearance)
N250 GOO Z65750 Rapid out .200 from end of part
N260 X7250 Rapid to next depth
N270 G01 Z64750 Feed in to .100 from end of part
N280 X8500 Z63500 Rough 1/8 chamfer on end of part
N290 Z47250 Feed back to 4.625 shldr.
N295 X8850 Feed up 4.625 shldr.
N300 X11000 Z44000 Rough 1/8 x 45 chamfer on 4.625 shldr.
N310 XI2000 Feed up .100 to clear part
N320 GOO X50000 Z70000 Rapid turret back to prog. st. pt.
N330 G97 SI 000 M42 Direct rpm (1000) - high-gear range
N340 G90 Absolute positioning
N350 G70 Inch programming
N360 GOO X50000 Z70000 Restate current pos. for tool index
N370 G95 T0404 M06 Inches per rev. — index to tool #4 + assn, offset #4
N380 G96 SI 000 R50000 Constant surface speed (1000 sfm)
N390 GOO X-470 Ml3 Z65750 Rapid to (£ and .200 from end of part
N400 G01 F80 Z63750 Feed in to end of part to begin finish profile
N410 X5976 Feed from Q. to start of chamfer on end of part
N420 X7500 Z62226 Cuts chamfer on end of part (1/8 x 45°)
N430 Z46250 Feed back in Z to 4.625 shldr.
N440 X8476 Feeds up 4.625 shldr. to start of 2nd 1/8 x 45°C
N450 XI0000 Z44726 Cuts 1/8 x 45°C on 4.625 shldr.
N460 Z26250 Feeds across 2.0" dia. to 2.625 shldr.
N470 X12226 Feeds up 2.625 shldr. to start of 1/4 C
N480 XI5000 Z23476 Cuts 1/4 x 45°C up 3.0" dia.
N490 Z12500 Feeds across 3.0" dia. to 1.25 shldr.
N500 X21000 Feeds up 1.25" shldr. + clears str. dia. by .100"
N510 GOO X50000 Z70000 Rapid back to st. pt.
N520 T0100 M06 Cancel out active assignable offset
M30 Ends program (M30 shuts off spindle and coolant - also rewinds
N530
program)

Example part program for figure 8-23 (Continued)

124 • CHAPTER 8

FIGURE 8-24
Sample part engineering drawing

(
 MODERN N/C TURNING CENTERS AND PROGRAMMING • 125

First Operation OIO G90

N20 G97 SI00 M42
N30 G70 M03
N40 GOO X50000 Z85000 T0100 M06
N50 G95
N60 G92 S2500
N70 G96 R50000 S600
N80 GOO X37000 Z63500 M08
N90 G01 X-940 FI 50
N100 Z65500 F600
N110 X37000
N120 Z63000
N130 X-940 FI50
N140 GOO Z65000
N150 X45000
Second Operation 0160 G90
N170 G97 S351 M41
N180 G70 M13
N190 GOO X45000 Z65000 T0200 M06
N200 G95
N210 G92 S2500
N220 G96 R45000 S600
N230 GOO X32600
N240 G01 Z19690 FI50
N250 G03 X34100 Z16062 128962 K16062
N260 G01 X37000
N270 GOO Z65000
N280 X30100
N290 G01 Z21200
N300 X32100
N310 GOO Z65000
N320 X27600
N330 G01 Z21100
N340 X28962
N350 G03 X34000 Z16062 128962 K16062
N360 G01 Z15100
N370 X36000
N380 GOO X29600 Z65000
N390 X25100
N400 G01 Z42199
N410 X27600 Z32986
N420 GOO Z65000
N430 X22600
N440 G01 Z55989
N450 X21650 Z51659
N460 Z50100
N470 X23225
N480 Z43100

Sample part program for figure 8-24

126 • CHAPTER 8

N490 X26000
N500 GOO Z130000
Third Operation 0510 G90
N520 G97 S600 M41
N530 G70 M14
N540 GOO X26000 Z130000 T1100 M06
N550 G95
N560 GOO X-72500
N570 G01 Z83000 FI 50
N580 GOO Z148000
Fourth Operation 0590 G90 M05
N600 G97 SI 000 M42
N610 G70 M13
N620 GOO X-72500 Z148000 T1200 M06
N630 G95
N640 G92 S2500
N650 G96 R10310 S600
N660 GOO X-71560 Z115000
N670 G01 Z73100 FI 50
N680 X-73750
N690 GOO Z115000
N700 X-70310
N710 G01 Z73100
N720 X-72500
N730 GOO Z115000
N740 X-69060
N750 G01 Z73100
N760 X-71250
N770 GOO Z115000
N780 X-67810
N790 G01 Z73100
N800 X-70000
N810 GOO Z115000
N820 X-66560
N830 G01 Z73100
N840 X-68750
N850 GOO Z115000
N860 X-65835
N870 G01 Z73100
N880 X-68023
N890 GOO Z148000
Fifth Operation 0900 G90
N910 G97 S846 M42
N920 G70 M13
N930 GOO X-68023 Z148000 T1300 M06
N940 G95
N950 G92 S2500
N960 G96 R14787 S800

Sample part program for figure 8-24 (Continued)

 MODERN N/C TURNING CENTERS AND PROGRAMMING • 127

N970 GOO X-64752 Z115000

N980 G01 X-65735 Z112017 FI 00
N990 Z73000
N1000 X-73210
N1010 GOO Z148000
Sixth Operation 01020 G90 M05
N1030 G97 S400 M41
N1040 G70 M14
N1050 GOO X-73210 Z148000 T1400
N1060 X-67805 Z103000
N1070 G91
N1080 G33 X-1500 Z-18668 K8333
N1090 GOO Z18613
N1100 XI600
N1110 G33 X-1500 Z-18668 K8333
N1120 GOO Z18629
N1130 X1570
N1140 G33 X-1500 Z-18668 K8333
N1150 GOO Z18640
N1160 XI550
N1170 G33 X-1500 Z-18668 K8333
N1180 GOO Z18646
N1190 XI550
N1200 G33 X-1500 Z-18668 K8333
N1210 GOO Z18654
N1220 XI525
N1230 G33 X-1500 Z-18668 K8333
N1240 GOO Z18670
N1250 X1520
N1260 G33 X-1500 Z-18668 K8333
N1270 GOO
N1280 G90
N1290 Z105000
N1300 X45000
Seventh Operation 01310 G90
N1320 G97 S780 M41
N1330 G70 M13
N1340 GOO X45000 Z105000 T0300
N1350 G95
N1360 G92 S2500
N1370 G96 R45000 S800
N1380 GOO X19517 Z65000
N1390 G01 X22500 Z62017 FI 00
N1400 Z54373
N1410 X21550 Z52728
N1420 Z50000
N1430 X23125
N1440 Z43000

Sample part program for figure 8-24 (Continued)

128 • CHAPTER 8

N1450 X24927
N1460 X27500 Z33399
N1470 Z21000
N1480 X29588
N1490 G03 X33900 Z16688 129588 K16688
N1500 G01 Z15000
N1510 X37000
N1520 GOO X45000 Z65000
Eighth Operation 01530 G90
N1540 G97 S300 M41
N1550 G70 Ml4
N1560 GOO X45000 Z65000 T0400 M06
N1570 X22300 Z66029
N1580 G33 Z50300 K10000
N1590 GOO X24500
N1600 Z65946
N1610 X22150
N1620 G33 Z50300 K10000
N1630 GOO X24500
N1640 Z65879
N1650 X22030
N1660 G33 Z50300 K10000
N1670 GOO X24500
N1680 Z65835
N1690 X21950
N1700 G33 Z50300 K10000
N1710 GOO X24500
N1720 Z65807
N1730 X21900
N1740 G33 Z50300 K10000
N1750 GOO X24500
N1760 Z65791
N1770 X21870
N1780 G33 Z50300 K10000
N1790 GOO X24500
N1800 Z65780
N1810 X21850
N1820 G33 Z50300 K10000
N1830 GOO X24500
N1840 X50000 Z85000
N1850 M30

Sample part program for figure 8-24

(Continued)
 MODERN N/C TURNING CENTERS AND PROGRAMMING • 129

FIGURE 8-25
First, second, and third operations

FIGURE 8-27
Sixth, seventh, and eighth operations
130 • CHAPTER 8

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Explain the Z-axis and X-axis relationships on an N/C lathe, includ¬
ing positive and negative moves in each direction.
2. Explain the differences between absolute and incremental program¬
ming on an N/C turning center. What is a major factor in determin¬
ing whether to program in an absolute or an incremental mode?
3. How are OD and ID tools accurately located in the tool turret?
4. Discuss the importance of tool offsets. Why are they used?
5. Why is it necessary to know the location of the tip of the tool prior
to programming a tool change?
6. Explain the difference between the three types of axis feed rates, and
discuss what takes place when a programmed feed rate exceeds an
allowable feed rate range.
7. What is meant by constant surface speed (CSS)? Briefly explain how
it functions.
8. What turning center operations are performed with linear interpola¬
tion moves? How is the tool path information generated?
9. Why is circular interpolation used on N/C turning centers? What are
the basic differences between programming an incremental or abso¬
lute circular interpolation move?
10. Why is it important to program Z- and X-axes leads on a threading
operation? Are thread lead values affected by absolute or incremen¬
tal input modes?
11. Why should a space be provided in the part when threading is ended
at a shoulder?
12. What is finish threading? How is it accomplished on an N/C turning
center?
13. Briefly explain a system subroutine. Are any limitations placed on
the number of blocks that are programmed in a subroutine? How?
14. What is a parametric subroutine? What is the difference between a
temporary and a permanent stored subroutine? How are each ac¬
cessed by the N/C part program?
CHAPTER 9_
N/C Machining Centers
and Programming
OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:
!^==^^^==== • Understand the importance and versatility of N/C
machining centers.
• Explain automatic tool changing and tool storage
capabilities.
• Discuss the advantages, capabilities, and versatility of
a rotary index table.
• Understand preset tool lengths/compensation and
their use.
• Describe the types of operations performed on an
N/C machining center.

TYPES OF TOOL CHANGERS

Numerically controlled tool changers are still considered "state of the
art" in N/C machining. This is because they change their own tools without
operator intervention. Basically, there are two types of tool changers: verti¬
cal and horizontal.
Vertical tool changers, figure 9-1 a and 9-1 b, are unique in their own
way, but do not possess the overall advantages of horizontal machining
centers. Horizontal tool changers, commonly referred to as machining
centers, are shown in figure 9-2 and 9-3. The machining center has made the
greatest impact in N/C machine tool design and concept. It will perform a
number of different operations such as milling, drilling, boring, spotting,
counterboring, and tapping in a single setup of workpiece. In addition, the
machine will change its own tools. It is this aspect that has placed the
horizontal machining center in the limelight. Undoubtedly, this is where
much emphasis will be placed in the years ahead.
Machining centers are capable of machining on all sides of a workpiece
in one setup. Some machining centers have been developed which combine
typical tool-spindle operations with workpiece-turning operations. Theore¬
tically, there is no limit as to how much can be combined in a single machine.
It is merely a question of how much engineering and development effort can
be applied.
132 • CHAPTER 9

FIGURE 9-1
Vertical tool changers (A, Courtesy of Kearney & Tracker Corporation; B, Courtesy of Bridgeport
Machines)

FIGURE 9-2
A typical N/C machining center (Courtesy of Monarch Machine Tool Company)
 N/C MACHINING CENTERS AND PROGRAMMING • 133

FIGURE 9-3
A typical horizontal machining center (Courtesy of Kearney & Trecker Corporation)

Typical motions of horizontal machining centers include the X, Y, Z,

and B motions. However, more complex machining centers are capable of
many other axis movements. These movements may include tilt and swivel
of the spindle head and column and rotation of the workpiece against a fixed
tool, such as a lathe turning operation.
N/C machining centers represent a real frontier for future development.
The unlimited potential of multiaxis capabilities will provide new and better
ways to locate and machine various types of workpieces in the future.

TOOL STORAGE CAPACITIES

As mentioned, one advantage of tool changers is that they automatically
change their own cutting tools. This capability is applied to both vertical
and horizontal applications; the tool magazine may have a vertical or hori¬
zontal axis. The tool magazine may then rotate so that the center of the
tool is automatically aligned with the spindle. In most cases, the tool
magazine is to one side or above the spindle. Figure 9-4 illustrates a vertical
tool magazine and changing mechanism. Figure 9-5 shows a horizontal tool
magazine and changing mechanism. A few machines have the tool magazine
at an angle to the spindle axis.
134 • CHAPTER 9

FIGURE 9-4
A vertical tool magazine and changing mechanism (Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron Inc.)

The tools may be selected sequentially (in order of use or succession),

or they may be selected at random. Numbers may then be assigned to the
position or pocket on the tool. This means that the programmer must, in
some cases, decide which pockets or tool positions to use. The programmer
also must supply the setup person with a tool list identifying which cutting
tool is to be used in each position. Certain tools may be assigned permanent
positions in the tool magazine, depending on the frequency of use. This
leaves the remaining pockets available for special tools.
The actual tool magazine for most machining centers and tool changers
has holes around the perimeter of a circle, or on a chain, spaced at a specific
distance. The maximum diameter of any cutter held in magazine storage
cannot be greater than the hole spacing if all pockets are to be filled.
Tool-changing mechanisms vary greatly. Some have a combined opera¬
tion of four machine elements to change tools.
• Tool drum contains thirty or more coded drum stations. It rotates in
the direction commanded by the control.
• Intermediate transfer arm removes tools from the tool drum and places
them in the interchange arm and then returns them to the tool drum.
• Interchange station arm receives tools from the intermediate transfer arm
and swings them forward into the proper position for a tool interchange
 N/C MACHINING CENTERS AND PROGRAMMING 135

FIGURE 9-5
A horizontal tool magazine and changing mechanism (Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron Inc.)

with the tool changer arm. It then swings them back into position for
removal by the immediate transfer arm.
• Tool changer arm simultaneously removes a tool from the interchange
station arm and one from the spindle. It then interchanges these tools
and inserts them into the spindle nose and the interchange station arm.
One of the most important considerations of tool changers, regardless
of the type, is whether the tool being removed from the spindle or the new
tool going into the spindle will clear the workpiece and any other obstruc¬
tions such as clamps and pushers. When programming with longer tools, the
programmer must be extremely careful that the workpiece is moved far
enough away from the spindle so that no collision will occur when the longer
tool is inserted into the spindle. Often a retract to the extreme rear position
in Z or an offsetting move in X or Y is required to avoid collisions.

TOOL LENGTH STORAGE/COMPENSATION

Tool length storage and tool length compensation allows the control to
store information relative to a given tool length. This stored length is then
applied to the Z axis position when the tool is loaded into the spindle by the
tool change code (M06). This helps the programmer to program without
136 • CHAPTER 9

knowing exact tool lengths and helps eliminate errors in calculating both the
Z slide and tool length.
Practice has shown that the programmer must supply the operator with
certain agreed-upon information to set up a job. With tool length storage/
compensation, the following methods have worked very well.
Method 1
a) The programmer makes a tool assembly drawing for each tool used,
showing all the components of a tool assembly, figure 9-6. The tool set
length is calculated and rounded off to the nearest one-eighth inch.
When the tool is set up, the actual set length must be within a tolerance
of the length dictated by the programmer.
b) The position where tool length values will be established by the pro¬
grammer and the distance from this point to the centerline of index is
determined. This distance and the feeler gage thickness are added to
define a tool tram surface value. The operator enters this value, assigned
by the programmer, into the control before setting tool length values.
c) After the operator loads the tools into the tool drum, each tool is
located in the spindle and touched up to the tool tram surface. On
some controls, depressing the TOOL LENGTH COMP. SET push
button will initiate the calculation of a tool length and will store that
information under the data for the tool.
Method 2
a) The programmer makes a tool assembly drawing for each tool used
(figure 9-6), showing all the components of the tool assembly. The tool
set length is calculated and rounded off to the nearest one-eighth inch.
When the tool is set up, the actual set length must be within a tolerance
of the length dictated by the programmer.
b) The operator or tool specialist gages the exact length of each tool by
means of a tool preset gage and makes note of it.
c) The operator loads tools into the tool drum and enters the length values
for the tools into the control under their respective tool data information.
Tool setting is not difficult since there are several simple mechanical
and optical tool-setting devices. Sometimes the tools and toolholders are set
by the toolroom, and the machine operator, having the time and ability,
makes up the preset tools.
Many shops maintain tool assembly drawings. These drawings show the
cutter, tool number, and setting distance. They simplify tool setting and
provide consistent accuracy to all tools assembled. For example, every time
a 10.375 set length, .500-inch diameter drill is used, the part programmer
can check the drawing and find that a 10.375 set length, .500-inch drill has a
particular tool assembly number associated with it. The part programmer
then calls for this tool assembly number in the part program. With this
information, all part programmers can write programs calling for various tool
assembly numbers and feel confident that everyone has the same dimensions.
 N/C MACHINING CENTERS AND PROGRAMMING 137

FIGURE 9-6
A typical tool assembly drawing (Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron Inc.)
138 • CHAPTER 9

WORK TABLES
Rotary index tables are another feature of horizontal N/C machining
centers that provide versatility. With proper fixturing and one clamping of
the workpiece, the entire part can be machined in one setting. Rotary tables
are usually designated by the B (beta) axis and must be aligned the same as
the X, Y, and Z axes. An example of a rotary index table and all axes
orientation can be seen in figure 9-7.
Some rotary index tables are equipped with a universal fixture base and
right-angle plate. These options maximize the productivity of a machining
center. A conventional index table can be seen in figure 9-8.

FIGURE 9-7
Rotary index table and machine with axis orientation (Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron Inc.)
 N/C MACHINING CENTERS AND PROGRAMMING • 139

FIGURE 9-8
A conventional index table with part mounted on machine table (Courtesy of Monarch Machine Tool
Company)

There are two basic types of rotary tables. However, the possibility of
different methods of operation and control provides many combinations.
The first type of rotary table uses a positive, serrated plate to position the
table mechanically. This rotary table will lift before indexing and lower into
its position after indexing. The second type of rotary
table uses a rotary inductosyn seal to position and pro¬
vide some means of feed rate control. This type of
table may even be interpolated with the other slides
to provide four-axis contouring.
Most rotary tables are bidirectional and will index
using the shortest path to any of 72, 360, or 720 po¬
sitions. The different degrees of rotation in a rotary
index table are illustrated in figure 9-9. The input is in
degrees and, in most cases, all positions are in absolute
positioning. Some rotary tables can index up to
360,000 positions. These tables are programmable
either in absolute or incremental modes. Methods of
programming will vary with each manufacturer. FIGURE 9-9
As much as rotary index tables can increase a Rotary index table illustrating degrees of rota¬
machine tool's versatility and productivity, they can tion
 140 • CHAPTER 9

also be a real danger if certain considerations are not met: 1) The program¬
mer should always make sure the tool is located in a safe position so the
table will index without hitting the cutting tool; 2) Two blocks of informa¬
tion should be programmed to ensure the desired direction of table rotation
when a 180-degree rotation is required, if the direction of rotation has a
possible interference.
A few facts, and some tooling tips, are worth remembering and repeating.
A machining center can put more different tools into the workpiece in a
specified time period than any conventional machine tool. Thus, total tool
usage is generally greater. With so many cutting tools being applied without
guidance of bushings, the cutting tools must have symmetry. Keep in mind
that with all the precision built into the machine, it is no more accurate than
the cutting tools used to machine the workpiece.

FORMAT INFORMATION
There are many different types of machining centers and tape formats
available. Because of this variety, it would be impossible to discuss all types.
However, to illustrate machining center capacity from a conceptual point of
view, a review of what is actually programmed on a typical machining center
is in order.
Most modern controls for machining centers accept the word address,
tab ignore, variable block length, or decimal point programming format with
either the BCD or ASCII coding. Most controls will automatically sense
which method is used and will decode the tape accordingly. A typical pro¬
gramming form, data sequence, and tape format is shown in figure 9-10. The
minimum increment of input for this particular format is 0.0001 inch or
0.001 millimetre. Not all of the words illustrated in this figure are used for
every system and program. Nevertheless, the following is a brief explanation
of each word, the meaning of each character in the word, and their use as
they appear in this typical machining center tape format.

PART NAME PART NO. REVISION

MACHINE PROG. BY CHECKED BY OATE PAGE

SETUP INFORMATION
NC PROGRAMMING SHEET
O/N
SEO
G
PREP
X Y Z* R l/J/K A/B/C posm°N F/E s D T M
FUNCT
POSITION POSITION POSITION POSITION POSITION p /Q + WORD FEED
RATE
SPINDLE WORD TOOL MISC
FUNCT
SPEED WORD

0- G— XI- Y t- 1
Z - R+- I ±- J+- P±- Q±- F- s- D-- T- M—

FIGURE 9-10
Typical machining center tape format
 N/C MACHINING CENTERS AND PROGRAMMING 141

Word 1
O/N Sequence number coding, introduced by 0 or N. It is a
five-character code: one letter and four numerals (Oxxxx, or
Nxxxx). It is used to identify a block of information. It is
informational, rather than functional.
Word 2
G Preparatory function coding, introduced by G. It is a three-
character code: one letter and two numerals (Gxx). It is used
for control of the machine. It is a command that determines
the mode of operation of the system. This word is informa¬
tional and functional. Therefore, all characters, except lead¬
ing zeros, must be included in the code.
Word 3
X X axis coordinate information code, introduced by X. It
may contain up to nine characters: one letter, one sign, and
up to seven numerals (Xxxxx.xxx millimetres). Six numerals
are normally used. This word is used to control the direction
of table travel and position.
Word 4
Y Y axis coordinate information coding, introduced by Y. This
is identical to Word 3, only using the Y address.
Word 5
Z Z axis coordinate information coding, introduced by Z. This
is identical to Word 3, only using the Z address.
Word 6
R Z axis coordinate information coding, introduced by R. It
may contain up to nine characters: one letter, one sign, and
up to seven numerals (R xxx.xxxx inches, R xxxx.xxx milli¬
metres). It is used to control the positions of the Z slide at
rapid traverse during positioning mode.
Word 7
I The center point coordinate in circular interpolation of the X
axis is introduced by I. It may contain up to nine characters
in the coding: one letter, one sign, and up to seven numerals
(I xxx.xxxx inches, I xxxx.xxx millimetres).
Word 8
J The center point coordinate in circular interpolation of the Y
axis is introduced by J. This is identical to Word 7, only
using the J address.
Word 9
K The center point coordinate in circular interpolation of the Z
axis is introduced by K. This is also identical to Word 7, only
using the K address.
Word 10
B Beta axis coding of the index table, introduced by B. This is a
seven-character code: one letter and six numerals (Bxxx.xxx).
It determines the angular position of the index table.
142 • CHAPTER 9

Word 11
P The X axis projection, of the cutter diameter compensation
vector, introduced by P. It is a seven-character code: one
letter, one sign, and five numerals (Px.xxxx). It describes the
CDC unit vector value for the X axis (optional feature).
Word 12
Q The Y axis projection, of the cutter diameter compensation
vector, introduced by Q. This is identical to Word 11, only
using the Q address (optional feature).
Word 13
F Feed rate coding for X, Y and/or Z axes, introduced by F. It
may contain up to five characters in the code: one letter and
up to four numerals (Fxxx.x inches/minute, Fxxxx millime¬
tres/minute). It is used for controlling the rate of longitudi¬
nal, vertical, and cross travel.

The F word is also used in conjunction with the G04 code to

dwell the slides. In this mode, the format can vary from .01
second to 99.99 seconds of dwell.
Word 14
S Spindle speed coding for rate of rotation of the cutting tool,
introduced by S. It may contain up to five characters in the
code: one letter and up to four numerals (Sxxxx). This is
the actual RPM desired for cutting.
Word 15
D Tool trim coding of the tool axis is introduced by D. It may
contain up to three characters in the code: one letter and up
to two numerals (Dxx). This selects the stored value to be
applied to the Z axis positions for a given operation (optional
feature).
Word 16
T Tool number coding introduced by T. It is a nine-character
code: one letter and eight numerals (Txxxxxxxx). It deter¬
mines the next tool to be used.
Word 17
M Miscellaneous function coding, introduced by M. It is a
three-character code: one letter and two numerals (Mxx). It
is used for various discrete machine functions.

OPERATIONS PERFORMED
Many different types of operations are performed repeatedly by ma¬
chining centers. Therefore, it is important to examine and thoroughly under¬
stand the basic operations performed on a machining center and how a typi¬
cal machining center format appears.
 N/C MACHINING CENTERS AND PROGRAMMING • 143

DRILLING
The concept of drilling is an old, reliable method of metal removal, re¬
gardless of what machine is to perform the operation. However, some helpful
hints are worth mentioning.
Use the shortest drill possible to accomplish the job. They are more
rigid and are capable of greater accuracy. Lip height, clearance, and angle of
point must be ground accurately for best results.
The following axis movements will occur when a G81 drill cycle is
programmed:
1) rapid in X and Y;
2) rapid the Z axis to gage height;
3) feed in the Z axis to gage depth; and
4) rapid retract to gage height.
The use of the G81 drill cycle is illustrated in figures 9-11, 9-12, and 9-13.

PREVIOUS
POSITION

X AND/OR Y

*A/VVV*
I ,

I
•-

-I k, IOO GAGE HEIGHT

' z"depth

FEED

- RAPID

FIGURE 9-11
G81 — Fixed cycle drill schematic

FIGURE 9-12
G81 — Fixed cycle drill — cycle representation
144 • CHAPTER 9

O/N G X Y z Rt l/J/K A/B/C TOsm°N F/E s D T M

SEQ. PREP POSITION POSITION POSITION POSITION POSITION P/Q + WORD FEED
RATE
SPINDLE
SPEED
WORD TOOL
WORD
MISC
FUNCT
FUNCT

0 15 G81 X+ 40000 Y+100000 Z-11500 R+100000 B 0 F 100 S550 T 3 MO 3

N 16 Y 80000

FIGURE 9-13
G-81 — Sample program

In sequence number 015, the G81 code rapid advances the X and/or Y
axes simultaneously to Pos. 1 from the previous position. When Pos. 1 is
reached, the Z axis will rapid to the R 10.0000 plane (gage height). At this
point the Z axis will feed to the programmed depth* at the programmed
rate.
After reaching depth, the Z axis will rapid retract to the R 10.0000
plane (gage height), and the next block of information (N16) will be read
and acted upon.
In sequence number N16, the G81 code is used again to rapid the Y
axis, with the tool at gage height, to Pos. 2. Then the Z axis will feed to the
programmed depth* at the programmed rate. After reaching depth, the Z
axis will rapid retract to the R 10.0000 plane (gage height).

MILLING
Milling is widely used on all types of machining centers. Some brief
suggestions prior to an application of milling on a machining center are
necessary.
The cutter and the workpiece should always be placed as close as pos¬
sible to the spindle nose and table of the machine. Repetitive accuracy of
work requires rigid locating surfaces. The workpiece should be properly
supported and clamped against these locating surfaces. A stop should be
placed at one end to oppose the thrust of the cutting load.
The following axes movements, as shown in figure 9-14, will occur
when the G79 (basic mill cycle) is programmed. Figure 9-14 illustrates the
G79 basic cycle as used for Z motion combined with X and Y motion. When
G79 is programmed, the axes will:
1) feed in the X and/or Y axes (linearly interpolated);
2) feed in the Z axis to the R plane; and then
3) feed in the Z axis to the Z depth.

^Programmed depth for the Z axis is calculated as follows:

Z position Depth of cut + drill point
1.0000 + (0.3 X diameter of drill)
1.0000 + (0.3 X 0.5000)
1.1500
(The value of 0.3 is used for a standard 118-degree drill point.)
 N/C MACHINING CENTERS AND PROGRAMMING • 145

FIGURE 9-14
G79 — Basic mill cycle schematic

These three steps will occur in the same order every time a G79 cycle is
programmed.
In the first two steps, if the movement is zero or has already been satis¬
fied by a previous block of information, actual movement of the slide, or
tool, for that step of the cycle will not occur.
In the third step, some Z value must be programmed. If Z-0 is pro¬
grammed, a 0.100-inch movement will still occur for this type of format.
Further, the Z axis value becomes an absolute dimension when programmed
in the G79 cycle. The G79 cycle is now used only for basic milling cycles.
G01 should be used for more elaborate operations.
The R plane is a reference plane, established by the programmer, which
determines where the forward rapid movement of the Z axis terminates.
When programming a G79 fixed cycle, however, the R plane is a reference
plane that determines where the first forward feed movement of the Z axis
terminates. The programmed R plane word usually results in the tool stopping
at gage height; however, this is at the discretion of the programmer and con¬
ditions surrounding the job. For the example to follow, an R 10.0000 plane
has been selected arbitrarily.
Referring to the sample program in figure 9-15, in sequence number
015 the basic cycle G79 is used to move simultaneously the X and Y axes to
Pos. 1 from the previous position. This motion will be at the programmed
feed rate. When Pos. 1 is reached, the Z axis will feed 0.250 inch to the Z

O/N G Yi Z R *- l/J/K A/B/C P0S'T,0N F/E s D T M

1 SEQ PREP POSITION POSITION POSITION POSITION POSITION P/Q + WORD FEED SPINDLE WORD TOOL MISC
FUNCT
func r RATE SPEED WORD

0 15 G79 X 40000 Y 40000 z- 1500 R 100000 B 0 F 80 S 350 T3 M0 3

N 16 Y 20000

N 17 G80

FIGURE 9-15
G79 — Sample program
146 • CHAPTER 9

depth of 0.150 inch, also at the programmed feed

rate. After reaching depth, the next block of informa¬
tion (N16) is read and acted upon.
PREVIOUS
In sequence N16, the G79 cycle is used again to
move the machine slide at the same programmed feed
rate to the new Y coordinate (Pos.2) with a 0.150-inch
depth of cut. When Pos. 2 is reached, sequence N17
is read. A schematic representation is shown in figure
9-16.
In N17, the G80 R 10.0000 combination will
retract the Z axis to the R 10.0000 plane.

BORING
Boring is one of the most accurate ways to finish
a hole. When starting with a drilled hole, the sequence
of operations usually is to semifinish and finish bore.
Starting with a cored hole, the operations generally
required are rough, semifinish, and finish bore. Better
boring will be achieved if the programmer makes sure
that:
• the largest boring bar that will fit the hole to be
machined is used.

• a chamfer tool is used, instead of a tool with a

square shoulder, whenever possible.

• multiple tool bars are used. The cutting opera¬

tion should be planned so that the front cutter is
through the work before the succeeding cutters
start. This is because chatter from one cutter can
be transmitted through the bar to the remaining
cutters.
• contour milling is employed, whenever practical,
FIGURE 9-16
G79 — Basic mill cycle — cycle representation
because it is often possible to eliminate the rough
and semifinish operation by contour milling.

The following axis movements will occur when a G85 bore cycle is
programmed:
1) rapid in X and/or Y.
2) rapid in Z axis to gage height.
3) feed in the Z axis to the Z depth.
4) feed retract to gage height.
These four steps will occur in the same order every time a G85 cycle is pro¬
grammed. Figures 9-17, 9-18, and 9-19 illustrate the use of a G85 BORE
cycle.
 N/C MACHINING CENTERS AND PROGRAMMING • 147

PREVIOUS
i
* POSITION

X AND/OR Y

iwwj-i-- l
1

1
1 1

—► oo gage HEIGHT

"Z" DEPTH

-♦WW FEEo

-RAPID DD-A-362

FIGURE 9-17
G85 — Fixed bore cycle schematic

FIGURE 9-18
G85 — Fixed cycle bore — cycle representation

In sequence number 015, the G85 code rapid advances the X and/or Y
axes simultaneously to Pos.1 from the previous position. When Pos. 1 is
reached, the Z axis will rapid to the R 10.0000 plane (gage height). At this
point the Z axis will feed to the programmed depth at the programmed feed
rate. After reaching depth, the Z axis will feed retract to the R plane (gage
height), and the next block of information (N16) will be read and acted
upon.
In sequence N16, the G85 code is used again to rapid the Y axis, with
tool at gage height, to Pos.2. Then the Z axis will feed to the programmed

O/N G Yi z< R l/J/K A/B/C 'os,,,o“ F/E s D T M

SCO PREP
EUNCT
POSITION POSITION POSITION POSITION POSITION
P/Q ! "ORO
Ef f O
RATE
SPINDLE
SPEEO
WORO TOOL
rrORD
MISC
EUNCT

0 is G85 X+ 40000 Y+ 100000 Z- 10500 R+ 100000 B 0 F 40 S 623 T 9 M0 2

N 16 y boooO

FIGURE 9-19
G85 — Sample program
148 • CHAPTER 9

FIGURE 9-20
G84 - Fixed cycle tap
schematic

depth at the programmed rate. After reaching depth, the Z axis will feed
retract to the R plane (gage height).

TAPPING
When programming tapping operations, be sure that the proper drill has
been specified or that the bored hole size is correct. All taps should have
adequate clearance to provide chip disposal. Avoid using straight-fluted
hand or machine taps except when tapping a material such as cast iron. Chips
can "ball up” during entry. This may break the tap during "backout." Spiral-
fluted taps are better, especially for blind or deep holes, as the spiral causes
the chips to feed up the length of the tap and out the hole. For through
holes no longer than twice the tap diameter, a straight flute, spiral point, or
"gun" tap can be used. This tap has a negative lead ground on the start, or
chamfer end, that causes chips to be thrown ahead of the tap. At reversal, it
leaves the chips there. Chip difficulties can be eliminated in some cases, by
using fluteless taps which roll or form the thread into the walls of the
hole. In summary, use gun taps for short through holes, spiral-fluted taps for
deep or blind holes, and fluteless taps whenever possible.
The following axis movements will occur when a G84 tap cycle is pro¬
grammed:
1) rapid in X and/or Y.
2) rapid the Z axis to gage height.
3) feed in the Z axis to the Z depth.
 N/C MACHINING CENTERS AND PROGRAMMING • 149

O/N G X* Y* Z* l/J/K A/B/C posmo" F/E S D T M

SEQ. PREP POSITION POSITION POSITION POSITION POSITION FEED
P /Q ± WORD SPINDLE WORO TOOL MISC
FUNCT. RATE SPEED WORD FUNCT

0 15 G84 X+ 40000 Y-f 100000 Z- 8470 R+ 100000 B 0 F 300 S 700 T 15 M0 3

N 16 Y 80000

FIGURE 9-21
G84 — Sample program

4) reverse spindle direction of rotation, and feed retract the Z axis to

gage height.
5) reverse the spindle again at gage height.
These five steps will occur in the same order every time a G84 cycle is
programmed.

NOTE: If a right-hand thread is to be tapped, the M

function should be for a CW (clockwise)
spindle rotation. If a left-hand thread is to be PREVIOUS
tapped, the M function should be for a CCW POSITION

(counterclockwise) spindle rotation.

.847 X AND / OR Y
Figures 9-20, 9-21 and 9-22 illustrate the use of
a G84 tap cycle. In sequence number 015, the G84
code rapid advances the X and/or Y axes simultane¬
ously to Pos. 1 from the previous position. When POSITION I

Pos.1 is reached, the Z axis will rapid to the R 10.0000

plane (gage height). At this point, the Z axis will feed
to the programmed depth* at the programmed rate, R10.0000 PLANE

with the spindle rotating in its primary direction as

directed by the M function. At depth, the spindle
.100 GAGE HEIGHT
will reverse direction of rotation and feed retract to
the R 10.0000 plane (gage height). Spindle rotation
will reverse again to the primary direction. Now the
next block of information (N16) will be read and
acted upon. •'WWNvJr -POSITION 2

*The programmed depth for the Z axis in this example was calculated ^WW^)
as follows:
1
Z position depth to be tapped + tap chamfer X Rev-
Pitch
.25/-20 TAP
1 .750 DEEP
olutions for reversal X ——-
PitchJ 2 HOLES

This example is based on a 1/4-20 tap with 3-thread chamfer.

Pitch is 20.
1 1 FIGURE 9-22
Therefore: ——- = —= 0.050 inch
Pitch 20 G84 — Fixed cycle tap — cycle representation
150 • CHAPTER 9

In sequence N16, the G84 code is used again to rapid the Y axis with
the tool at gage height, to Pos. 2. Then the Z axis will feed to the programmed
depth* as before. At depth, the spindle will reverse direction of rotation and
feed retract to the R 10.0000 plane (gage height). Spindle rotation will
reverse again back to the primary direction.

OTHER FUNCTIONS
Most modern machining centers are equipped with controls that will
perform many additional operations other than the basic cycles already dis¬
cussed. Some of the more common preparatory and miscellaneous functions
follow.
• GOO — Positioning at rapid traverse
• G01 — Linear interpolation*
• G02 — Circular interpolation, CW direction
• G03 - Circular interpolation, CCW direction
• G04 — Dwell
• G17 - Circular in XY plane*
• G18 — Circular in XZ plane
• G19 — Circular in YZ plane
• G79 — Fixed cycle — mill
• G80 — Fixed cycle — cancel
• G81 — Fixed cycle — drill
• G82 - Fixed cycle - drill, dwell
• G84 — Fixed cycle — tap
• G85 — Fixed cycle - bore in, bore out
• G86 — Fixed cycle - bore in, stop spindle, rapid out
• G89 — Fixed cycle — bore in, dwell, bore out
• G90 — Absolute positioning*
• G91 — Incremental positioning
• G92 — Preload absolute stores
• G93 — 1/time feed rate mode
• G94 — I PM feed rate mode*
• MOO — Program stop
• M01 — Optional stop
• M02 — End of program
• M03 - Spindle ON-CW
• M04 — Spindle ON-CCW
• M05 — Spindle OFF
• M06 — Tool change
• M07 — Mist coolant ON
• M08 — Flood coolant ON
• M09 — Coolant OFF
• M13 — Spindle ON CW and flood coolant ON

These items are usually set up in the control at turn-on, by a data reset, and at the end of each program.
 N/C MACHINING CENTERS AND PROGRAMMING • 151

• M14 — Spindle ON CCW and flood coolant ON

• M17 — Spindle ON CW and mist coolant ON
• M18 — Spindle ON CCW and mist coolant ON
• M30 — End of tape
In addition, most modern machining centers and controls are equipped
with a variety of options. Some of the more common options follow. (Some
are standard, depending upon manufacturer.)
• CDC (cutter diameter compensation)
• Inch/metric switchable input/output
• Automatic interpretation BCD/ASCII tape format
• Position set
• Block delete
• Axis inversion
• Helical interpolation
• Tool gage interface
• Automatic acceleration and deceleration (ACC/DEC)
• Axis error compensation
• Automatic backlash compensation
• Punched tape entry of tool data
• Assignable tool length trims
• Single- or multiple-part program storage
• Tape-punch unit
• Customer-oriented diagnostics
One recent innovation which deserves special attention is a device called
"probe” or precision surface sensing, figure 9-23. This device is a creative
and time-saving method of accomplishing work centering. Probe is used to
electronically trigger the programmed reference in X, Y, or Z and make
automatic compensation for the measured axis values through direct feedback.
Essentially, the touch sensor tool can be used to automatically regrid
the machine, locate the setup point, establish tool clearance planes, or
determine a reference point for machining with respect to the center of a
boss or a cored hole.
The surface sensing system contains three parts. The first is the probe
body with an interchangeable stylus. (The stylus makes physical contact
with the workpiece.) The second part is the noncontacting inductive module.
(One module is mounted on the nose of the machine spindle while another is
mounted on the probe itself.) The third component is the control and inter¬
face printed circuit board.
The precision surface sensing probe can be loaded and automatically
selected from the tool storage matrix of machining centers, as shown in
figure 9-24. It minimizes setup and alignment time by reducing manual
operations. In addition, it improves productivity because it centrally locates
the finished part within the envelope of the rough part, ensuring part clean¬
up. The result is a significant, immediate reduction in the time wasted
machining parts that do not have sufficient stock. There is also an immediate
152 • CHAPTER 9

FIGURE 9-23
Probe precision surface sensing tool (Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacrpn Inc.)

FIGURE 9-24
The surface sensing probe loaded in the tool storage matrix of a horizontal machining center (Cour
tesy of Cincinnati Milacron Inc.)
 N/C MACHINING CENTERS AND PROGRAMMING • 153

reduction in the time required to lay out parts manually by bluing and line
scribing.

EXAMPLE PROGRAMS
The following example programs are typical of parts which require vari¬
ous tooling to perform some common machining operations. Only certain
excerpts have been included to avoid lengthy lists of repetitive operations.
Undoubtedly, there are approaches and proprietary techniques other
than those detailed. However, these examples should serve to better acquaint
you with the basic functions and operations of modern machining centers.
The first program is for a vertical machining center. The operations
required are to spot drill, drill, and bore the 1-inch holes in the part shown in
figure 9-25. The program in figure 9-26, while basically very simple, illustrates
decimal point programming for a modern vertical machining center. The
block by block explanation helps explain the programming used to complete
the necessary machining.

FIGURE 9-25
Vertical machining center programming example part
154 • CHAPTER 9

Program Explanation
06001 Program part name
N1 G92 X0 YO ZO T01 Load absolute preset values X = 0, Y = 0,Z = 0 (spot drill) (0,0) upper left
of part. Tool drum rotate to tool #1
N2 GOO G90 S1100 M03 GOO-Rapid, G90-absolute input, 1100 rpm, spindle on CLW
N3 M06 TOO Tool change — discard empty canister
N4 X 1.0 Y-1.5 Rapid to first position
N5 G45 Z.1 HOI T02 M08 Select tool 2 (15/16 drill) G45/H01 tool length offset Rapid to .100 on
part surface (Z.1) coolant on (.1108)
N6 G81 R.1 Z-.343 F11.0 Std. drill cycle, .100 above part surf. .343 DP. 11.0 IPM
N7 X6.0 Rapid to and complete 2nd hole
N8 G80 G28 Z.1 M06 T01 G80-cancel G81, G28 Z.1 M06 T01. rapid to home pos. change tool
N9 GOO S850 M03 Rapid traverse, 850 rpm, spindle on CLW.
N10 G45 Z.1 H02 T03 Select tool 3 (1.00 boring bar) G45/H02 tool length offset rapid to
.100 of part surface (Z.1)
Nil G83 R.1 Z-1.862 Q.5 Deep hole cycle - G83 peck drill rapid to .100 of part surface peck
drill in .500 increments to Z-1.862
N12 X1.0 Rapid to XI.0 and repeat cycle
N13 G80 G28 Z.1 M06 T02 G80-cancel G81, G28 Z.1 M06 T02-rapid to home pos. change tool
N14 GOO SI 000 M03 Rapid traverse to position 1000 rpm, spindle on CLW
N15 G45 Z.1 H03 TOO Select TOO (empty cannister) G45/H03 tool length offset rapid to .100
of part surface (Z.1)
N16 G76 R.1 Q0.10 Z-1.562 PO Finish bore — rapid Z to R. 100 of part surface Po-dwell spindle stop
and orient (shift X out .100) Q0.10
N17 X6.0 Rapid to X6.0 and repeat cycle
N18 G80 G28 Z.1 M06 T03 G80- cancel G81, G28 Z.1 M06 T02. rapid to home pos. change tool
N19 G28 YO Move to part offload position
N20 MOO Program stop
N21 GOO XO YO Rapid back to program start point
N22 M30 Tape rewind — end of program

FIGURE 9-26
Example program for a decimal point programmed vertical machining center. This program, with block by block explana¬
tion, is for the sample part shown in figure 9-25.

The second program is more complex. It is programmed fora modern

horizontal machining center using the interchangeable variable block format.
The following information is provided:
1) An engineering drawing of a hydraulic pump housing, figure 9-27.
2) A plan view, figure 9-28, and an elevation view, figure 9-29, of the one-
station indexing fixture. This fixture would permit machining on four
sides of the part.
3) The beginning of the N/C program, figure 9-30, along with a detailed
explanation for this part of the program.
4) Figure 9-31 illustrates numbered hole positions on the 0° side of the
part. Specific blocks of information for drilling the numbered hole
positions have been omitted because of their repetitive nature.
5) Figure 9-32 includes blocks of information and explanation for a
rotary table index from the 0° to the 180° side of the part for the re¬
maining machining operations.
FIGURE 9-27
Sample part drawing (Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron Inc.)
156 • CHAPTER 9

C/L

C/L

FIGURE 9-28
Fixture plan view (Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron Inc.)

6) Figure 9-33 includes blocks of information and a related description

for drilling and tapping hole positions illustrated in figure 9-34.
7) The blocks of information and-tape sequence explanation in figure
9-35 provide the programming information required to profile mill a
cored hole to a rough bore as shown in figure 9-36.
8) A tool instruction sheet is shown in figure 9-37 with complete tool
identification and cutting statistics.
9) Figures 9-38 and 9-39 illustrate examples of tool drawings to docu¬
ment the various parts of the entire tool assembly and complete the
programming support paperwork.
C/L

7.750

FIGURE 9-29
Fixture elevation view (Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron Inc.)
 N/C MACHINING CENTERS AND PROGRAMMING *157

0/N G X* Y‘ Z« R » l/J/K A/B/C F/E S D/H T M

F€£0 SPINOCC WOPD TOOL MlSC.
SCO PUfP
FUNCT
POSITION POSITION POSITION POSITION POSITION
P/Q 1 "°*D NATC SPCCO WORD FUNCT

T 1 M 6
0 1 GOO

B 0 S 350 T 2 M 3
0 2 GOO X 75000 Y 77500 Z 56925

Tape Sequence:

(E.O.B.)

01 Tape alignment blocks are identified by the alphabetic character "0”

as per E.I.A. standards. With tool changing machining centers, double
0 blocks are used so that realignment can be accomplished withouthav-
ing to perform a tool change if the correct tool is already in the spindle.
Loading the first tool is accomplished by tape sequence 01. The first
tool change will automatically cause the Z slide to go to full retract
position prior to loading the spindle with tool number T1.
02 Illustrates the first slide movement at rapid traverse rate (GOO) fromthe
random X and Y location where the first tool was loaded. The resultant
tool tip path is a straight line between the two points in the XY plane,
followed by the Z-axis movement. (GOO mode causes X-, Y-, and 13-
axes movements to occur simultaneously, followed by Z movement.)
This move locates the cutter at the start of the first cut.
Block number two provides the starting coordinates for all axes (X, Y,
Z and B), also the mode of operation (GOO), spindle speed (S_), spin¬
dle (On/off and direction), coolant (On/off and type) (M_) and num¬
ber of the next tool used (T_). With one exception, any (format)
word left out of this block will still contain the last value present in
the N/C control memory and the machine will respond according to
old data.
Start-up of the control will automatically assume the following func¬
tions are in effect:
G01 Linear Interpolation
G17 Circular Plane Selection in XY Plane
G90 Absolute Positioning
G94 Inches per minute feed rate
The 0 address permits tape search to locate this block for realignment
purposes. For example, if after executing several blocks of tape it
should be desired to start over at the beginning, the operator would
search block 02 rather than 01 because the first tool is already in the
spindle and re-aligning at 01 would cause an undesired tool change.

FIGURE 9-30
Sample program and explanation for first tool change (Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron Inc.)
158 • CHAPTER 9

FIGURE 9-31
Numbered hole positions for 0° side of the sample (Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron Inc.)

O/N G X* Yi Z* Rt l/J/K A/B/C posit,on F/E s D/H T M

SEO. PREP.
FUNCT.
POSITION POSITION POSITION POSITION POSITION P JQ ± WORO FEED
RATE
SPINDLE
SPEED
WORD TOOL
WORD
MISC.
FUNCT

N 16 X 0 Y 40000

N 17 GOO Z 100000

N 18 Z 36195 B 180000

N 19 G01 X 50000 F120

Tape Sequence

N16 Shows slides in their last cutting motion before index.

N17 X- and Y-axes remain at their last cutting position and Z-axis moves
at Rapid Traverse rate to a clearance plane which clears any possible
interference between cutter and fixture or workpiece.

N18 B-axis rotates to 180 degrees then Z-axis rapids to depth to start
milling.

N19 X-axis starts to feed at programmed feed rate.

FIGURE 9-32
Sample program for index of rotary table (Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron Inc.)
 Z±
TH
l/J/K A/B/C POSITION F/E S D/H T M
O/N G X± Y±

POSITION
NOIllSOd
POSITION P/Q ± WORD FEED SPINDLE WORD TOOL MISC.
SEQ. PREP. POSITION POSITION
RATE SPEED WORD FUNCT.
FUNCT.
T16 M 6

O
00
CM
GOO
00 US

LL
ID
o
M 3

O
O
O
O
T17

CO
00
0183 G81 X 54650 Y 67949 Z-12500 R 36195

N184 X 31467 Y 32447

N185 X- 9551 Y 23335

z
CO
CD
X-50553 Y 45953

N187 X-54165 Y87051

z
00
00
X-35147 Y 122553

N189 X 9551 Y131665

N190 X 45053 Y 109047

N191 GOO Z36295

T17 M6
0192 GOO
—
5
CO

CO
00
o
o
s
Y109047 Z- 9375 R 36195 F254 S 440 T19
0193 G84 X 45053

N194 X 54650 Y 67949

N195 X 31467 Y 32447

N196 X- 9551 Y 23335

N197 X-50553 Y 45953

>
00
I"*
O
ID
N198 X-54165

z
<J)
CT>
X-35147 Y122553

N200 X 9551 Y 131665

N201 GOO Z36295

5
CD

T19
0002 GOO

FIGURE 9-33
Sample program for drilling and tapping an eight-hole pattern (Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron Inc.)
N/C MACHINING CENTERS AND PROGRAMMING
159
160 • CHAPTER 9

Tape Sequence:

0182 Loads tool (T16) 5/16 x 7/16 subland drill and cosink in the spindle.

0183 G81 (Drill Cycle) causes X-, Y- and B-axes to position at hole 12, first
hole of the 8 hole pattern. At the same time the spindle also changes
speeds to 1100 rpm in the CW direction (M03). Then Z-axis moves
at rapid traverse to the R plane position, feeds at 5.0 ipm (F50) to a
depth of 1.2500 inches (Z-12500), and then rapid retracts to the R
plane ready to start next operation.

N184 Drills the remaining 7 holes. (13 thru 19). These are the same as the
thru first hole, except for the X, Y locations, so only the X, Y values are
190 programmed in these blocks.

N191 Retracts the Z-axis to gage height.

0192 Loads (T17) 3/8 - 16 NC tap in the spindle and returns tool (T16) to
its proper location in the matrix.

0193 G84 (Tap Cycle) taps hole P19 first of the 8 hole pattern. The slides
do not move since they were already in proper position for this hole.
The spindle will change speeds to 440 rpm in the CW direction (M03).
Then the Z-axis moves at rapid traverse to the R plane position, and
feeds at 25.4 ipm (F254) to a depth of 0.9375 inches (Z-9375). At
depth the spindle reverses and the Z-axis feeds back to the R plane
ready to start next operation.

N194 Taps the remaining 7 holes. These are the same as the first tapped
thru hole, except for the X, Y location, so only the new X, Y values are
200 programmed in these blocks.

N201 Retracts the Z-axis to gage height.

0202 Tool (T19) is loaded into the spindle for the next operation and T18
returned to storage.
FIGURE 9-33
Continued
 N/C MACHINING CENTERS AND PROGRAMMING 161

C/L

FIGURE 9-34
Sample workpiece (Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron Inc.)

0/N G X Y* Z* Ri l/J/K A/B/C POSITION

F/E
FEED
s
SPINOLE
D/H
WORD
T
TOOL
M
MISC
SEQ PREP POSITION POSITION POSITION POSITION POSITION
P/0 ± WORD
RATE SPEED WORD FUNCT

T 2 M 6

S 555 T 3 M 3
Z 56925 B 0
GOO X 0 Y 77500
F500
GO 1 Z 49000

1-11050 J 77500 P 0 Q 10000 F250

X-11050 Y 66450
F 76
o
o

P 10000
N220 X-22100 Y 77500

I 0 P 0 Q- 10000
X 0 Y 99600
_
o
O

P-10000
X 22100 Y 77500

P 0 Q 10000
X 0 Y 55400

P 10000 Q 0
N224 X-22100 Y 77500

1-11050 P 0 Q-10000 F250

X-11050 Y 88550
F500
Y 77500

N227 GO 1 Z 39425

FIGURE 9-35
Sample program for circular milling with CDC (Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron Inc.)
162 • CHAPTER 9

A 2 inch diameter end mill is used to circle mill a cored hole to a rough bore
dimension of 6.4200”, thus eliminating the need to have a boring bar set to
this dimension. Since the 2 inch diameter end mill is used elsewhere in the
program this technique saves a space in the tool matrix. This technique is
valuable when stock removal is heavy or irregular, but especially when the
tool matrix is full and no more tools can be added.
The cutter approach path is a semi-circle tangent to the 6.42 inch diameter
circle rather than a straight line. This brings the cutter gradually into contact
and eliminates "Wrap around" which could set up chatter because of the
large arc of contact.

Tape Sequence:

0216 Loads 2 inch end mill (T02).

0217 Positions the cutter at the center of the cored hole with CDC off, and
rapids Z-axis to gage height. Selects the proper spindle speed and
starts the spindle in the CW direction.
N218 Z-axis feeds to depth at 50 ipm.
N219, G02 produces a clockwise semicircular approach path tangent to the
220 6.50 diameter hole. I and J coordinates define which of the two circles
is being used. P and Q coordinates cause the system to offset the
cutter from the program path by one-half the CDC value stored in
the control memory for this particular tool.
N221, Each block produces a 90 degree arc of the circle at a feed rate of
2,3,4 7.6 ipm. The feed rate at the periphery is 12 ipm. The new I and J
values cause the cutter to follow a new circular path after reaching
the tangency point. P and Q values perpetuate the CDC offset al¬
ready in effect. The vector values are defined at the end of each cir¬
cular span — intermediate values are calculated by the control.
N225 I and J are programmed here to cause the cut path to follow a semi¬
circular exit path away from the work. Feed rate is increased since
no more metal is being removed. CDC remains "ON” until the cut¬
ter is away from the work, to eliminate any marks on the work
which might result from cutter deflection.
N226 No P and Q values are present so CDC offset is reduced to zero and
the cutter feed rate is stepped up to 50 ipm. Final position is at the
center of the cored hole at span end.
N227 Z-axis moves to a new setting for the next cut.

FIGURE 9-35
Continued
 N/C MACHINING CENTERS AND PROGRAMMING • 163

C/L

FIGURE 9-36
Sample part - milling (Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron Inc.)

PART NAME PART NO. DRAWING NO.

HOUSING - PUMP VARIABLE DELIVERY 306575
MACHINE AND CONTROL REVISION PROG. BY DATE
CIM-X CHANGER 720 with CNC CONTROL 5/8/84
SETUP AND TOOL INFORMATION CHECK BY PAGE OF PAGES
FIXTURE: USE 2CB-6 8M-434163 SETUP: USE 0.100 IN. GAGE 1 1
TO SET TLC TRAM POSITION X = 0.0000, Y = 3.7500, Z = 6.1000, B = 0
OPERATION TOOL
or STATION REMARKS CUT R.P.M. FEED CPT or
NUMBER DESCRIPTION ASSEMBLY No. SET DIM. SPEED FD/REV

1 3" CARBIDE END MILL 10011 3.5 300 382 23.0 .052
2 2" CARBIDE END MILL 11030 8.00 224 466 20 .043
3 17/32 DRILL 01022 5.625 80 575 43 .008
4 .520 X .5315 BORESIZE DRILL (CARB.) 99015 6.94 250 1800 30 .0167
5 1-1/8 X 1-1/4 SUBLAND DRILL 02014 7.9 82 250 3.0 .012
6 59/64 DRILL 01025 7.4 60 250 3.0 .012
7 3/4 - 14 NPTF PIPE TAP 08006 8.0 40 145 9.4 .065
8 7/16 X 9/16 SUBLAND DRILL 02011 8.0 80 700 5.0 .007
9 1/4 - 18 NPTF PIPE TAP 08009 6.19 40 230 12.3 .056
10 45/64 X 7/8 SUBLAND DRILL 02010 63 70 380 4.0 .011
11 1/2 - 14 NPTF PIPE TAP 08005 6.19 40 182 12.5 .069
12 R (.339) X 7/16 SUBLAND DRILL 02009 5.25 80 890 5.4 .006
13 1/8 - 27 NPTF PIPE TAP 08004 4.75 40 377 14.0 .037
14 2.740 BORE AND CHAMFER BAR 09042 6.90 300 416 2.2 .005
15 2.750 BORING BAR 09017 6.75 300 416 2.4 .006
16 5/16 X 7/16 SUBLAND DRILL 02013 5.25 80 977 5.0 .005
17 3/8 - 16 NC TAP 07012 5.56 40 406 25.4 .0625
18 1-7/16 DRILL 01024 8.41 60 158 1.1 .007
19 7/16 DRILL 01020 10.5 60 525 3.1 .006
20 11/32 DRILL 01021 4.88 80 878 5.3 .006
21 27/64 X 9/16 SUBLAND DRILL 02015 5.75 80 725 5.8 .008
22 1/2 - 13 NC TAP 07013 5.94 40 305 23.5 .077
23 1.1725 BORING BAR 09015 6.25 247 805 6.0 .0075
24 6.5000 BORING BAR 09016 3.375 303 176 1.1 .006

FIGURE 9-37
Sample tooling form
164 • CHAPTER 9

z
Tool Name 7/16' DR1LL IL0NG) Q>
3
a

DURABLE TOOLING Tool Assembly

Number:
# 91501 UNIVERSAL ACURA-GRIP COLLET CHUCK

I 901000-7/16 ACURA-GRIP COLLET

901001 ACURA-GRIP COLLET NUT

Date Set:
6-1-84

Set By
J.B.D.

PERISHABLE TOOLING Where Used

7/16 EXTRA LENGTH DRILL AT LEAST 7.5" FLUTE LGTH. 306575

9.0" O.A.L.

■n No RA7 104

FIGURE 9-38
Tool assembly drawing
 N/C MACHINING CENTERS AND PROGRAMMING • 165

"R" x 7/16 SUBLAND DRILL

z
Tool Name G>
3
®

Toot Drawing

DURABLE TOOLING Tool Assembly

Number

# 91501 UNIVERSAL ACURA-GRIP COLLET CHUCK_

i 901000-7/16 ACURA-GRIP COLLET_ 0 2 0 0 9

« 901001 ACURA-GRIP COLLET NUT_ _

Date Set:
6-1-84

Set By

J.B.D.

Where Used
PERISHABLE TOOLING

HR, X 7/16 MOHAWK SUBLAND DRILL, 1-1/16 STEP_ 306575

(SIMILAR TO 1703) _3-7/16 O.A.L._

2-1/16 FLUTE LGTH.

FIGURE 9-39
Tool assembly drawing
166 • CHAPTER 9

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. List the major elements which contribute to the versatility of a
machining center. Briefly explain their functions.
2. How are variations in tool lengths handled on a machining center?
3. What types of safety precautions must be considered prior to any
tool change and/or table index?
4. What are tool assembly drawings? Why are they used?
5. What types of conventional and unconventional operations are
performed on machining centers?
6. What kinds of indexing options are available on modern machining
centers?
7. Explain the difference between random and sequential tooling.
8. Name some machining center format words. Explain their functions.
9. Why are drill points calculated when programming for drilling
operations?
10. Name some optional features available on machining centers>
11. What is the primary function of the probe surface sensing tool?
fiH AFTER 10_
Numerical Control
Programming with Computers
OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:
========= • Understand the importance of computers in numeri¬
cal control applications.
• Name the various computer languages available for
numerical control, and describe their general charac¬
teristics.
• Discuss the general format and capabilities of the
APT language.
• Identify the major functions of a postprocessor.
• Explain the basic differences between hard-wired and
soft-wired controls.
• Understand DNC (direct numerical control) and its
impact on numerical control.
• Describe the general features and functions of a CNC
unit.

The computer has taken over many facets of work normally done
manually. Unfortunately, many people have been given the wrong impres¬
sion about the computer and the way it functions. Media leads us to con¬
clude that the computer is some kind of magic brain that sees, hears, and
knows all. In reality, a computer is simply a tool that will perform a given
task, providing the computer and man communicate in the same language.
Computers can save hundreds of work hours and can process data more
economically and accurately.
It is difficult, however, to convince some people that users of computers
do not necessarily need a highly technical background in order to profit
from their use. Only an understanding of the language is required, and one
can make the computer a slave for the task one wishes it to perform.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS
Computers are very complex instruments. However, they basically
perform three functions: accept data; process data; and develop an output.

167
168 • CHAPTER 10

Speed is a very important factor in accomplishing these three jobs. Com¬

puters can perform many repetitious functions in only a fraction of the time
it would take a person. For example, many computers can add a quarter of
a million numbers having sixteen digits in one second!
Another important characteristic of computers is the amount of mem¬
ory or storage capacity they possess. The basic unit of logic or storage is the
word composed of bits which are charged or discharged "cores” within the
memory of the computer. Accuracy is also a key element in working with
computers. Since people, not computers, make errors, the accuracy of the
computer is limited only by the accuracy of the programmer.
This then brings up the real key to the profitable use of computers —
programming. A computer is completely without initiative. It follows
whatever set of instructions it has been given, and is helpless when confronted
with a situation that was not specifically covered in its instructions. There¬
fore, every conceivable eventuality must be allowed for, and suitable instruc¬
tions must be provided. These masses of electronic components and circuitry
could not add one and one without being given a set of explicit instructions.

N/C AND COMPUTERS

Some companies, having only a few N/C machines, find that they need
computer assistance for some of their work. If they do not own a computer,
they are able to rent time or hire a specialist who has knowledge of computer
programming and access to a computer.
Using the computer to prepare tapes for numerically controlled machines
greatly reduces the cost of tape preparation, particularly if the part is com¬
plex. It also produces accurate tapes more often than manual programming.
The computer-aided part programming system will also provide error diagnos¬
tics relating to format, spelling, and typographical errors at the computer level
where it is generally cheaper to correct, rather than having errors detected at
the machine tool. This reduces the amount of machine time that might
normally be wasted because of tape or programming errors. Figure 10-1
illustrates the flow of an N/C program when using a computer.
Most large companies who depend on computer support for providing
their N/C tapes usually communicate their N/C services by means of processor
languages. Currently, there are dozens of N/C processor languages available.
While most organizations that use numerical control make use of one of
the existing processor languages, some have actually written their own
language for special applications.
These particular processor languages — other non-N/C processor lan¬
guages include FORTRAN (formula translation), COBOL (common business
oriented language), BASIC — take up an extensive amount of computer logic
or memory, depending on the amount of storage capacity needed to accom¬
modate a particular processor language. These languages must contain enough
capabilities to execute the instructions called for in a manuscript. If the
processor has a very limited capability, the programmer must confine the
 NUMERICAL CONTROL PROGRAMMING WITH COMPUTERS • 169

FIGURE 10-1
Flowchart of the development of an N/C program

manuscripts to that capability. The part programmer must understand the

terms of the specific language being used and how these terms will be pro¬
cessed by the computer.
Therefore, the more powerful and complete the language, the larger the
computer's capabilities. This is why so many processors have been written.
It is also why there is a trend toward using a small computer for processing a
workpiece program while all processor language storage is done on some
170 • CHAPTER 10

auxiliary piece of equipment, such as a disc pack or magnetic tape storage.

Simple processors use smaller computers, and the simple languages may be
quite adequate for basic N/C work.

COMPUTER LANGUAGES AVAILABLE FOR N/C

As mentioned, due to the large variety of processor or programming
languages available, choosing the correct program language is often a very
difficult and major decision. Types of parts produced, types of machine
tools used, lot sizes, costs, materials used, and computer availability should
all be considered when selecting a particular part programming language. The
following are the most common types of computer languages.

APT (AUTOMATIC PROGRAMMED TOOL)

This has the largest vocabulary of the general processor languages. It
was also the first to be developed. APT can be used only on large-capability
computers. It can perform the complicated mathematics of complex curves,
using four- and five-axis contouring techniques. APT is the basic N/C
computer program for the industry. It will be discussed in more detail later.

AD APT (ADAPTATION OF APT)

This is a limited version of APT and can be run on medium-sized com¬
puters. It uses only about one-half of the vocabulary words as APT. AD¬
APT development was initially sponsored by the Air Force. The language is
restricted to two simultaneous contouring motions in a plane and a third axis
of linear control.

AUTOMAP (AUTOMATIC MACHINING PROGRAM)

This language is a further modified version of APT. It works primarily
with straight lines and circles, and it runs on medium-sized computers.
AUTOMAP is easy to learn, and uses about fifty vocabulary words as well as
some specific punctuation.

COMPACT II
This language and its processor, while used widely throughout industry,
operate in an interactive environment on remote, time-shared computers.
The programmer prepares a manuscript, and then communicates it to the
computer system via an input/output terminal. This language encompasses a
broad spectrum of users from some of the largest manufacturing concerns.
It can cover N/C applications ranging from the standard milling, drilling,
turning, boring, etc. to punch press work, EDM, and flame cutting.
 NUMERICAL CONTROL PROGRAMMING WITH COMPUTERS • 171

The flexibility of COMPACT II makes it an easy language to learn.

Basically, there are only a few rules to memorize. The symbols and language
organization are simple and may be learned in a relatively short period of
time. The words used in the COMPACT II language are easily recognizable,
even without formal training. The words may be placed in any sequence
within the programming statement. This allows a free-form use of the
language and stems from the language that is basic to it, the SUNDSTRAND
SPLIT language. However, statement structure and sequences follow logical
N/C machining procedures or steps. This language specifies the machine,
defines the part shape, selects the tools, and directs the cutting motion. The
computer helps debug the input through interactive conversation with the
programmer while processing the program, and returns, via the terminal, the
machine control tape. The conversational interactive nature of the COMPACT
II processor provides step-by-step diagnostics (errors) as the manuscript is
transmitted to the remote computer for processing.

UNIAPT
This language and its processor operate in a batch mode on a local
dedicated minicomputer. UNIAPT can handle programming for all three
axes and most four- and five-axis machine tools. The UNIAPT language is
almost identical to the APT language; however, a few words in APT and
UNIAPT are not compatible with each other. The major distinction between
the two is the size of the computer required. APT requires a large computer
system, while UNIAPT can run on a minicomputer.

NUFORM
This language and its processor are used by inserting codes, or dimen¬
sional numbers, in appropriate eighty-card columns. The columns are
divided among ten fields. Each NUFORM statement conforms to the
structural rules of one of about eighty modules. NUFORM uses numerical
codes rather than mnemonic codes; letter codes, abbreviations, and punctua¬
tions are used rather than words.

SPLIT (SUNDSTRAND PROCESSING LANGUAGE,

INTERNALLY TRANSLATED)
This is a proprietary language of Sundstrand and must be run on a large
computer. The language and its processor operate in either a batch or
interactive mode using a local dedicated or time-shared computer. The
programmer writes a manuscript on a ruled form. Each manuscript line is
keypunched into cards and fed to the computers. The computer processes
the program and output cards. These are listed and may also be output as
punched tape for machine control.
172 • CHAPTER 10

The vocabulary used in many of these programs is very similar. When

one learns some point-to-point and contouring routines of one language, the
transition to any other language should be fairly easy. However, because
APT was the first language to be developed and the other languages are
derivatives of APT, we will concentrate on APT and its use.

APT GENERAL PROCESSOR

APT stands for automatically programmed tool, and refers to a language
and computer program. Currently, there are about fifteen widely used
implementations of APT in the United States. Each has its own set of
changes or additions to the original APT system. These differences are
relatively minor, and do not affect the basic parts of the language.
To better understand the nature and function of APT, a brief discussion
of its background is necessary. While APT has an interesting history and is
the base from which all other N/C computer languages evolved, it may not
be the best choice for all applications and situations.
N/C was developed as an answer to some complex aerospace machining
problems, such as the aerodynamic curves of blade and airfoil surfaces. At
that time, each aerospace company tried to write its own processor language.
However, the companies found that the job required more time and man¬
power than could be committed. Finally, the members of the AIA pooled
their resources in a cooperative development project. In 1961, it was decided
to broaden the scope of APT; further development was turned over to I IT
research in Chicago. The APT system soon emerged, representing over 100
years of development and testing. The membership was then opened to
include other industries. The APT Long Range Program was further broad¬
ened to include CAM-1 (Computer Aided Manufacturing International).
Basically, the APT system is divided into four sections, plus Section-0.
Section-0 may be considered the supervisor or operating system which
controls the flow of information in the various sections of the system. This
is illustrated in figure 10-2.
In Section-1, the input translator phase reads the source statements one
at a time. As each statement is processed, it is checked for errors in punctua¬
tion, ordering, incomplete statements, and syntax. Any errors detected in this
phase cause an error signal to the part programmer. The signal indicates the
type of error and the correction procedure to be followed. The source state¬
ments are then separated and classified by type of operation. The necessary
data is extracted, rearranged, and recorded into computer-processible form for
the next phase. Certain data dealing entirely with machine tool functions,
e.g., coolant control, which is not required to compute the cutter center
point or path is coded through to the next phase of the processor to the
second step of the process.
In Section-2, the arithmetic phase of the processor receives the data
from the input translator phase. Using a built-in library of subroutines,
tables, and symbols, this phase generates the equations which describe a
 NUMERICAL CONTROL PROGRAMMING WITH COMPUTERS • 173

APT INTERNAL SYSTEM

TRANSLATOR

ARELEM

j VTLAXIS
< TRACUT
1 COPY

POSTPROCESSORS
FIGURE 10-2
Sections of APT programming

given machining problem. For example, the problem in question might be

the intersection of two lines or arcs, the point of tangency of a line and an
arc, or the points which describe a circle to be segmented into straight-line cuts
within the required tolerance. These equations are solved to find the coordi¬
nate values describing the cutting tool's center point in three-dimensional
space. These values are formatted into generalized machining instruction
sets as the final output of the processor program.
If no errors are found in Section-2, control is passed to Section-3, the
edit phase. There are three major functions of Section-3. One is vertical
tool axis (a variable tool axis) which is a multiaxis control dealing with the
orientation of the spindle from the vertical position. The others, TRACUT
and COPY, are used to transform and manipulate the output data of Section-
2. If no errors are found in Section-3, or if there is nothing to be done in
this section, control is passed on to Section-4.
APT is a multipass processor. It completely processes the input, treat¬
ing only some aspects (such as spelling and punctuation checks) before
another aspect, such as calculations of cutter positions, is processed.
Section-4 is the postprocessor. The proper postprocessor is selected
from the instructions on the MACHIN/card. The data is converted into the
proper format for the specific machine tool which is called out.

POSTPROCESSORS
Postprocessor is the most misunderstood term in numerical control. It
has been mistakenly considered a piece of hardware or a separate "black
box" sitting off in the corner waiting to postprocess some information.
A postprocessor is a set of computer instructions which transforms tool
centerline data into machine motion commands using the proper tape code
and format required by a specific machine control system. Also included are
feed rate calculations, spindle speeds, and auxiliary function commands.
174 • CHAPTER 10

APT PART PROGRAM GENERATION

_ OPERATION WITH
APT
POSTPROCESSOR
INPUT
\ WITH APT

CNC
CONTROL
POSTPROCESSOR
MACHINE A

TAPE FOR
MACHINE B
TAPE FOR
MACHINE A

CNC
POSTPROCESSOR
CONTROL
MACHINE C

CNC
CONTROL

FIGURE 10-3
Relationship of APT program generation, postprocessor, N/C tape, and machine tool (Courtesy of
Cincinnati Milacron Inc.)

If APT or any other universal type processor is used, a postprocessor

program must be written for each different machine tool/control unit com¬
bination that will be used. Most machine tool and control unit builders have
developed postprocessors for their own equipment.
Because APT is universal, it cannot convert any calculated data into
specific tape formats for any machine tool/control unit. The initial output
will be the CL or centerline output. This tells where the centerline of the
cutter path is located with respect to the part configuration within the
machine coordinate system. An additional step — post processing — is
required to adapt the CL output to the particular machine tool/control unit
combination which will be used to machine the workpiece. The actual pro¬
gram tape to be used on the machine tool is a product of the postprocessor.
This important relationship is illustrated in figure 10-3.
The primary functions of a postprocessor are to:
• convert cutter centerline data to the machine coordinate system.
• ensure that the physical limits of the machine are not exceeded, e.g.
range, feed rate.
• contain the part to a given tolerance by controlling the amount of
overshoot.
• eliminate reader limitations.
 NUMERICAL CONTROL PROGRAMMING WITH COMPUTERS • 175

• output preparatory and miscellaneous functions.

• calculate cutter compensation information.
• generate circular or parabolic points.
• generate error diagnostics when necessary.
There are many varieties of postprocessors available. For this reason, a
part programmer should study thoroughly the postprocessor documentation in
order to become familiar with the capabilities and requirements of the post¬
processor.

WRITING AN APT PROGRAM

APT part programming involves three major elements:
• Definition and symbolic naming of geometric points and surfaces
representing part size and configuration.
• Specification of cutting tool and action or tool motion statements.
(These statements move the cutter to the points or along the defined
geometric surfaces.)
• Specifications of conditions required at the machine tool such as
spindle speeds, feed rates, and other auxiliary function commands.
(These are relative to the independent postprocessor being used.)
A simple APT program is shown in figure 10-4. In providing the geo¬
metric definitions of the part, the APT part programmer communicates to

APT GEOMETRY STATEMENTS APT MOTION STATEMENTS

SETPT = POINT/X, Y, Z FROM/ SETPT
PI = POINT/X, Y, Z RAPID
P2 = POINT/X, Y, Z GO/ TO, LI
Cl = CIRCLE/CENTER, P2, RADIUS, R FEDR AT/20
LI = LINE/PI, LEFT, TANTO, Cl TLLFT, GOLFT/L1, TANTO, Cl
L2= LINE/PI, RIGHT, TANTO, Cl GOFWD/C1, TANTO, L2
L3= LINE/PI, ATANGL, 90 GOFWD/L2, PAST, L3
CUTTER/.5 GOTO/SETPT FIGURE 10-4
FINI Simple APT program
176 • CHAPTER 10

the computer using the specific APT vocabulary. In this vocabulary, there
are approximately two hundred and sixty words, including punctuation. The
APT geometry statement consists primarily of three parts:

Symbol = surface/description
Cl = Circle/center, P2, radius, R

APT DEFINITION STATEMENTS

The first part is a symbol which is an arbitrary name assigned to a particu¬
lar geometric element. This symbol is then equated to the definition (the sec¬
ond part of the statement) which is a major word such as point, line, circle, etc.
The major word defines the type of surface or geometric element that the sym¬
bol represents. The third part of the APT statement is the actual description
which consists of minor words or modifiers and numerical values of the point,
line, circle, etc. These position the element in space and determine its spe¬
cific size.

APT MOTION STATEMENTS

The motion statements in the APT language are typical of statements that
might be used in directing a person to walk around the block or through town.

Positional modifier Directional modifier Drive surface Modifier Check surface

TLLFT GOLFT / LI TANTO Cl

A much more detailed, typical, and complete APT program, along with
its postprocessor printout, is shown in figure 10-5. Included in this figure
are operations sheet and commentary contained in the program.
The APT part programmer must first define the part to be produced
and its various elements and surfaces, selecting the best available format
from the APT language. There are numerous formats available, and each
must be used in exactly the same way it is provided in the APT vocabulary.
The part programmer does not have the freedom to invent or modify any
APT definition statement.
As computer part programming continues to grow, more companies
will be relying upon either APT or one of its derivative languages for sup¬
port. This can be done through direct purchase of a computer or through
time sharing. Additional information can be obtained from any N/C ma¬
chine manufacturer and technical institutes and colleges teaching the subject.

HARDWARE VERSUS SOFTWARE

When discussing machine control units, many questions and concerns
are raised regarding the terms hardware and software. A greater appreciation
 NUMERICAL CONTROL PROGRAMMING WITH COMPUTERS • 177

•MUST BE DONE BEFORE

f 1 n— ; • , ; * if MAKING CUTTING TEST
1*1 . , ; ”i
1
_ n
: ; : : i
;!ds i
X
1 i
1 i i ' K )
1 i 1 v
i i
1 1 i i i
!
I i i i i
i i
r1 i i S r1
1
1 i i
i i
-

SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS
1. Align Point — 1" bored hole (X000000 Y000000) PI
2. Mill Off Corners of Part — 5/8 deep, 2 passes, 5/16 stock removal each pass 2" carb.
end mill, 8 ipm. P25-P32
3. Mill Circle — 5/8 deep, 2 passes, 5/16 stock removal each pass, 2" carb. end mill, leave
.020 on radius for finish cut, 12 ipm. P2-P5
4. Mill Square Inside Circle — 5/16 deep, 1 pass, 2" carb. end mill, square at 10° angle,
leave .020 on sides for Finish cut, 8 ipm. P14-P17
5. Mill (Taper) Square — 5/16 depth of cut (15/16 deep from top of part) 1 pass, 2"
carb. end mill, leave .020 on sides for Finish cut, 14 ipm. P6-P9
6. Mill Square — 5/16 depth of cut (1-1/4 deep from top of part) 1 pass, 2" carb. end
mill, leave .020 on sides for Finish cut, 14 ipm. P10-P13
7. Mill Square To Finish Dimension — 2" carb. end mill, 1 pass 20 ipm. P10-P13
8. Mill Square With Taper To Finish Dimension — 2" carb. end mill, 1 pass, 20 ipm.
P6-P9
9. Mill Circle to Finish Dimension — 2" carb. end mill, 1 pass, 16 ipm. P2-P5

FIGURE 10-5
Detailed APT program (Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron Inc.)
178 • CHAPTER 10

10. Mill Square Inside Circle to Finish Dimension - 2" carb. end mill, 1 pass, 16 ipm.
P14-P17
11. Drill 4 Holes - 1-1/8" deep, 59/64 dia. drill. P18-P21
12. Pipe Tap 2 Holes - 3/4 - 14 pipe tap. P19 and P21
13. Bore 2 Holes - 1/2" deep, 1" dia. bore. P18andP20
14. Drill 2 Holes — 7/8" deep, 5/16 dia. drill. P22 and P23
15. Tap 2 Holes - 3/8" deep, 3/8-16 n.c. tap. P22 and P23
16. Unload.
RAE-103

DATE= 71.284 TIME OF DAY IN HRS./MIN./SEC IS 12/32/46.20

N/C 360 APT VERSION 4, MODIFICATION 2

— TFfE MACRO--dR-'OSES-“66"- LOCATIONS IN CANON

THE MACRO CIRSQR USES 90 LOCATIONS IN CAN0N____
“THE MACRO ANGSQR-OSES*-96 LOCATIONS IN CANON
THE MACRO SQUR USES_96 LOCATIONS IN CANON___

TABLE USAGE DURING INPUT TRANSLATION

PASS TWO
PASS ONE
- OYNAMTC ALL OC AT ION
--ALLOCATED
VST 2750 124 VST 125
777---PTTrP 772“
PI PP-7773
CANON 2225 348 SCALARS U
---CANON-31*92

-IPGLUUOU-
“I-PAH I NIX" cpg cum pus i rr IESI PARI FUR I HE L1H-X f2U WIIH iuul iuhk
CPGCOO10
2 it - -MACHlN-/-CtNACr;- I560OCr;-CIRCUL-r IT0» 12,2 - CPGCOOZO "
CPGC0030
4 it
-5- ' OR I G TN “/ "0-r~07-3~ -$$“ ORIGIN FOR CONTROL WITH TOOL
COMRCPGCUOW

6 tt CPGC0050
-CPGLUU60"
-1-PTT-= PUINI /U,M,U
CPGC0070
8 ULOAD = POINT/15, 6,0
-CPGC0080
— V—CT-=" "CIR CL E / 0T075
CPGC0090
10 HLO = L INE/pTl,ATANGL,0.0
-CFGC0V00
- - rr~ VL“0-="LI NE/PTl , ATANGL ,9070
CPGCOilO
12 ALO = L INE/PTI,ATANGL,.0572222
-LPGLU1ZO-
“TT-HT~I-= L 1NL/PAHL EL , ALU, YLAHGt, !>.25
CPGC0130
14 AL 2 = LINE/PARLFL,AL0,YSMALL,5.25 _ __
-XPGCD140-
‘ I 5-ALO-=" L TNE/PARCEL", ( L I NE/PT 1", PERPTO , AL"0) , XLARGE‘,5.25
16 AL4 = L INE/PARLEL ,AL3 ,XSMALL, 10.50 CPGC0150
“17 AL 5 = L LNE / LPOT NT/YLARGE , INTOF ,( ALA =L 1 NE/PTl , ATANGL ,551 ,Cl I , ATANGL, ICTCFGC0160
18 A L6 = LINEZ(POI NT/Y SMALL, INTOF,ALA,C LI,ATANGL, 10 CPGC0170
-CPGCTJTRO
T9-HTR = LINEIV ii,HtKHlu,ALA
C PGCO190
20 AL 7 = L INE/IPOINT/XLARGE,INTOF,ALB,Cl),PERPTO,AL5^
’21 AL 8 = LINE/ LPCn NT/X SMALL, INTOF,ALB,Cl I,PERPTO,AL5 -CPGC02 00
CPGC0210
22 VL1 = LINE/PARLEL,VLO,XLARGE,5.375__
-C PGC0270
_23 VL 2 = LTNE/^ARLEL,VLO,XSMALL,5.375
CPGC0230
24 VL 3 = LINE/PARLEL,VLO,XLARGE,5.5
-CPGC0240
~73~ -VT5-s L INE/RAPLEL,VLU,ASMALL,5.5
HLl = LINE/PAPLEL,HLO,YSMALL,5.375 CPGC0250
26
"27 HL2 = LINE/FARLEL ,HLO,YSMALL,5.5
-CPGC0260
CPGC0270
28 HLJ = L INE/PARLEL,HLO,YLARGE,5.375
-CFGC0Z80
29 HL 4 = LTNE/PARLEL , HLO , YL ARGE , 5.5 '
P T18 = POINT/4.375,-4. 375,-. 625 CPGC0290
30
-C PGC0300
-n-PTT9-= P 01 NT / 4.3 T3~, 4.375,-. 625
CPGC0310
32 PT20 = POINT/—4.375,4.375,-.625
-CPGC0320
37 PT21 = POINT/'-4.375,-4. 375,-.625
CPGC0330
34 PT22 = POINT/2.5,-2.5,0.0
-CF GC 0340
35 PT23 = POINT/-?.5,2.5,070-
C PGCO 3 50
36 P T25 = POINT/3. 1 358,-7.0,-.3125
-CPGC036tr-
-rr PT26-- POINT'/6.7 6 0 0 , 3 . 1 306,-*. 3125
38 PT27 = POI NT/6.7600,3.1358 ,-. 3125 CPGC0370
< -CPGC0380
39 PT28 = POINT/3.I 358 ,7.0,-.3125-
C PGC0390
6 40 P T 29
41 -PTT O'
=
=
P0INT/-3.1358,7.0,-. 3125
PUrNTr-6.76'00,7.1358, -.3175“
-CPGC04 00

42 P T 31 = POI NT/-6.7600,-3. 1358,-. 3125 CPGC0410

FIGURE 10-5
Continued
 NUMERICAL CONTROL PROGRAMMING WITH COMPUTERS 179

CPGC042D
43 PT32 = POINT/-3.13 58,-7.0, -.3125
44 PT 33 POINT/3.1358,-7.0,0.0 CPGC0430
43"" “LT- 'L'TFIFTFTT, PT25
RAE-103

46 PL0 = PLANE/0,0,1,0 CPGC0450

47“ PH PYA7JE70,0,1,-.3125 " CR GC0460
48 PL2 PLANE/0,0,1,-.62 5 CPGC04 70
49 PL 3 PLANt/U,0,1,-.9375 l y 1>L (JU
50 PL 4 = PLANE/0,0,1,-1.25 CPGC0490
“3T $r - C PGC0500
52 it THE FOLLOWING ARE SYMBOLIC FEEDRATES—CHECK TO SEE IF THEY SHOULD CPGC0510
-33” $S BE “CHAN”GETJ‘PRT0R TO PROCESSING. CFGC032D
54 it C PGC 0530
-53 WbLUL “8-il KGH L URNb Kb UF PART, INSlUt SUUAKfc
56 RFE02 = 12 it RGT CIRCLE C PGC0550
51 “RFED3 “ “T3 . .7S RGT OUTS IDE"~ SQUARE
58 FFEDl = 20 it FINISH MILL SQUARE CPGC0570
'“'"53 ' “FFEU2““ 13 “ '"$$ FINSIH M ILU'CIRCLE”
60 FFE03 = 20 SS FINISH TAPERO SQUARE CPGC0590
LPbCOOUU
-31 DKbbLJ " “T5-57 DRILL
62 TPFED1 15 it TAPERD PIPE TAP CPGC0610
63 “TFFFDZ ”ZT~ " " 7$ N.C.TAF ~
.64 BRFEO = 10 it BORE CPGC0630
=
63“ “R7TPU“““ “130-it RAPTD"
CPGC0650
66 $$
-6 I ~TC- MACHOS L kGl ut>e>u
68 it CPGC0670
-63“ "CTR- MTrCRUTOTA-.FLN.FFtT C PGC0680
70 CUTTER/DI A C PGC 0690
-7r-
“FFDR“AT/FED“
72 SP INDL/880»CLW CPGC0710
M PblS/PLN 0 f20
74 FROM/PT 33 CPGC0730
73“ TNDTRR/RTl”
76 GO/TO,C1 CPGC0750
-77- “TURGT,GOKGT7U1, ON»Z» TNTOF ,lLINc/rTI*Pi25l
78 TERMAC C PGC 0770
-79 ”77-- LKbUJ l OU
80 CIRSQR = MACRO/OIAM,FEDR C PGC0790
8T““ “CUTTETT/TH Afl
82 CYCLE/MILLRP,0EEP,0. 0 CPGC0810
83“ SP1ND1“/B80,C7W
84 FEDRAT/FEDR CPGC0830
-83“ T3URF7FO— t KbLi) B *»0
86 GOT 0/(POINT/INTOF,AL B,(LINE/PARLEL,AL7,XLARGE,1.25) » CPGC0850
B7 PSIS/PL1
88 INDIRP/PT l CPGC0870
83 GU/T0YAL7 L Kbl. UOOU
90 TLRGT,GORGT/AL7 CPGC0890
91 GULFT/AL5-
92 G0LFT/AL8 CPGC0910
93 “GOLFT/AL 6,PAST,AL 7
94 TERMAC CPGC0930
93-IT
96 ANGSQR = MACRO/OIAMT,F0RT CPGC0950
-97 CUTTER/ulaMI
98 SPINDL/880,CLW CPGC0970
93 'FF DR AT/FORT
100 CYCLE/MILLRP,DEEP,0.0 CPGC0990
307 r5URF7PL-3
102 GOTO/I POINT/INTOF,1LINE/PARLEL,VL3,XLARGE,1.5),t CPGC1010
-( LINE/rARLcL,HLZ,T SMALL,1.311
103 PSIS/PL3 CPGC1030
VIII-D2

- -7(74- 1T1DTR1VRT1
105 GO/TO,AL3 CPGC1050
"TDS ‘ TV RGT ,~GORGTrAL3
107 GOLF T/AL1 CPGC1070
—
T0B "GnLFT/ACTT
109 GOLFT/AL2,PAST,AL3 CPGC1090
—-tttt ■‘TFRWSC
lii $$ CPGCiliO
XYZ ““SGUR““ -MACFOrDTR“,FRAr -
1 13 * CUTTER/DTR CP GC1130
-mr SPINDL/880,CLW
115 CYCLE/MILLRP,DEEP,0.0 CPGC L150
713 ZSORF/FL^r
117 GOTO/(POINT/INTOF,(LINE/PARLEL,VL3, XLARGE, 1.5), S C PGC1170
lLINt/rflKLbLtHLc,YiMALL,1.^11 -CPGC ITSU
118 FEDRAT/FRAT CPGC1190
-rnr PSlS/PL4
120 INDIPP/PT1 CPGC1210
T2T -"GO/TG,VL“r
122 TLRG T,GORGT/VL1 CPGC1230

FIGURE 10-5
Continued
180 • CHAPTER 10

* T27 -GntFT7V1L7- ~
GOLFT/VL? CPGC1250
124
-rrr- -GULF T /HU ,PASI , VL1 “
TERMAC CPGC1270
126
T2T ir““
128 %% START OF PROGRAM CPGC1290
1'2<T %r~ —
P PR I NT CPGC1310
130
-m ppriett—aL 1GN PUI N 1 15 a 1—IINLH BURED HULE IX0OOUUU TUUDOOCTI
PPRINT CPGC1330
132
137 -PPIUTIT L"0*t) "2-tNCtY DtA 4-FLUTE END MILL
134 PPRINT CPGC1350
C PGC13 60
V35" “PFRTNT ' "Mitt"CO*ITERS DFF PART- 2 PAS$FS»5/16 DEPTH E^CH PASS*
136 LOAD TL / 1,1 CPGC1370
—T3T~ ST-
138 CLRSRF / XY PL AN * 3 CPGC1390
T37 -RUTTBUT"ATA'NGL » 90"
140 SPINDL / 880, CLW C PGC1410
T4T* *‘*CTJ0UNT"7 PI SI
142 FtDRAT / RFEDi CPGC1430
-prr--- It- KUM/PTT —--
144 CYCLE/MILLRP ,DEEP,0.0 CPGC1450
-T47* G0T07P T2T
146 G0T0/PT26 CPGC1470
-T4T~ "" WAPITI ‘ ' UY LHBU
148 GOTO/PT27 CPGC1490
——rw GOTIT/FI^B
RAPID CPGC1510
150
-T5T G0T07PT29*
GOTO/P T30 CPGC1530
152
-V5T" -'PAPttr
154 GOTO/PT3l CPGC 1550
-T75- GQTO/PTSg-
156 CYCLE/MILLRP,DEEP, .3125 CPGC1570
-T3T~ -GOTO/PT32—
158 GOTO/PT 3l CPGC1590
—-—C-PGC 1600
-1"37"
160 GQTO/PT30 CPGC1610
-1-frl- -QOTO/PT-g^-—- ”
162 RAPID CPGC1630
-T67- - 60TfT/P-?£8—
164 GOT0/PT 2 7 CPGC1650
-C“PGCt6frO
-767 ~
166 G0T0/PT26 C PGC1670
--CPGC 1600—
-l-fr?-
168 PPRINT CPGC1690
VIII-0 3

16<> PPR17T R-OtKSH Ml-tL etBCLE-2 DEPTH PASSES— LEAVE .020 EXCESS—RPM 880-CP GC17 00
170 PPRINT CPGC1710
-T7T“ CYCLE" r MTLtFtJi'OECP", "0;~3t?5-
17? CALL/CIR»D1A=2.04»PLN=PL0,FED=RFED2 CPGC1730

174 CYCLE/MILLFD,DEEP,.625 CPGC1750

-175-xHELYCTRVDTA»2-.TJVfPtPUO» FEQ-RFED? -CPGC1T6TJ
RAE103

CPGC1770
176 GQTO/PT33
"CPGCIT80
T77 " PVRTNT
CPGC1790
LPGLIBUU
— rrr~
"PPRINT'
CPGC1810
180 CALL/CIRSQR,DIAM=2.04,FE0R=RFEDI
—T8T PPRTNT ~
PPRINT MILL TAPERD SQUARE--1 PASS— LEAVE .020 EXCESS — RPM 880 C PGC1830
182
T 87 PPRTNT
CALL/ANGSOR,01AMT=2.04,FDRT=RFED3 CPGC1850
184
-TW5” Y
PK1N 1
CPGC1870
186 PPRINT MILL OUTSIDE SQUARE--1 PASS— LEAVE .020 EXCESS—RPM 880
—TB7 PPRTNT "
CALL/SQUR,DTR=2.04,FRAT=RFED3 CPGC1890
188
T87 PPRTNT-
PPRINT RETRACT TO BACK LI MIT--POSITI ON AT UNLOAD POINT CPGC1910
190
-T9T" PPRINT INSPECT CUllfcK AND PART
CPGC1930
192 PPRINT
T93 -R7TPTTJ—
CPGC1950
194 GOTO/ULOAD
T95 -OPSTOW
CPGC1970
196 PPRINT

FIGURE 10-5
Continued
 NUMERICAL CONTROL PROGRAMMING WITH COMPUTERS • 181

-PT7-PPR1NI HILL SQUARE—FINISH S S—KPH H8U -CPGL1900-

198 PPRINT CPGC 1990
■ ■ ■ T97-r ArcrSTJDITf DTR"= 2V0VFRA T=ETETJ3 -CPGC200CT-
200 PPRINT CPGC2010
~’~701 PPPTNT'HTC.U~TAP"ERTJ~'SQUAKE'~--' FINISH PASS-—RPW -CPGC2070T-
880“ _
2 02 SS CPGC2030
-TUI-CALL / ANUSUK *Ul AH I =2. 0 ,FT3fri =PFtU3 -CPGL2U40-
204 PPRINT _ C PGC 2050
2O5'~~PPRTNT~MTUL~‘CI0'CU-E—FTNTSH' PASS--1 PASS-'-'RPTUBaX --CPGC206O--
206 SS CPGC20 70
"""ZOT-"CYCLT"y"HIUCFDV"DEEF, 0V675~ -CPGU2U8TJ-
208 GOTO/P T33,30 CPGC2090
-2TT9-L ALL/CIR,UIA=2«T7,PLN=PLO,FbL)=FFLDZ" -CPGC21X0-
210 ' PPRINT CPGC 2110
71 T ~'PPRTTTr7<rrLU 'SQUA0E''rNSCPI0E0 TN CIRCLE—FINISH PASS—RPN 800 -CPGC2T20"-
212 SS CPGC 2130
713-”CATL~/CTR'5QF»DT A“R=7«U »FED0=~FFED2 “ --CPGTT2T40-
214 PPRINT CPGC 2150
-7T5-PPK 1 NT LUAU TUUL 2 — 59/64 DRILL -LPUL2160-
216 $$ CPGC2170
7iT LUATJTr r~z;r~~ * “—- -CPGCr21'8a
218 SS _ CPGC2190
717-SPIN DU 7 l'4CJrr,"CUW ' " - -CPGC 2200
220 COOLNT / FLOOD CPGC2210
-771-CYCLE/DRILL, DEEP , 1. 1230, I PH, IBTCT --LPGL222U
222 GOTO/PTl8 CPGC 2230
723 -PET RUT--'------- -C PGC 22 40
224 G0T0/PT21 CPGC 22 50
723-PFTRX1 ‘ ” -CPGC 2260
226 GOTO/PT20 C PGC2270
—777-KETKCI--CPGC2280-
228 G0T0/PT19 CPGC2290
'727 PPPTN1 ---CPGC 2 300
230 PPRINT LOAD TOOL 3 — 3/4-14 PIPE TAP CPGC2310
7TT ST--- -CPGC2320
232 LOADTL / 3,3 C PGC 2330
-773-SPLCTt /~4-- -CPGC2340-
Vlll-D 4

234 SPINDL / 175, CLW CPGC2350

737--CYCUf/TAP ,0EEP,t .0, IPM,3.0-*----CPGC 2360
2 36 GOTO/P T21 _ _ CPGC2370
" 737-PUT RUT-“ ~ __ -“X PGC 2 300-
238 G0T0/PT19 CPGC 2 390
C PGC7400
239 PPRINT
C PGC 2410
240 PPRINT LOAD TOOL 4 — 1.0 BORE(GARB. TIP)
"■—CPGC2420 '
Z4T ST
RAE 103

CPGC2430
242 LOAOTL / 4,4
"CPGC 2440--
247 ST “ ” CPGC2450
244 SPINDL / 1755, CLW
-CPGC 2400
-2*70“--CYLLt / BUKb, UtLP,U.5U, IPM.b.O
CPGC 24 70
246 GOTO/P T18
-CPGC2480
-24T----RETRCr --—
C PGC 2490
248 G0T0/PT2Q______
TPGC2500"-
“2 49 PPRINT" ”
CPGC2510
250 PPRINT LOAD TOOL 5 — 5/16 DRILL
-CPGL25Z0
-751-53 CPGC2530
2 52 LOAOTL / 5,5 _
-C PGC 2540
-253-ST-
CPGC2550
254 SPINDL / 2785, CLW _
‘—CPGC2560""
-2 55-CYCLE/DR ILL, DEEP, 0.87 50,1PM, 12. (T
C PGC 2570
256 G0T0/PT2?
-CPGL25HU
-7V7-UU UJ/PTZ3
CPGC2590
258 PPRINT
-CPGC 2600
-""259 PPRINT LOAD TOOL 6 -- 3/8-16 N.C. T AP“
C PGC 26 10
260 SS -C PGC 2620 —
-261—--LOADTL / 6,6
CPGC2630
.262 SPINDL / 220, CLW
-C PUL1640
-Z7H-LVLLE/TAP,l)EEP,0.3/5U,lPq,3.0
C PGC 2650
264 GOTO/PT 22
-CPGC266C-
-2 65-GOTO/PT 23-
C PGC 26 70
266 RAPID
-C P GC 2 6 8 0
-267---GOTO/ ULDAD-
C PGC2690
268 END _
-C PGC l r 00 "
—757 FTTH

FIGURE 10-5
Continued
 182 • CHAPTER 10
RAE 103

71.284 C I N A C l 156000 /APT INCH POSTPROCESSOR LEVEL APAGEl

ACRAMATIC 335-D

x>m -g— -r -y— - i i j f r 5s u m- s llho rp*tire

CPG COMPOSITE TEST PART FOR THE CIM-X 720 WITH TOOL COMP
" “UEAOFR7 T2 VO-

-ALIGN POINT IS AT 1INCH BORED HOUE IXUOUOUU TUUUOOU1

r 0*0" -2--"INCFT -err A- -4 --flo te - -end - * ill

HILT -CORNERS TJFT FART-~ T PASSESi 5/16 DEPTH EACH PASS

$0 1 G80 XL 0 YL 0 2 0 F 1 R 0 M06$ 32 no .283
-0-2 G80 "XL--0 YL ~ -cr7--o---F “8TT K 30000 S 12 8 90000“ W 1 «1 / > 880 • 014
0 3 G80 XL 31358 Y- 70000 l 0 F 80 R 34125 s 12 B 90000 w 1 Ml 7$ 36 880 .040
Ft 4 G7<7 rt 6T600"T-" 51358
N 5 G80 YL 31358 t 42 880 .031
-N 6" - G7 9" - XT * "3T3S"8 TL" toooct
N 7 G80 X- 31358 s 48 880 .031
-N-8 CT9 ~X- 67600 YL 3X358
N 9 G80 Y~ 31358 s 54 880 .031
-T"ID”G7?"r-' "3TTS8 T- ' 7 00 OO
0 ll G80 X- 31358 Y- 70000 l 0 F 80 R 37250 s 12 B 90000 w 1 M1 7$ 60 880 .001
fT'I7"G79T-" "6T600"T-" 31358 . 662
N 13 G80 YL 31358 $ 66 880 .031
-N 14 “GT9 X -- 31358 TL 10000 $ 68 880 .66 2
N 15 G80 XL 31358 S 72 880 .031
H 15 TT79 X L --6T6U0‘Tr- 31358 .662
N 17 G80 Y- 31358 s 78 880 .031
S IB G79 Xt 3T358 "Y- TOOOO“ 880 .662

ROUGH HILL CIRCLE—2 UEPIH PASSES— LEAVE .020 LXLfcSb—RPn 8hO

H 19 'GW" T" 3125 120 K 30000“ f "78" 830 .003

0 20 G80 XL 31358 Y- 70000 Z 3125 F 120 R 30000 s 12 B 90000 W 1 Ml 7$ 98 880 .000
N‘ 21 579 7 3125 % 78 830 .02 6
N 22 XL 24611 Y- 54939 $ 101 880 .163
-N 2 3 ‘GO 3 XL “60200 YL -O' -re--0"“3L 0 i 1U 7 • 5 76
N 24 G03 X- 0 YL 60200 IL 0 JL 0 s 107 880 .708
-N"28’G0T"X- "60200 7- -IT "TL" dJC 0 s 107" 830 « 788
N 26 G03 XL 0 Y- 60200 IL 0 JL 0 s 107 880 .708
N"2TGOT' XL" "256TI T- "54337 TL 0 JL V X lOT • 211
N 28 G80 XL 31358 Y- 70000 R 33125 $ no 880 .009
-N Z9-"GT9- 7- 3123- 8 80 . 02 6
N 30 G80 » 112 880 .000
N 31 T 6250 R 30000 • 001
0 32 G80 XL 31358 Y- 70000 l 6250 F 120 R 30000 s 12 B 90000 w 1 Ml 7$ 122 880 .000
N 33 G79 T 6750
N 34 XL 24611 Y- 54939 % 125 880 .189
-N 39 G03 -xt— -rtr-o- 11 0 Jc 080 • 376
0
r»
c
c
c

N 36 G03 X- 0 YL 60200 IL 0 JL 0 % 131 880 . 788

%
MACHINING, TIME 10. 815 MINUTES TAPE LENGTH 6.70 FEET

71.284 C I N A C l 156000 / APT INCH P 0 S T p R 0 C ESS 0 R LEVEL A PAGE 2

CPG COMPOSITE TEST PART FOR THE CIM-X 720 WITH TOOL COMP
-CT77J-r,-X- T-Z- -1— 1 T- -R- s “B-—fT~ "R S CLNU “ KHM —TTME
N 37 GO3 X- 60200 Y- 0 IL 0 JL 0 $ 131 880 .788
-N 38 G03 XCT-0 r- - 5 02 00-
N 39 G 03 XL 2461 1 Y- 54939 IL 0 JL 0 S 131 880 • 211
-N "4 O’ "G 7 9" "X L-31353’ Y-- "70000" 134 880 .189

-Hill SOU&RE rNSl (Jt CIHCLE —ALLUU . U7TT -RPH 880

' "N"41"G80" “ 145 880 .000

0 42 G80 XL 55438 Y- 38818 Z 0 F 80 R 34125 s 12 B 90000 W 1 Ml7$ 151 880 .021
-FT "4 3" "G 7 9“ "XL "'52774 "Y '36953- 155 880 .040
N 44 XL 36953 YL 52774 % 157 880 1.138
-N 45-X=-57774“"TL- 36953- l 159 1.138
N 46 X- 36953 Y - 527 74 % 161 080 l .138
-FT'47-XL—52774 “ V- ‘ “36953- 165 880 1.T38

-MI L C'TAPE RD"SQU ARE — r" P ASS"--~L E AVE "7020 EXCESS- -RPM 880"

-H 4H GRU XL-70000 V-
70000 l 0 V W R *03 1S s 12 B OOOOU" w 1 H17I' 181 ffFTJ .021
N 49 G 79 XL 62 763 Y- 62763 s 185 880 .073
-N 50-XC ""62637'YL" “67763- 187 880 .896
N 51 X- 62 763 YL 62637 $ 189 880 . 895
’N 52-X - 6263 7 "Y" “ 7276T 191 880 .895
N 53 XL 62763 Y- 626 37 s 193 880 .095

FIGURE 10-5
Continued
 NUMERICAL CONTROL PROGRAMMING WITH COMPUTERS • 183

MILL OUTSIDE SQUARE --1 PASS-- LEAVE .020 EXCES S—R PM_ 8 80_

209 880 .006

0 54 G80 XC 70000 Y- 70000 Z_
F 140 R 43500 S 12 B 90000 -
W I Ml 7 $
"Zl 5"-880" '.■osr-
"6 3 950' V- "6 39 50 “ 217 880 .913
S
N 56 YC 63050 T~ -TFT BBCT ■ . 9 IT"
N 5 r "TO- 221 880 .913 _
N 58 Y- 63950 "2 27-880” .“913"
"N""59-XC' ”6 3 9 50"

”"PF TRACT Tn BACK L I Ml T — PDS IT IEJN AT UNLOAD POINT

INSPECT CUTTER AND PART
S 236 880 .006
N 60 G 8 0 -$r—23 6-880 " Y07 5""
"N 61-XC — 1 50000 Y C" " M0l$ 238 880 .000
N 62
TAPE LENGTH 11.12 FEET
MACHINING TIME 24.893 MINUTES

“MILL SQUARE — FT NtSH PASS—RPM 880-

-F--140- R" "43500" ~5~ 7 2"'B" "90 00 0 H t WITS 257" “880" "7082"
~n 63 r,80"XE—roooo y~~ roooo" z
F 200
259 880 .046
N 64 G79 XC 63 750 Y- 63077 2 at— -81T0-.634“
-N""65- 263 880 .637
N X- 63750 "26 5-880"" ““"7637"
-N 67 “ 267 880 .637
N 68 XC 63750

TAPE LENGTH 12.09 FEET

MACHINING TIMF 27.568 MINUTES
RAE 103

71.284 C I N A C 1 1560 00 / APT INCH PO S _T_P_ L -_-L— —-

CPG COMPOSITE TEST PART FOR THE CIM-X 720 WITH TOOL COMP
-3-F- “R“ M * CL NTT"
0/N' “X“ "T"

"MTLt TAPERD SQUARE —- FINISH PASS — RPM 880— ---

R 40375 * 283 880 .001
N 69 G80
-n 70“G80"X'C—700UO"Y- 70000 T~ -0-- ■
--F 200“R ""40375 S 12 B “9000CT"W "I" "Ml 7 % 283 880" :oo4_
% 287 880 .052
N 71 G79 XC 62563 Y- 62694 7775“
"S-739-870
289"
"TJ—77-XE 624 3"8 YE bZbbZ .624
S 291 880
N 73 X- 62562 YC 62438 7524“
"*"“29 3-88 0
" N 74-X-“ ~~b7 43 R T"-“ “6 25 62 .624
* 295 880
N 75 XC 62562 Y- 62438

MILL CIRCLE -FINISH PASS—1 PASS—RPM 980

N 7b GRO- 6230— 305-850-
305 880
F 300 R-30000- 7UTT5
.016
0 77 G 8 0 XC 313 8 8 Y- _7_000_0_7 _ 6250 _1-l°-i---------—l^
303-880- 7020""
315 880 . 039
0^rx7"37»."v" 70000 T «5_o' _F _160_ 8 _ 30^0_0_ S_ _1 2 _B_90_000_W_ ^ _H_1 7 »
"“318-880"" 7143“
M 80-XE-24532 T-~ "54761“ J
324 880 .431
N 81 GO 3 XC 60005 YC 0 IE 0 JC 0 _*
374-830- .589”
N 82 G 03 X--0 TZ 6 00’03--re
5OO'OO " ttr~ o Jt 0“
* 324 880 .589
N 83 GO 3 X- 60005 Y- 0 ICO JC^ 0_ -$- 324-8 80 ."589" "
-fq 84 GO3 XC-o"Y““ "6 0005-0 JC 0"
$ 324 880 .157
N 85 G03 XC 24532 Y- 54761 1C 0 JC __

MILL SQUARE INSCRIBED IN ClRCLE--FINISH PASS—RPM 880

-$- 335- 8 80- .000—
N 86 G80 - 340 880 .019
F 160 R 3412 5 S 12 B 90000 W l Ml 7 *
0 87 G80 XC 55438 Y- 38818 Z
"345" “ “88 0 — "702 2
-N 88 G79 XE 52 554 36807“"
346 880 .567
N 89 XC 36790 YC 52542
348"” “880- “756 6“ '
— rr-90-X-—52552 YC-56790
350 880 .566
M 91 X- 36790 Y- 52542
—N 92“ ~Xt-32342 T™-3 6T90-

LOAD TOCTt 7 59/64 OR ILL.

0 F 160 R 1 M06* 367 880 .117
0 93 G80 XC 52542 Y- 36790 Z
"11250"-F~ 1 8 0"R 36250""S"l 4 B 2 MI3$T"”367““1400 7091
43 750 r--437 50 Z~
—CT 95 GR1 XC
R 0 S 369 1400 .018
N 95
-N 96
G80
031—X— »3T30-
---R- 36250- -1-rrt-7400-TTT9—
P 0 * 373 1400 .018
N 97 G80 -$-“375-1400-"7179
--—36250 -
—H 98 G01 “*YE“ * 377 1400 .018
R 0
N 99 G80 -$—379 "“1400-T17T “
7
-“ rrOO G- t XE 8 -43750” -- 36250"

LOAD TOOL 3" 3/5-1 5 PI Pt T-5-P-

F 180 R 0 2
M06 * 393 1400 . 118
DLOl G80 XC 43750 YC 43750 Z 0
-F 30 R-—36250 3 8 90000 3
Ml 3$ 393-175-;T56“
43750 7""10000“ ‘
--rrt 02 G84 X-
N103 G80
43750 7-
R 0 * 395 175 .018
“R" -36250- -*"-397-175-;T46"“
-“N104 G84 XE 43 750 YE-43750 '

-1.0 -
LOAD
0105
TOOL -5-
G80 XC 43750 YC 43750 Z 0 F 30 R 0 3 M06 $ 409 175 .118
-F 60 R 36250 S 15 8 90000 W 4 Mt3*—409- "1755" - T2 23“ "
-—0108 085- XC 43 750 "Y--43750 Z-5000“ "
R 0 * 411 1755 .018
N107 G80

TAPE LENGTH 20.10 FEET

MACHINING TIME 37.665 MINUTES

FIGURE 10-5
Continued
 184 • CHAPTER 10

C I N A C 1 156000 / API INCH POST _P_P_P_^__E_ J_S_0_R__LEVEL_A_P*<^E

CPG COMPOSITE TEST PART FOR THE CIM-X 720 WITH TOOL COMP
T--R-—S~ “B-S— m r~ CLNIT'-RPM--TTWE
-U /N" "G X T 2 -r~-T"
R 36250 $ 413 1755 .246
N108 G85 X- 43750 YC 43750

LOAD TOOL 5 -- 5/16 DRILL

U "425 .118
-UTO'9 C80 X- 47750 "YU 437 50" ~T
8750 F 120 R 30000 S 17 B 90000 W 5 M l 3$ 425 2785 .140
0110 GAL XE 25000 Y- 25000 Z
.112
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LOAU TOUT 6 --'37S-I5 N.CX-TAP"

F 120 R 0 W 5 M06 $ 439 2785 .114
0112 G80 X- 25000 YL 25000 Z 0
cn 13 G84 XE" 25000 T- 25000 T "" 3 750" ’ ~F ■~3CT*R'“30000 S' "4 '90000 If 6 Hl'3$ .300
$ 44 1 220 .285
N1 14 X- 25000 YL 25000
-NII T G80 XS~ 1 50000 TE-60000
M02 $ 447 220 .000
Nl 16
1 FADTR/ 72.0 ’
CPG COMPOSITE TEST PART FOR THE CIM-X 720 WITH TOOL COMP

MACHINING TIME 39.074 MINUTES TAPE LENGTH 22. 32 FEET

** END OF POST PROCESSING **

FIGURE 10-5
Continued elapsed time is 0.36300 minutes

and understanding of computers and numerical control can be gained once

these terms are defined and understood.
Since the beginning of N/C, approximately 1954 until the early 1970s,
all MCUs were hard-wired. This meant that all of the logic was built-in and
determined by the physical electronic elements of the control unit. These
elements then controlled all functions such as tape format, absolute or
incremental positioning, and character code recognition. In the early 1970s,
more capable and less expensive electronics began to emerge. These types of
computer elements, or complete minicomputers, became part of the control
units. Functions that were solely the result of hardware design became
resident in computer elements within the control unit.
The totality of soft-wired controls became effective at the 1976 machine
tool show. What had once been the result of hardware design was replaced
with complete computer logic, which had more capability, was no more
costly, and could be programmed for a variety of functions at any time.
Essentially, the ability of a machine control unit to recognize different tape
formats was not locked in at the time of manufacture. It was simply a mat¬
ter of how the computer element within the control unit was programmed to
read the various tape codes, functions, etc.
The physical components for the soft-wired CNC units are the same
whether they are controlling a lathe or a machining center. It is not the con¬
trol unit elements, but rather the executive program or load tape that makes
a control unit think like a machining center or lathe. Thus, the basic func¬
tioning of the soft-wired or CNC unit can be altered by changing the execu¬
tive or load program. This executive program is supplied by the control unit
manufacturers. In most cases, the user does not attempt to alter this execu¬
tive program in any way.
The executive program can be revised, updated, or modified at any time.
New operations can be introduced by simply reading them into the executive
portion of the control unit computer. The input medium for this process is
 NUMERICAL CONTROL PROGRAMMING WITH COMPUTERS • 185

usually punched tape. Changing functions in a hard-wired control would

involve changing the particular controlling elements within the control unit
structure.

CNC VERSUS DNC

There is no greater evolutionary aspect of numerical control than that
of the control unit. Control units have progressed from bulky tube types in
the early 1950s to the microprocessor-based CNC units of today.
Actually, the CNC units evolved from the direct numerical control
(DNC) applications of the late 1960s and early 1970s. The early DNC sys¬
tems were capable of controlling a large number of machine tools. They
provided some form of tape editing at the machine tool site, and they collec¬
tively controlled production and machine tool status. With a DNC system,
the tape reader is bypassed. If the "host” computer went down, all machines
could still be operated independently via tape input. An example of a typical
DNC setup is illustrated in figure 10-6.
Some companies were reluctant to accept DNC because it really did not
do much more than replace the tape reader. Even then, it was used only when
the computer was running. Another problem in the early days of DNC was
that computers capable of handling a DNC system were relatively expensive
and not totally reliable. The idea of tying up twenty or more machines to a

Shop host system

FIGURE 10-6
Typical DNC setup (host computer)
186 • CHAPTER 10

host computer and having them all go idle discouraged many prospective
DNC customers. Not long after the initial DNC offerings, the minicomputer
was developed. It provided some form of relief to both the cost and reli¬
ability problems of DNC.
As DNC became somewhat sidetracked and with the advent of more
capable and less expensive minicomputers, computer technology advanced
rapidly. Control builders quickly capitalized on these developments by in¬
corporating minicomputers, and then microcomputers, into intelligent con¬
trols that have come to be known as CNC.
Both current and future developments for DNC revolve around com¬
puter software. Computer software traditionally lags computer hardware by
several years. Computer technology has accelerated so rapidly that software
has fallen even further behind. It will undoubtedly take several years for
factory management systems to be developed from a software point of view
that take full advantage of increased computer capability. A further discussion
of DNC and broader computer applications will be discussed in Chapter 12.

FIGURE 10-7
Typical CNC units (A, Courtesy of Industrial Controls Division, Bendix Corporation; B, Courtesy of
Cincinnati Milacron Inc.)
 NUMERICAL CONTROL PROGRAMMING WITH COMPUTERS *187

CNC, as discussed, was an offshoot of DNC. CNC has literally taken

some of the abilities of a computer and, in a very compact package, applied
them to dedicated service of a single N/C machine.
Many CNCs look the same, however, a minicomputer is built into each
of these controls. Minicomputers may have 8,000 to 32,000 word capacity;
they may contain even more. This capacity is used by advanced integrated
circuitry made from chips like those used in hand calculators. Examples of
typical CNC units are shown in figure 10-7.
The CNC unit of today has several characteristics not found in the
traditional hard-wired control. Figure 10-8a illustrates how a CNC functions
through its minicomputer. Figure 10-8b shows a typical CNC with machine
tool.
Some of the important features of a CNC unit are as follows:
Memory. It is possible to "read in" a length of workpiece program tape.
The amount of program tape depends on computer capacity, but the average
length is around one hundred to two hundred feet. Once the program is in
computer memory, it is possible to run each workpiece from the stored data,
thus eliminating the usual requirement of reading the tape. In addition,
programs may be added manually (MDI) and executed from memory as well.

FIGURE 10-8a
How a CNC unit functions through its minicomputer
188 • CHAPTER 10

FIGURE 10-8b
Typical CNC with machine tool
(Courtesy of Bridgeport
Machines)

Edit. This feature adds the capability of "overriding” the tape if the
tape input is being used. It also makes changes in the tape if the tape has
been stored in computer memory.
CRT (Cathode Ray Tube). This is similar to a small television screen.
Words and numbers appear on the screen, which displays pertinent informa¬
tion about the program. There is also a keyboard which enables communica¬
tion with the control unit. A typical CRT screen, the type of information
displayed, and an example keyboard is shown in figure 10-9.
Diagnostics. This capability refers to troubleshooting features as part
of the control unit. With recent advances in diagnostic tests, if the CNC unit
"goes down," it is only a short time before the problem is identified and
corrected.
Two methods of diagnosing the difficulties are used. One method uses
a special diagnostic tape which is supplied with the CNC unit. This tape
checks many different elements and, on the CRT (or a separate oscilloscope)
or by means of signal lights, indicates when the trouble occurred and where
it is. However, the diagnostic tape is limited in its ability to search and
signal. The second method is the added feature of being connected by
telephone to the CNC manufacturer. They are able to run a variety of tests
and can usually spot the source of the problem.
Other features available on CNC units are:
 NUMERICAL CONTROL PROGRAMMING WITH COMPUTERS • 189

CRT Display Format

TOOL S TOOL E F G 1 2 3 ENTER

INSERT @SP A B c D
DATA OVERRIDE CYCLE m E

F TURRET CANCEL
DELETE <H ' , J K 'L M N 'o 4 5 6
OVERRIDE INHIBIT

E END OF
FIXED T U V W 7 8 9
MODIFY PUNCH P Q R S BLOCK
OFFSET OVERRIDE
TERM.
ASSIGN. TAPER SERVO + 0
SHIFT X Y Z - FUNCTION
OFFSET TRIM DISPLAY

Keyboard

FIGURE 10-9
Typical CRT screen with information displayed and keyboard

Tool Gaging Systems. These interface tool data through electronic tool
gages directly to the CNC unit. The computing power of the CNC unit can
be used to improve directly the potential productivity of the machine tool.
This can be accomplished by tool identification and gaging, tool data entry,
and tool matrix loading.
Corrected Tape. Optional tape punches exist for most CNC units so
that once edited information proves correct for part production, a new tape
can be punched at the machine from computer memory.
Special Routines. Some CNC executive programs are written so they
will compute common routines such as bolt hole circles and pocketing
routines from a single descriptive statement.
Incremental or Absolute. CNC units have the capacity to handle either
type of command upon a tape code designation.
EIA versus ASCII. Many new CNC machine units will read either the
EIA or ASCII code standard, and identify which one it is through parity
check. It is not necessary to set selector switches or indicate the type of
code.
190 • CHAPTER 10

Inch/Metric. Most CNC units and many of the hard wired units have
both inch and metric controlling capabilities. They may be a switch or a
specific instruction within the workpiece program.
Future. It is conceivable that, in the near future, entire processor
languages such as APT could be resident in the control units. They could
then operate entirely from the program statements rather than using a
remote computer to generate specific machine commands. In addition,
computer graphics capabilities are currently being tested for visual display
and manipulation of part geometry through the CNCs own CRT. Some of
these advanced CNC units have made their way into the marketplace, and
growth is expected to continue in the future.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. How is the computer used in numerical control applications?
2. Name some N/C processor languages available and explain the
differences between them.
3. How did the APT language evolve? What steps are being taken to
improve its effectiveness?
4. What are the four major sections of the APT system? Briefly explain
their functions.
5. What is a postprocessor? How does it relate to the overall APT
system?
6. What are the major functions of a postprocessor?
7. What types of statements are used when programming in the APT
language? Explain.
8. Explain the differences between hard-wired and soft-wired numerical
controls.
9. What is the difference between DNC and CNC?
10. Describe some of the features available on CNC units. Briefly
explain their functions.
C1H AFTER 11_
Tooling for Numerical
Control Machines

OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:
• Understand the overall importance and impact of
proper tooling on an N/C machine.
• Explain how correct use of cutting tools affects over¬
all machine performance and productivity levels.
• Discuss how proper fixturing leads to successful use
of an N/C machine.
• Identify sound tooling practices for productive part
processing capabilities.

TOOLING CONSIDERATIONS
Tooling for N/C machines has always been one of the most neglected
elements of an N/C installation. When planning and justifying N/C equip¬
ment, this aspect of tooling is often given secondary consideration. This is
because all tooling tends to be taken for granted until something goes wrong.
N/C machines can only move or position appropriate cutting tools to
specific locations, and rotate them or the workpiece at desired spindle
speeds. The individual cutting tools actually do the metal removal work.
The only way an N/C machine can be efficiently and effectively used is
through proper use and care of cutting tools and work-holding devices.
In conventional machining, part accuracies depend on special fixturing.
This type of fixturing has precisely made, precisely located tool-setting pads,
and accurately located bushings that guide the tools. With an N/C machining
center, simple fixturing is used. There are no tool bushings or tool pads to
guide the tools. The repetitive positioning accuracy of the machine promises
a high degree of quality. However, machining accuracies depend on the
inherent accuracies of the cutting tools and their holders. If a drill "runs
out," the benefit of the machining center's accuracy is lost. The programmer
must assume that the tools will not run out.
There is another reason for careful selection of cutting tools. The
average, conventional machine tool cuts metal only 20% of the time. An
N/C machining center can be expected to cut metal up to 75% of the time.
This results in more tool usage in a given period of time. Tool life, measured
192 • CHAPTER 11

in "time in the cut," will be as good or better but, because of the increased
usage, cutting tools will be used up three times as fast. The cost of perishable
tools used during the machine's lifetime may amount to 50% or more of the
machine's purchase price. Therefore, perishable tools represent a sizable
investment; hence the importance of getting high volume along with good
tool life.
It should be noted that an N/C machine is no more accurate than the
cutting tools used with it to machine the workpiece. Thus, the decision for
buying cutting tools and tool holders should receive the same consideration
as was given the purchase of the machine.

CUTTING TOOLS USED ON N/C EQUIPMENT

A variety of cutting tools are used on N/C equipment to perform a
multitude of machining operations. Many of the cutting tool applications,
however, are no different than that which would have to be performed on
manual equipment to produce the same workpiece. Cutting tools range from
conventional drills, taps, end mills, to high-technology carbide cutting tools.
Because of the importance of cutting tools to the overall manufacturing
process and their costs, it is important that each be examined in detail.

DRILLS
Even though the slide positioning accuracy of most modern machining
centers is ±.001 or better, there is no guarantee that the drilled hole location
will be within that degree of accuracy. A standard, commercial twist drill,
manufactured to specifications, may be very accurate, or it may be so inac¬
curate that nothing more than roughing work is possible.
All new drills have certain allowable tolerances, as depicted in figure
11-1. Those tolerances that affect accuracy the most are lip height, web

FIGURE 11-1
Identity of toleranced areas for two-flute general purpose drills
 TOOLING FOR NUMERICAL CONTROL MACHINES

centrality, and flute spacing. The lip height, for example, of a .250-inch drill
can vary 6.004 inch, its web can be off center as much as 0.005 inch, its flute
spacing can be off by 0.006 inch, and the drill will still be within required
specifications. Since a .250-inch drill is normally fed at a rate of .004 or
.005 IPR, it would be impossible for that drill to produce accurate holes.
Since approximately 70% of all hole making is drilling, tool selection is
of primary importance. One of the most important criterion in selecting a
drill is to choose the shortest drill length that will permit drilling the hole to
the desired depth. A good rule to remember is: the smaller the drill size, the
smaller the allowable error; as drill size increases, the allowable error progres¬
sively increases. Short, stubby drills run truer, allow the fastest feeds, and
improve tool life. The torsional rigidity of a drill will affect not only tool
life and feed potential, but hole quality as well. Torsional rigidity is a mea¬
sure of the tool's ability to resist twisting or unwinding; rigidity increases as
drill length decreases. Therefore, on machining centers, where feed is con¬
stant and rapid, a shortened flute becomes a distinct advantage.
Many different types and varieties of drills exist and are used for a wide
variety of applications. The common twist drill certainly has its applications
but so do center drills, spade drills, and subland drills. Center drills are
primarily designed to produce accurate centers in the work so that follow-up
drills will start in perfect alignment. The proper selection and use of these
drills will increase the accuracy of hole location, particularly on rough
su rfaces
Ideally, the center drilled hole should be machined to a depth where
the countersunk portion is 0.003 to 0.006 inches larger than the finished
hole size, figure 11-2. With this method, the drill peri¬
phery will be guided into the countersunk hole, the
location will be accurate, and the finished hole will have
a chamfered or deburred edge. 0.001-0.003
The most widely used center drill is the bell or PER SIDE
combination type, figure 11-3. It is commonly used in
lathe work to provide work centers for subsequent
operations. The advantages of this drill are accuracy
and availability. However, for work assigned to an N/C
machine, it has two disadvantages. First, the lead
portion of the drill breaks off quite easily. Second, the
drill is limited to small diameters.
If large-diameter holes are required to be machined
to relatively accurate tolerances, the twist drill may be
impractical. Spade drills are sometimes considered, as
illustrated in figure 11-4, because they can produce
large holes in one pass. In contrast, there is the conven¬
tional twist drill which makes progressively larger holes
until the desired size is obtained. FIGURE 11-2
Spade drills are advantageous in N/C work because Ideal center drill size in relation
only the blade, not the entire tool, needs to be changed hole size
194 • CHAPTER 11

FIGURE 11-3 FIGURE 11-4

Bell or combination center drill (Courtesy of Spade drill showing blade and shank (Cour
Cleveland Twist Drill) tesy of DoAII Company)

when it becomes dull. Thus, correct tool length is maintained, and reset¬
ting the tool length or recompensating the machine is eliminated.
The spade drill will normally use the same feeds and speeds as a twist
drill. In cast iron, the spade drill performs well at almost any depth.
However, in steel and aluminum, if the hole depth is more than one and
one-half or two times the hole diameter, problems with heat and chip
removal can occur.
Price becomes another important consideration in drill purchase and
selection. Generally, on a range of drill sizes from one to two inches (by
32nds), twist drills cost twice as much as spade drills. This is mainly be¬
cause various blade sizes are interchangeable in a single shank. For exam¬
ple, only three spade drill shanks are required to hold the entire one- to
two-inch-blade range.
Many hole-producing sequences require multiple operations on the
same hole, such as drill and countersink, drill and counterbore, or drill and
body drill. Multiple-diameter, multiple-land tools, called subland tools,
are commonly used today, figure 11-5. The proper use of this type of
drill can result in a time savings and quality improvement. By combining
FIGURE 11-5
multiple-drilling operations into one tool, extra machining time and tool
A multiple-diameter
(subland) drill
handling time are eliminated. An additional benefit is derived from the
(Courtesy of Cleve¬ rigidity of the larger diameter, both in the ability to use maximum feed
land Twist Drill) rates and in improved hole accuracy.
 TOOLING FOR NUMERICAL CONTROL MACHINES 195

TAPS
Tapping is one of the most difficult machining operations because of
the ever present problem of chip clearance and adequate lubrication at the
cutting edge of the tap. This is further aggravated by coarse threads in small
diameters, long-thread engagements, unnecessarily high-thread percentages,
tough materials, and countless other factors. Further, the relationship be¬
tween speed and feed is fixed by the lead of the tap and cannot be varied
independently. Tapping on an N/C machine frees the operator of the skill
needed to tap a good hole since the tapping operation is programmed. There¬
fore, the prime concern is the tap, not the skill.
' Generally, taps are divided into two major classifications: hand taps
and machine screw taps. Their names, however, do not denote the manner
in which the taps are used, because they are both used in power tapping of
drilled holes.
Hand taps, figure 11-6, were originally intended for hand operation, but
now they are widely used in machine production work. The name denotes
the group of taps that are available in fractional sizes. The most commonly
used hand taps include sizes ranging from 1/4 to 1 1/2 inches.
Machine screw taps is the name given to the group of taps available in
decimal sizes. Machine screw taps are actually small hand taps. Their size is
indicated by the machine screw system of sizes, ranging from #0 to #20. In
this system, #0 is equivalent to 0.060 inch with a regular incremental increase
of 0.013 inch between sizes. Therefore, #1 equals 0.073 inch, #2 equals
0.086 inch, and so on. The most commonly used machine screw taps are
those between numbers #0 and #14, excluding #7 and #9.

FIGURE 11-6 _ i
Conventional hand taps (A. Courtesy of Cleveland Twist Drill; B, Courtesy of Morse Cutting Tools
Division, Gulf & Western Manufacturing Company)
196 • CHAPTER 11

Spiral pointed taps, figure 11-7, are sometimes referred to as gun,

chip driver, or cam point taps. They are recommended for through holes
{
. and for holes with sufficient clearance at the bottom to provide chip
space. Spiral pointed taps have straight flutes with a secondary grind in
the flutes along the chamfer. This is ground into the flute at an angle
to the axis of the tap so that it produces a shearing action when cutting the
thread. As a result of this shearing action, the chips are forced ahead of
the tap with very little resistance to thrust. The shearing action allows
additional strength to be designed into the tap by making the web
heavier and the flutes smaller than on conventional taps.
The main advantage of the spiral pointed tap is that it prevents
chips from packing in the flutes or wedging between the flanks and the
work. This is a major cause of tap breakage, particularly in small taps.
The spiral pointed tap also allows a better flow of lubricant to the cut¬
ting edges. Tests have proven that spiral pointed taps require much less
power than conventional straight-fluted taps, thus further reducing
possible tap breakage.
Spiral-fluted taps, figure 11-8, are recommended for tapping blind
holes where the problem of chip elimination is critical. They are most
effective when the material being tapped produces long, stringy, curling
chips. The spiral-fluted tap cuts freely while ejecting chips from the
tapped hole. This prevents clogging and damage to both the threads
FIGURE 11-7 and the tap. Chip removal is accomplished by the backward thrust
Spiral pointed, gun, or
action of the spiral flutes.
chip-driver tap (Cour¬
tesy of DoAII Com¬
These taps are designed in much the same manner as conventional
pany) twist drills. They have helical flutes that lift the chips out of the hole.

FIGURE 11-8
Spiral-fluted or turbo taps (A, Courtesy of Cleveland Twist Drill; B, Courtesy of DoAII Company)
 TOOLING FOR NUMERICAL CONTROL MACHINES • 197

Although it is incorrect to identify helical flutes as spiral flutes,

both terms indicate helical flutes and are used interchangeably.
Spiral-fluted plug taps generally offer better results than
straight-fluted taps. Three to five threads of the tap are cham¬
fered. If trouble is encountered when tapping soft, stringy
materials, a spiral-fluted bottoming tap is used. This tap has
only one to one and one-half threads chamfer; thus, it produces
heavier chips. The heavier chips are lifted more easily out of
the hole than are the greater number of lighter chips produced
by the plug tap.
In tapping operations, there are many factors which reduce
tap life. Studies of the relating factors indicate that most prob¬
lems stem from one area: eliminating chips from the hole. How¬

DoALl 3/8-16 N. C, X - PRESS

ever, with the relatively new fluteless taps, figure 11-9, this
problem and others can be solved. Fluteless taps do not produce
chips. Rather, they form or roll the threads into the hole
through cammed lobes on the periphery of the tap. Because of
this forming action, the tap drill used is always larger than that
used for a conventional tap. Fluteless tapping requires one
deviation from normal tapping practice. Since it is basically a
forming rather than a cutting operation, a high-pressure lubri¬
cant should be used rather than a cutting compound. This is
extremely important for tapping the tougher materials when
fluteless taps are used.
Traditionally certain materials have been tapped dry,
plastics and cast iron for example. Even where dry tapping is
possible, improved performance is generally affected by a
judicious selection of some type of lubricant. Logically, lubri¬
cation is one of the key elements in successful tapping. It must
therefore receive more than casual attention.
Tapping lubricants serve several purposes, the most impor¬
tant being:
• They reduce friction.
FIGURE 11-9
• They produce clean, accurate threads by washing chips out
Fluteless taps (Courtesy of DoAII
of the tap flutes and the threaded hole. Company)

• They improve the thread's surface finish.

• They reduce build-up on edges or chip welding on the cutting portion
of the tap.
In summary, when purchasing a tap, you are, in effect, buying tapped
holes rather than taps. Thus, tap life becomes the primary concern.

REAMING
Reaming is the process of removing a small amount of material, usu¬
ally .062 inch or less, from a previously produced hole. The reamer is a
198 • CHAPTER 11

ABC

FIGURE 11-10
Some typical reamers — spiral and straight flutes (A, Courtesy of Cleveland Twist Drill; B, Courtesy of
Morse Cutting Tools Division, Gulf & Western Manufacturing Company; C, Courtesy of DoAII Company)

multibladed cutting tool designed to enlarge and finish a hole to an exact

size. Since the reamer is basically an end cutting tool mounted on a flexible
shank, it cannot correct errors in hole location, hole crookedness, etc. A
reamer will follow a previously produced hole. Therefore, when straightness
or location is critical, some prior operation, such as boring, must have been
performed in order to obtain these qualities.
Reamers can have either straight or spiral flutes and either a right- or
left-hand helix, figure 11-10. Those with spiral or helical flutes will ordinarily
provide smoother shear cutting and a better finish.
The shell reamer, figure 11-11, is primarily used for sizing and finishing
operations on large holes, usually 3/4 inch and larger. The reamer will fit
either a straight or taper shank arbor. Several different sizes of shell reamers
may be fitted to the same arbor. This results in a tool savings.
The rose chucking and standard chucking reamers are one-piece con¬
struction and appear identical. Straight-fluted chucking reamers are used for
free-cutting materials and finishing operations. Rose chucking reamers are
similar to the standard chucking reamers. However, they are used primarily
for roughing operations and operations where heavy stock removal is desired.
Single-blade floating reamers are becoming more popular for hole¬
finishing operations, particularly large holes. They also save tool inventory;
with only eleven shanks or arbors and separate blades, all hole sizes from 5/8
inch to approximately six inches can be reamed.
Reaming on an N/C machine is an accepted practice. Floating tool-
holders usually are not required for reaming operations on an N/C machining
 TOOLING FOR NUMERICAL CONTROL MACHINES • 199

FIGURE 11-11
Shell reamers (A, Courtesy of DoAII Company; B, Courtesy of Morse Cutting Tools Division, Gulf &
Western Manufacturing Company)

center for two reasons. First, the repetitive positioning accuracy of the
machine slides ensures that the reamer will be positioned in line with the
hole. Second, the accuracy of present day collets and adaptors ensures that
the reamer will run "true,” and therefore cut to size.

BORING
Boring is a machining operation that implies extreme accuracies. There¬
fore, a boring machine should be capable of positioning within tenths and
capable of holding roundness within millionths. If roundness within two or
three tenths and positioning accuracy within +.0005 or ±.001 is satisfactory,
then some N/C machining centers can be used as a boring machine. Even
then, these tolerances are very difficult to maintain without a thorough
knowledge of boring methods and boring tools.
Boring operations are performed to produce accurate diameters, accurate
locations, good finishes, and true, straight holes. Properly performed, boring
is the one hole-finishing process whereby the full positioning accuracy of an
N/C machine can be used. A cored hole may be cast out of location or, in
drilling, the drill may wander beyond the acceptable tolerance. Boring can
correct these errors and finish the hole with a high degree of accuracy.
200 • CHAPTER 11

A B

FIGURE 11-12
Typical boring bars with cartridge inserts (A, Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron Inc.; B, Courtesy of
Kennametal, Inc.)

A variety of boring bars similar to the ones in figure 11-12 and numerous
types of cutters are used for modern boring operations. Regardless of the
type used, all have certain common characteristics. Every boring cutter has a
side cutting edge and an end cutting edge. These edges are related to the
tool shank and are part of the standard nomenclature of single-point cutting
tools of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
The type of boring to be done determines to an extent, the boring tools
needed. For example, of the average parts processed on a machining center,
70% are drilling parts, 20% are milling parts, and 10% are boring parts. If
boring is only an occasional operation, an offset type boring head may be
used. Even though it has limited stock-removal capability, the wide adjust¬
ment range is a definite advantage. If boring requirements are on more of a
production basis and cost must be kept to a minimum, then cartridge-type
cutters are more economical. Turning centers also use a wide variety of
boring bars and inserts. Consult local tooling vendors for additional, up-to-
date boring bar and cutter information.
Another element of boring which deserves consideration is the length-
to-diameter ratio (L/D). This ratio is one of the most important, but most
neglected and least understood, aspects of boring. It refers to the length of
the boring bar in relation to its diameter. Some of the largest manufacturers
of boring machines and boring bars have researched this problem extensively.
Studies indicate that a boring bar with a 1:1 length-to-diameter ratio is 64
times more rigid than a boring bar with a 4:1 ratio; it is 343 times more rigid
 TOOLING FOR NUMERICAL CONTROL MACHINES • 201

than one with a 7:1 ratio. It follows, then, that in order to obtain maximum
rigidity and accuracy from boring operations, the boring bar should be as
short as possible.
Regardless of what is done to make the machine tool rigid enough for
boring, if the same consideration is not applied to the tooling used inaccura¬
cies will result. A standard heat-treated tool steel boring bar has a modulus
of elasticity of about 30,000,000 pounds per square inch. Carbide, for in¬
stance, has a modulus of elasticity of 94,000,000 pounds per square inch.
Thus, the boring bar made of solid carbide is over three times as rigid as a
steel boring bar.

MILLING
With the exception of drills, probably the most widely used and efficient
metal-removal tool for a machining center is the end mill. While arbor-
mounted milling cutters on long production runs produce cheaper chips per
dollar's worth of tool, the end mill is usually more economical for job shop
quantities. Since machining centers are most efficient for short- to medium-
sized production runs, it is evident that an end mill similar to that in figure
11-13 takes its place as one of the basic tools for machining centers.
Machining centers, by their very design, are capable of bringing the
cutting tool to the workpiece with more accuracy, horsepower, and rigidity
than conventional machines. Consequently, for milling operations, the
limiting factors would be the setup, the toolholder, and the cutter rather
than the machine itself.
Considering the work potential of end mills, a machining center s
contouring capability should be used often. Many parts have milled surfaces
bored holes, recesses, cobores, face grooves, and pockets; all of these opera¬
tions are relatively easy to perform with two- or three-axis contouring and
circular interpolation available on most modern machining centers.
When milling a flat face, contouring can help by allowing optimum
cutter paths and not restricting milling to straight-line cuts. If a flat face
with irregular edges must be machined, the cutter path can be programmed
to follow the edges with no loss in efficiency and possibly a decrease in
actual cutting time. In many cases, bored holes can be rough and semifinish
bored by programming an appropriate end mill in a circular path around the
centerline of the bore. This works well where the depth of the bored hole is
about 1/3 of the cutter diameter or less. For bores of greater depth, a cut of
3/8- to 1/2-inch deep should be programmed, returned to center, moved in
another 3/8 to 1/2 inch, and the circular cut repeated. This process can then

FIGURE 11-13 . . _ ,.
Double-end end mill (Courtesy of Sharpaloy Division, Precision Industries, Inc., Centerdale, R .1.)
202 • CHAPTER 11

be repeated several times, consistent with the flute length of the end mill.
A practical limitation would be for holes where the depth does not exceed
about 2/3 of the cutter diameter. This method can result in some tangible
savings. One end mill can replace two or more boring bars, and one end
mill can be used for several different bores. Tool drum storage space can
be freed for additional tools, tool inventory reduced, and some time can be
saved.
Many other types of end mills may be used on N/C machines, such as
shell end mills with serrated and indexable blades, and face mills for a variety
of applications. However, the success or failure of any milling operation
depends largely on cutter life. When the cutter fails to produce an acceptable
part, the milling machine or machining center must be shutdown until the
cutter is reconditioned or replaced.

COUNTERSINKING AND COUNTERBORING

Countersinking on N/C machines can be a frustrating experience because
of the difficulty in establishing set lengths. To set up a job accurately using
a standard, single-flute, nonpiloted countersink, figure 11-14, optical measur¬
ing equipment must be used. This is mostly because the physical point of
the countersink can be from 0.005 to 0.020 inches short of the countersink's
theoretical angle vertex. For example, the programmer will calculate Z axis
travel by setting the length of travel from the countersink's theoretical ver¬
tex. Consequently, if the tool is preset to length with an indicator on the
physical point, the vertex will be too deep. This will result in an oversized
countersink.
As mentioned earlier, countersinking can be a programming problem on
an N/C machine. It is important to remember that, when calculating and
programming various countersinks, there is a difference between the theore¬
tical vertex and the actual tool point.

FIGURE 11-14
Standard, single-flute, nonpiloted coun¬
tersink (Courtesy of Sharpaloy Division,
Precision Industries, Inc. Centerdale, R.I.
 TOOLING FOR NUMERICAL CONTROL MACHINES • 203

FIGURE 11-15
Typical piloted counterbores (A, Courtesy of DoAII Company; B,Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.)

Counterboring operations typically are done with a three- to eight-

fluted counterbore, figure 11-15. These tools generally have about a ten-
degree helix and are available with either tapered shanks or small diameter
shanks ideally suited for straight collet toolholders. Counterbores are
designed with fixed or removable pilots to produce counterbores concentric
with the drilled hole. With the repetitive positioning accuracy of most N/C
machines, however, the need for piloted counterbores is often eliminated.
Standard counterbores may be removed from the tooling for machining
centers, except in long-reach applications.
Most shops with machining centers will probably have a stock of end
mills, the diameters of which will range from 3/16 inch to 2 inches. With no
need for pilots, it is good machining practice to make the necessary counter¬
bores from end mills. Doing so will yield a large variety of counterbores
with almost infinite size availability, and the faster helix means greater feed
rates and faster chip removal.
Some advantages of using end mills as counterbores are: reduced tool
inventory; lower tool cost per piece; and ease in producing a spotface or
counterbore on a rough or angled surface.

HIGH-TECHNOLOGY TOOLS
No discussion of N/C tooling is complete without mentioning some of
the new innovations in cutting tool technology. Recent advances have pro¬
vided modern metal working with carbide insert drills of numerous types and
styles, along with titanium-coated and ceramic inserts for both lathe and
spindle tooling. Some combination drills, similar to that shown in figure
11-16, can be used for facing and turning operations as well as for drilling a
hole from solid on an N/C lathe — all with the same tool! In addition,
cutting speeds and feeds are greatly increased, thereby improving and maxi¬
mizing productivity levels.
204 • CHAPTER 11

FIGURE 11-16
Carbide insert drill-face-turn tool (Courtesy of The Valeron Corporation)

The high-technology indexable insert drilling bars, figure 11-17,

were designed to replace conventional twist drills and spade drills. These
drills are capable of running up to ten times faster, depending upon
material type, because they run at coated carbide speeds and feeds.
The indexable insert drilling bar uses multiple-edge, two-sided indexable
inserts in most cases. Use of these indexable insert drills reduces cycle
inhibit time because only the inserts need to be replaced, not the entire
drill. The inserts can be indexed while still at the machine, and the use
of inserts eliminates the need for tool resharpening.
Most carbide insert drills have other features which make them
extremely advantageous over conventional twist drills. Indexable insert
drills provide increased web thickness. This gives them the strength to
handle high penetration rates. The larger shank diameters provide
added rigidity and help avoid chatter. In drilling where a finish bore
operation is required, a hole can be drilled very close to the final size
desired; consequently, subsequent semifinish boring operations can be
eliminated.
These types of drills, besides adding rigidity, operate at substan¬
tially higher metal removal rates than conventional high-speed twist
drills or spade drills. For this reason, good machining practices are
mandatory. Flying chips, for example, create a danger to the operator;
FIGURE 11-17
a safety shield is usually required. Coolant is also necessary to cool the
High-technology car¬
bide insert drill (Cour¬ cutting edge and to backflush chips. Sufficient coolant must be applied
tesy of The Valeron continuously on these tools. This is due to the higher chip removal
Corporation) rates, speeds, and feeds. In addition, drilling with carbide insert drills
 TOOLING FOR NUMERICAL CONTROL MACHINES • 205

develops high thrusts. If the setup is not rigid, the forces will create chatter
and side loading. This can result in broken inserts and damage to the drilling
bar.
High-technology tools are constantly being researched and tested in
modern manufacturing applications. As the quest for better and more effi¬
cient methods of production increase, so will better and more efficient
cutting tools.

FIXTURING
Proper fixturing is also extremely important to successful N/C machin¬
ing. A poorly designed or manufactured fixture often causes problems at the
machine, holds up production, or produces much waste. If proper design
considerations are applied, these costly and time-consuming problems can be
avoided.
The basic function of a typical fixture, figure 11-18, is to locate and
secure the part for succeeding machining operations. This involves initial
set-up time for the workpiece to be loaded and clamped in the fixture for
machining. Loading and unloading constitute an important part of the
nonproductive cycle time of each part. By simplifying this operation, more
parts can be produced each hour. Therefore, fixtures should be designed to
reduce part set-up time.

FIGURE 11-18
A typical N/C machining cen¬
ter fixture (Courtesy of Cin¬
cinnati Milacron Inc.)
206 • CHAPTER 11

N/C machines normally allow smaller batch lots, thereby reducing part
inventories. Consequently, the fixture will be set up on the machine and
used more frequently. This will warrant much consideration of design to
reduce the set-up time and simplify the process of locating and securing the
fixture to the machine table.
The accuracy of all parts requiring special fixtures depends on the work¬
holding device regardless of how well the part is programmed or processed.
Money spent taking the time to cover all aspects of locating and holding the
workpiece accurately and securely will pay dividends when part and fixture
reach the shop floor. This time and money should be spent in the initial
design phase before production begins.
The advantages of sound, economical design and accurate manufacture
and assembly of fixtures are:
• reduced fixture-to-machine and part-to-fixture set-up time.
• consistency of part accuracies.
• reduced errors and inaccuracies in part location.
• decreased cost per part.
• reduced inspection time.
• minimal fixture modifications or rework.
• faster and easier N/C tape prove-out.
Another important aspect of fixture design is that of clamping the
workpiece. Clamps should always be placed as close to the support locations
as possible. Placing unsupported clamps at any convenient location on the
fixture could mean distortion of the part under clamping pressure. Clamp
positions, for ease of loading and unloading, should also be given a priority.
Clamps must avoid blocking hole locations and milling cuts that may inter¬
fere with part processing. Toolholders should be considered, particularly
when the cutter is engaged in the workpiece, as long as they will not inter¬
fere with axis movements.
Clamping should become increasingly automated with largerpartvolumes.
The types of clamps that should be used are pneumatic- and hydraulic-actuated
clamps, toggle clamps, and cam-actuated clamps. Regardless of the type to be
used or the number of parts to be processed, fixtures should always be designed
with safety in mind. The operator should always be able to reach easily all
clamps and any adjusting screws that may need attention. All sharp corners
and projections should be minimized, and chip removal should be easy. The
perfectly designed fixture is also the safest for those who must use it.
One overlooked aspect of fixturing that sometimes becomes evident
after the fixture is in production is part orientation. Fixtures should always
be designed to prevent incorrect loading and part orientation. Foolproofing
of fixture design to prevent incorrect loading is critical; carelessness can
occur when work is so repetitive. To foolproof the fixture design, there
should be only one way the part can be located and clamped. This plan may
take time to develop but it will alleviate scrapped parts and broken tools.
 TOOLING FOR NUMERICAL CONTROL MACHINES • 207

Several ideas must be considered regarding the positioning of the part

and fixture in relation to the machine table.
• Will all the tools reach?
The maximum and minimum tool lengths should be considered to
determine optimum positioning of the fixture-to-table and part-to-
fixture relationships.
• Is the fixture in a foolproof position to the machine table?
Much time and effort is often spent designing a foolproof part-to-fixture
relationship, and the fixture is loaded and clamped 90 or 180 degrees
out of position. This can have expensive and hazardous consequences if
the fixture is not marked to orient it to the machine table.
• Is the fixture designed and placed on the machine table to support
efficient part processing?
Sometimes inefficient N/C moves are needed to avoid poorly designed and
placed locating pads and clamp assemblies. If the machine has a rotary in¬
dex table, the part-to-fixture and fixture-to-table relationships should
ideally be positioned over the center of rotation. This should provide an
equal distance from the center of rotation to each face to be machined.
It should also promote programming simplicity in X, Y, and Z axes.

SOME SOUND TOOLING PRACTICES

Regardless of the N/C machine to be used, types of cutting tools
employed, or method of holding and locating the workpiece, sound cutting
guidelines and qualified tooling practices must be followed if a machine is to
be used to its greatest capacity.
There is no easy analysis to be made for any machining operation.
Material characteristics and a wide assortment of other conditions make it
difficult to formulate general solutions to tooling problems. Each situation
requires individual analysis after careful consideration of all the variables.
There are, however, some general N/C tooling practices, reminders, and
guidelines which warrant discussion.

1) Check all tools before they are used. This includes the cutting edges and tool
body as well as holders, extensions, adapters, etc. They should all be in perfect
order and able to act as a total tool assembly.
2) Select the right tool for the job and use the tool correctly. Tools should be
able to machine the workpiece to the desired accuracy. In purchasing cutting
tools and toolholders, examine cost per piece part produced as well as the cost
of the tooling package. In many cases, bargain tools cost more per part produced.
3) Always choose the shortest drill length that will permit drilling the hole to the
desired depth. The smaller the drill size, the smaller the allowable error; as drill
size increases, the allowable error progressively increases.
4) Check and maintain correct cutting feeds and speeds for all tools. This idea
can spell success or failure for any N/C installation. Optimum feeds and speeds
may not always be achievable, depending on machinability and material char¬
acteristics, rigidity of setup, etc.
208 • CHAPTER 11

5) Understand machine and control capabilities. Additional tools are often pur¬
chased because built-in machine/control capabilities such as contouring are not
used effectively. Most controllers sold are of the contouring type, but qualified
personnel must still be able to recognize where and how their capabilities can
be used to alleviate tooling problems.
6) Care for tools properly. This includes perishable tools, holders, drivers, collets,
extensions, etc. They represent a sizable investment and should be adequately
stored and reconditioned when required.
7) Watch and listen for abnormal cutting tool performances. Attention paid to
actual metal-removal processes can often prevent tool breakage problems,
scrapped parts, and rework. Chatter and other vibration abnormalities can be
corrected if detected early enough.
8) Use correct tap drills. Often the wrong drill is used for a certain size tap, and
taps are sometimes broken as a result of negligence and incorrect tool selection.
9) Holes to be tapped should be deep enough, free of chips, and lubricated prior
to tapping. Insufficient or incorrect lubrication can cause tap breakage, over¬
sized threads, and poor surface finish.
10) Use end mills as counterbores where possible. They reduce inventory, produce
a lower tool cost per piece, and produce a spotface or counterbore on a rough
or angled surface more easily.
11) The length-to-diameter ratio should not be exceeded on boring bars. The
boring bar length should never exceed four times the bar diameter. Failure to
comply with this rule could result in chatter and inaccuracies in hole size.
12) Select standard tools whenever the operating conditions allow. Standard tools
are less expensive, readily available, and interchangeable.
13) Select the largest toolholder shank the machine tool will allow. This will
minimize deflection and reduce the tool overhang ratio.
14) Select the strongest carbide insert the workpiece will allow. This will increase
overall productivity and lower the actual cost per insert cutting edge.
15) Use negative rake insert geometry whenever the workpiece or the machine tool
will allow for it. This will double the cutting edges, provide greater strength to
the insert, and dissipate the heat.
16) Select the largest insert nose radius, but the smallest insert size, that either the
workpiece or machine tool will allow. The smallest size insert will be less
expensive; using the largest insert nose radius will improve finish, dissipate
heat, and provide greater strength.
17) Select the largest depth of cut and the highest feed rate that either the work-
piece or machine tool will permit when using carbide inserts. This will improve
overall productivity and have a negligible effect on tool life.
18) Know the workpiece material and its hardness. It is essential to have a thorough
knowledge of the material's machining characteristics. If little is known, start
at the lowest given cutting speed for that particular material and gradually
increase the speed until optimum results are obtained.
19) Select the cutting speed in relation to the physical properties of the workpiece.
The Brinell hardness number usually gives a good indication of the material's
relative machinability.
20) Increase cutter life by using lower cutting speeds and increasing the feed rate to
the limits allowed by the results desired, the setup rigidity, and the strength of
the tool.
21) For maximum cutter life, the feed should be as high as possible. Doubling the
feed (measured as chip per tooth) will double the stock removal per unit of
time without appreciably decreasing cutter life.
22) Use low cutting speeds for long cutter life. However, soft, low-alloy materials
can be machined at high cutting speeds without seriously affecting cutter life.
 TOOLING FOR NUMERICAL CONTROL MACHINES 209

23) Excessive cutting speeds generate excessive heat, resulting in shorter cutter
life. Chip and cutter tooth discoloration are good indications of excessive
cutting speeds.
24) Be aware that when the tool's cutting edges quickly become dull, without chip
or tooth discoloration, either the workpiece is very abrasive or there is a high
resistance to chip separation. The cutting speed must be reduced.
25) Use a sharp corner milling cutter only when the job calls for milling to a sharp
corner. Otherwise, use a cutter with a large corner chamfer. Greater stock
removal with lower horsepower requirements will result.
26) Climb milling will allow higher cutting speeds. In addition, it will improve
finish and lengthen cutter life.
27) Coarse tooth end mills are preferred for roughing cuts. Although some oper¬
ators prefer fine tooth end mills for finishing cuts, it is possible to obtain fin¬
ishes by increasing the cutting speed and decreasing the feed (chip load per
tooth) of the coarse tooth end mill. Thus, the same end mill can be used for
roughing and finishing.
28) Direct cutting forces against the solid portion of both the machine and the
fixture. If work is held in a vise, direct the cutting forces against the solid jaw.
29) Use coolants to get maximum cutter life and to permit operating at higher
cutting speeds. While coolant is not normally used when milling cast iron, by
applying a jet of air as a coolant finish can be improved and cutter life can be
lengthened.
30) Fixture design should be simple and standard components should be used
whenever possible.
31) The fixture and part should be located positively. Rough, nonflat parts should
be supported in three places and located on tooling holes if possible.
32) Fixtures and parts should be readily accessible and movable during any part of
the machining operation and replaceable in exactly the same position.
33) Fixture design should be simple and foolproof for part loading to fixture and
fixture loading to table.
34) Always keep damps dose to fixture supports in fixture design, and consider
safety when designing for load and unload capabilities.

These tooling practices will avoid potential tooling problems on N/C

machines. Consideration should be given to these points for successful use
of N/C machines.

REVIEW QUESTIONS_
1. Explain, in your own words, why tooling considerations are so
important to success on an N/C machine.
2. What is the most important criterion when selecting the common
twist drill for an N/C machine?
3. Why is center or spot drilling important to hole location?
4. When should spade drills be used instead of common twist drills?
Why?
5. Discuss the advantages of multiple-diameter, multiple-land tools over
single-diameter, single-land tools.
6. What are the most common causes of tap breakage on N/C machines?
How can they be avoided?
7. What are hand taps? When should hand taps be used?
210 • CHAPTER 11

8. What is the primary difference between spiral pointed or gun taps

and other taps? When should spiral pointed or "gun" taps be used?
9. When should spiral-fluted taps be used? What are their primary
advantages?
10. Explain how fluteless taps work. What is the most important point
to remember when using fluteless taps?
11. Discuss the importance of reaming on an N/C machine. Why are
floating toolholders usually not required for reaming operations on
N/C machines?
12. What is meant by the length-to-diameter ratio (L/D) in boring? What
is the general rule to follow when applying this ratio for boring bars?
13. Describe how end mills and a machining center's contouring capabil¬
ity might be used in place of additional boring bars.
14. When should end mills be used for counterboring? Describe the main
advantages of using end mills rather than ordinary counterbores.
15. What are some advantages of high-technology indexable insert
drilling bars?
16. Discuss other factors which must be considered when using high-
technology tools (e.g., flying chips, coolant usage, thrust, setup
rigidity, etc.).
17. Why is fixturing so important to the success of an N/C machine?
18. What are the advantages of sound economical fixture design?
19. What is meant by foolproofing a part to fixture and fixture to
machine table?
20. Why is it important to inspect thoroughly all cutting tools and
fixtures before use?
CHAPTER 18_
The Future of
Numerical Control

OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:
• Identify additional computer applications and their
role in technological advancement.
• Define the terms CAM, CAD, and CAPP, and discuss
their importance to additional improvements in pro¬
ductivity.
• Explain the concept of computer graphics and its im¬
pact on engineering and manufacturing.
• Develop a conceptual understanding of manufactur¬
ing systems and their effect on future industrial capa¬
bilities.

BEYOND THE PROCESSOR LANGUAGES

In the future, what will take the place of our current processor languages
such as APT? It appears that the successes which APT, its supporting post¬
processors, and other common N/C languages have thus far attained will
stabilize or continue to increase gradually. Some changes from manual to
computer techniques have occurred only recently and are not about to be
quickly replaced. However, some improvements for the general processor
languages are under way at present and in wide use in some companies. These
changes will affect the overall method of part processing through computer
application.
One of these changes concerns the multitude of postprocessors written
to support APT and other languages. Most postprocessors are written for
hard-wired controls, and do not contain some of the advanced routines such
as stored parametric subroutines and repeatable patterns of modern CNC
units. These sophisticated techniques affect the larger processor languages
by eliminating from the actual program routines which may now be contained
in the CNC unit. The recent developments in CNC technology are primarily
due to minicomputer and microprocessor advancements. These new capabil¬
ities reduce the need, in some cases, for large, general processor applications.
In addition, they further reduce computer application requirements by
making manual part programming justifiable and efficient.

211
212 • CHAPTER 12

The real effect on APT and its derivatives has been the advent of
CAD/CAM (Computer Aided Design/Computer Aided Manufacturing)
systems. It was N/C that sparked the initial computer application of some
complex workpieces. Computers are now being used to control all types of
machines, processes, and systems. This integrated control of the design
function, incorporated with manufacturing usage, is commonly referred to as
CAD/CAM. The amount of computational and generative power contained
in CAD/CAM systems is phenomenal and their use is ever increasing. How¬
ever, APT and other processor languages have proven incompatible in many
cases with some CAD systems' geometry. This is due to the manner in which
detailed part geometry is stored within the computer. The computer, in
turn, creates a new demand for N/C tool path information from a stored but
usable engineering data base.
APT and its derivatives are relatively safe from obsolescense for the
present, but work continues to discover better ways to use CAD/CAM and
computer graphics for manufacturing purposes.

COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN

CAD/CAM is used extensively and implies a very diverse spectrum.
CAD/CAM systems can range from minicomputer-based systems to large
mainframe computers. CAD/CAM allows for detail parts and assemblies to
be designed in an interactive environment with design geometry, being stored
in a central data base for manufacturing engineering retrieval and part process¬
ing.
CAD has its base in computer graphics. These computer systems con¬
tain functional architecture for the design and drafting aspects of component
parts and assemblies on a computer graphics CRT (cathode ray tube) display
terminal. The principles of computer graphics are used to create lines, sur¬
faces, solids, intersections, and curved surfaces. In simpler terms, computer
graphics are systems that create, transform, and display pictorial, descriptive,
and symbolic data. Graphics terminals, figure 12-1, are substitutes for con¬
ventional drawing boards whose part drawings can be stored in a central engi¬
neering computer data base. Conventional drawings and documents normally
recorded on paper are cumbersome to work with, difficult to retrieve, and
easily misplaced and misfiled.
Computer graphics, in contrast, have become a blessing for the CAD
engineer. CAD capabilities range from using computers to create drawings to
performing isolated calculations and compiling a bill of materials. Recorded
images can range from a simple straight line to a multicolored pictorial repre¬
sentation of a three-dimensional assembly. Some images feature sculptured
surfaces and moving parts, with shading and perspective to promote depth
visualization. These descriptive geometric representations can then be
rotated and viewed like an object in space, giving the designer total part
viewing capabilities.
 THE FUTURE OF NUMERICAL CONTROL • 213

FIGURE 12-1
A typical computer graphics terminal (Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron Inc.)

CAD systems are highly interactive and user-oriented. In many cases,

they use construction techniques familiar to the conventionally trained
draftsman. An interactive system provides immediate responses to the user's
instructions, changes, or additions through the use of a light pen, panel
buttons, etc. This greatly enhances a designer's creativity and conceptual
thinking. Before CAD, the designer would sit in front of a drawing board;
now that person sits in front of the CRT and creates images on the screen
through the use of a light pen and panel buttons. The designer can also add
and reproduce dimensions and symbols and manipulate the constructed
images in a variety of ways never before possible with conventional paper
and pencil. Once the engineer/designer has arrived at the final version or
design, the image, because it is based on mathematical coordinates and
entities stored within the computer, can be transmitted to peripheral devices
for printing, plotting, etc. At this point, the hard copy is generated through
computer instruction and passed on for manufacturing use.
One of the most important aspects of a CAD graphics system is that
once the final part image is created, it can be stored in the engineering
214 • CHAPTER 12

computer data base. This makes it readily accessible for viewing by other
engineering personnel and ultimately for manufacturing use. From a design
point of view, the storage of images greatly enhances and aids compatibility
and interference visualization. Views can be merged, stacked, and rotated
for assembly clarification without having to draw the assembly on paper and
then find some interference factors necessitating redesign. Replication of
details is also possible. A designer may construct details such as a fastener or
a bracket only once and then replicate and locate it as necessary, making the
geometry of a part available to other users. A library of standard symbols
can be stored in the system and called up by users as needed. Most engineer¬
ing data base systems provide both data management and data protection.
The system controls the deletion of data and protects against unauthorized
changes to drawings. Terminal and usage activity is monitored and recorded
on a regular basis.
In addition to providing interactive design geometry capabilities, most
computer graphics systems also provide advanced and powerful software
programs which can analyze and test a design before any prototype parts are
manufactured. Internal routines, such as finite element analysis, allow the
engineer to calculate and predict patterns of stress and strength as well as
other critical factors such as volume and weight.
All of the factors mentioned in this section are innovative, developing,
and inspiring tools for the design engineer. However, some graphics systems
are slanted toward the design function and less toward the manufacturing
function. In order to complete the CAM function of a total CAD/CAM
system, the CAD portion of the engineering data base must be accurate,
accessible, and usable.

COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING

In general, CAM refers directly to the manufacturing use of previously
designed and stored CAD data. Most computer graphics systems contain a
graphically oriented CAM part which allows a manufacturing engineer to
retrieve selective part geometry. Tool paths are determined using the same
light pen, control panels, and push buttons that were previously used in the
part design phase (figure 12-1). The cutter path is routed around part con¬
tours or to the specific hole locations on the graphics terminal through
cutter animation. The calculated tool paths are then verified and the com¬
puted coordinates are transmitted to an APT-type postprocessor for tape
data generation. Thus, an N/C programmer can sit in front of a graphics
display terminal, just like the designer, and watch the calculated and verified
tool paths occur in relation to the actual part. As the cost of these systems
reduces further and they become more widely used, their overall impact on
conventional programming methods will become more significant.
For the most part, APT and its derivative processor languages are
nongraphic, batch-oriented systems. The real advantage from a CAM point of
view is that detail part geometry, if entered correctly, does not have to be
 THE FUTURE OF NUMERICAL CONTROL • 215

recreated through the traditional part definition statements. The geometry

already resides in the engineering data base. Thus, the question arises — why
recreate what should already be accessible? Being able to capture stored and
accurate part geometry on an engineering data base for manufacturing use is
the most important aspect of a true CAM system. Improved part design
accuracy further reduces the time for verifying N/C tapes. In addition, it
reduces tool path attempts and scrapping. Part programming, using N/C
graphics, enhances the part programmers' ability to follow visually the tool
path by obtaining a three-dimensional view of cutter clearance planes, retract
planes, depth planes, and clamps, fixtures, and casting clearances. Tape
prove-out can be accomplished on the graphics display terminal rather than
idling the N/C machine and operator on the shop floor.
The area under constant development in CAD/CAM systems is the
incompatibilities of data base structures and the necessary link between CAD
and CAM. Further, cost is a prohibitive factor when purchasing a CAD/CAM
graphics-oriented system, even though the computational, analytical, and
manufacturing features justify themselves.
Once the tool path data is calculated through cutter animation on the
graphics terminal and the N/C tape data is generated, the N/C machine will
be ready to accept information. In a later section, the use of N/C data from
the CAM system in an automated systems approach such as DNC (direct
numerical control) or FMS (flexible manufacturing system) will be discussed.

COMPUTER AIDED PROCESS PLANNING (CAPP)

Process planning involves creating detailed plans of the manufacturing
steps and equipment necessary to produce a finished part. Workpiece
requirements call for detailed analyses and accurate descriptions prior to the
actual manufacturing process. A large assortment of machines and opera¬
tions, as well as many different workers with a variety of skills, may be in¬
volved in the production of a specific part.
The computer lends itself well to the vital process planning function
with two different approaches. One is called the "variant” or "similar part"
method of process planning and the other is "generative." Both will produce
an equal or accurate process plan, but most computer applications are of the
variant type. This is because the software is easier to develop and new
process plans are based on previous ones.
The variant method had its beginnings with the group technology con¬
cept, along with parts classification and coding systems. Group technology
is a manufacturing philosophy based on the idea that similarities occur in the
design and manufacture of component parts. These parts can be classified
into groups, or families, if the basic configurations and attributes are identi¬
fied. A reduction in expenses can be achieved through the structured clas¬
sification and grouping of parts into families based upon engineering design
and manufacturing similarities.
216 • CHAPTER 12

Using the variant method, CAPP groups families of parts by a structured

classification and coding plan. All previously processed parts are coded using
this method. The parts are then divided into part families, such as rotational
and bar and rail, based on general configuration. A standard order of opera¬
tions or sequences is stored on the computer for each part family. When a
new part is ready for planning, the classification or group technology code
for the new part is used to compare and retrieve the standard process plan
for that part family. Editing capabilities further enable the process planner
to alter the standard order of operations for final refinement. The completed
process plan is then stored on the computer data base by part number.
In generative process planning, the parts are again broken into part
families, and a detailed analysis is made for each part family to determine
individual part operations. This type of system develops the actual opera¬
tion sequence based on the part geometry, usage requirements, material size
and configuration, and available equipment. The generative approach creates
process planning logic for the part family groupings. The logic is then stored
internally as a decision model. As new workpieces require process planning,
analyses must be conducted to determine and compare the features incor¬
porated in the decision model with those on the actual part. The family part
decision model is then retrieved, and a routing sheet is generated by process¬
ing the decision model with the new workpiece attributes.
A generative system must be driven by much more elaborate and
powerful software than a variant system. Development and optimization
work continues on the variant and generative approaches to process plan¬
ning. Both systems, however, build the needed decision-making logic and
planning ability into the computer rather than rely on a decreasing experience
level in the process planning work force.

MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS
The concept of a manufacturing system can range from a DNC system
to FMS. Numerical control, computer numerical control, and direct numeri¬
cal control are part of the total manufacturing system. They contribute to
the automated manufacturing systems of today and tomorrow.
DNC installations have a computer interface to stand-alone machines.
The DNC installation offers several operating advantages as previously
discussed. We already studied that the tape reader is bypassed for download¬
ing N/C information from the computer to the MCU. We also know that a
program in computer storage is easily accessible for programmer interaction
of revision and editing. However, the same computer that directs the opera¬
tion of a machine tool can also be used for auxiliary purposes such as ma¬
chine downtime recording, performance tabulation, real time machine status,
and other items of interest to management. Gathered information may then
be kept in the controlling computer's memory for retrieval and study. In
addition, advanced DNC units can be used to sense the operating conditions
of various machines through CNC feedback to the host computer and output
 THE FUTURE OF NUMERICAL CONTROL *217

error diagnostics or initiate corrective action. The computer, through the

evolution of N/C and DNC, makes it possible to create versatile systems,
capable of producing different parts and automatically adapting to different
mixes and variations of part types and lot sizes.
A manufacturing system can be described as automation that combines
processing machinery, tooling, and material handling equipment. The suc¬
cess of manufacturing systems depends on astute integration of concept,
design, software, and quality.
CNC machines fit well into a manufacturing system's concept as they
are primarily used in the mid-volume production range and are capable of
many operating tasks in a DNC environment. In order to use CNC machines
to their fullest capacity, the spindles must keep turning to increase chip¬
making time. This can be accomplished through part program storage, auto¬
mated handling devices, and sophisticated monitoring systems. A system of
this type can provide random manufacturing of different workpieces without
individual machine setup time, thereby maximizing spindle time, decreasing
in-process inventory, and reducing lead time. Figure 12-2 shows a typical
manufacturing system.
A manufacturing system can be described using six generic headings:
1) description and design of parts to be produced;
2) configuration and layout;
3) standardization of tools and preset;

FIGURE 12-2
A typical manufacturing system (Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron Inc.)
218 • CHAPTER 12

4) prior setup (load and unload);

5) transport capabilities; and
6) operation and control.

DESCRIPTION AND DESIGN OF PARTS TO BE PRODUCED

The ideal beginning of an efficient manufacturing system is engineering.
The type and families of parts to be processed will determine, in many cases,
the number and types of machines in the system, tooling and fixturing
requirements, load, unload, and transport capabilities as well as the actual
system design and layout. Parts may need to be redesigned to reduce the
large proliferation of tool inventory and to standardize design considerations
so future products will fit the system.

CONFIGURATION AND LAYOUT '

Annual part usage requirements and average lot sizes play a large role in
determining system structure and layout. Transport devices must have easy
and accessible entry and exit to loading or queuing stations and CNC ma¬
chines. Part scheduling, potential interference problems, cutting tool replace¬
ments, and maintenance considerations must be thoroughly planned and
approved before system implementation begins.

STANDARDIZATION OF TOOLS AND PRESET

Tools and preset of tool assemblies can make or break a manufacturing
system. It is important to maintain a standardized set of resident cutting
tools with several backups or replacements as tools become worn, chipped,
or broken. CNC units can monitor tool usage in addition to offsetting each
tool to an optical sensor to check for tool breakage. Action can then be
initiated to replace broken or worn tools with an identical tool preassembled
and waiting at the machine. This minimizes machine spindle idle time.

PRIOR SETUP (LOAD AND UNLOAD)

One of the most costly problems of stand-alone N/C machines is that
the spindle is idle while the operator replaces the part or sets up for a new
workpiece. In a system's concept, parts should be set up on individual
pallets in a part staging area prior to machining and left in queue until called
for by the host computer. Finished parts are transported to the same off¬
line area for unloading while a new pallet with an unmachined part is delivered
to the machine for processing. Off-line loading and unloading greatly in¬
creases spindle time and decreases machine idle time.
 THE FUTURE OF NUMERICAL CONTROL *219

TRANSPORT CAPABILITIES
A true manufacturing system must provide and maintain an unmanned,
automated process for material movement to and from the various machines.
Some material carriers traverse back and forth on a track, accepting and
delivering parts on pallets via computer command. Others follow energized
wires embedded in the surface of the floor. Transport carriers provide hori¬
zontal transportation of discrete loads of material between specific locations.
They also provide an essential element to automated manufacturing systems
that cannot be taken for granted. Automated movement to and from the
various work stations in a timely fashion represents a sizable portion of
productivity improvement potential.

OPERATION AND CONTROL

The integrated and sophisticated host computer software is the heart of
a manufacturing system. In addition to directing the DNC aspect of the
machines contained within the cell and storing all of the part programs, the
host computer must detect part identification, monitor and detect tool wear
or breakage, handle inspection information, initiate pallet and material
movements, and respond to signals indicating malfunctions, among other
duties. The system computer also takes care of work scheduling and collec¬
tion of machining results. By entering data such as work lot size, machining
time, and machining priority, schedules for each machine and work flow can
be prepared and reliably predicted. Machining centers generally form the
core of a system. Whether the system achieves the desired results depends
on individual machine uptime and how efficiently the machining centers are
run.
In a regular process-oriented, stand-alone machine shop, it may take
weeks to process a complete part. Approximately 95% of this time is
waiting, part inactive time. By reducing the waiting times, the use of manu¬
facturing systems will shorten the cycle time of parts produced and subse¬
quently minimize in-process inventory. In-process inventory is one of the
most costly items in metal-working operations.
Manufacturers today must find ways to overcome internal inefficiencies
and free up working capital by increasing machine use and through-put, and
decreasing the in-process inventory. The market for both dedicated and
flexible manufacturing systems will accelerate and continue to grow in the
future. They will be seen as the best way to increase productivity and return
on investment.
Obviously, more detail is required in a manufacturing system than the
conceptual overview presented here. It is important to realize that numerical
control will continue to play an important role in automated manufacturing
systems.
220 • CHAPTER 12

LOOKING AHEAD
What began as an idea created in the early 1950s by John Parsons has
developed into a manufacturing concept that has revolutionized the metal¬
cutting industry. Numerical control has advanced from a stand-alone method
of its own to a subset of a larger and much broader CAD/CAM industry.
Numerical control is bound to hold major improvements in the area of
part programming. Large installations have tremendous engineering CAD-
developed data bases which manufacturing must use for CAM activity. De¬
velopment will continue and prices will become more affordable due to
advanced electronics and sophisticated software. But what about the smaller
job shops? Additional work and development will continue on N/C languages
used for time sharing and basic processing in the immediate future. These
languages will consist of commands that are derived from human language.
Consequently, the programming process will become easier to understand
and will have a shorter learning curve as new programmers enter the field.
Thus, programming skill will become less coding-oriented and more process-
oriented.
Additional improvements will take place in the area of machine tool
controls. N/C units will possess high-level user graphics systems, thereby
permitting communication between the operator and the MCU for cutter
path verification and correction. The N/C tape will eventually be eliminated.
Data transmission devices, such as bubble-memory cartridges, and other sophis¬
ticated media yet to be developed will take its place. Data can be transmitted
directly to the machine control, stored, used, and updated without constantly
generating and punching new tapes.
Unmanned machining operations, using robot applications, similar to
that shown in figure 12-3 will also play a significant role in the future of
manufacturing and numerical control. This is due to the following:
• A declining percentage of United States work force choosing careers in
manufacturing.
• Increased production pressure from foreign competition.
• Internal inefficiencies that create costly in-process inventory and tie up
working capital.
• Increased availability of robot systems for part loading and unloading.
• Significant advancements in electronics and microprocessor technology.
• The need for predictable and dependable productivity levels.
Although other factors may also affect the quest toward unmanned ma¬
chining operations, the future clearly indicates that the United States will
embark on an ambitious program, strongly committed to N/C technology, to
rehabilitate manufacturing facilities and thus improve industrial productivity.
The N/C part programmer will always be a vital element in the manu¬
facturing process. The demand for experienced part processing and part
 THE FUTURE OF NUMERICAL CONTROL • 221

FIGURE 12-3
An unmanned machining operation (Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron Inc.)

programming personnel will grow. Emphasis will be placed on total job

processing rather than actual part programming.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define CAD/CAM. How does CAD/CAM relate to computer graphics?
2. Why is the CAD engineering data base so important to CAM users?
3. What are the primary advantages of a CAD/CAM system?
4. How does a CAM system assist in eliminating machine spindle idle
time, tape prove-out, and scrapping?
5. What does CAPP mean? What is its overall impact on manufacturing?
6. Explain the difference between variant and generative process planning.
7. Briefly explain the six basic elements of a manufacturing system. Dis¬
cuss the importance of each element.
8. How are computer graphics significant to future productivity im¬
provement from CAD and CAM viewpoints?
 APPENDIX A
EIA and AIA National Codes

PREPARATORY FUNCTIONS
G Word Explanation
GOO Used for denoting a rapid traverse rate with point-to-point posi¬
tioning.
G01 Used to describe linear interpolation blocks and reserved for
contouring.
G02)
Used with circular interpolation.
G03 j
G04 A calculated time delay during which there is no machine motion
(dwell).
Unassigned by the EIA. May be used at the discretion of the ma¬
G05]
chine tool or system builder. Could also be standardized at a
G07J
future date.
G06 Parabolic interpolation.
G08 Acceleration code. Causes the machine, assuming capability, to
accelerate at a smooth exponential rate.
G09 Deceleration code. Causes the machine, assuming capability, to
decelerate at a smooth exponential rate.
G10')
Normally unassigned for CNC systems. Used with some hard¬
Gllf
wired systems to express blocks of abnormal dimensions.
G12J
G'\31
G14 ( Used to direct the control system to operate on a particular set
G151 of axes.
G16J
G17]
Used to identify, or select, a coordinate plane for such functions
G18
as circular interpolation or cutter compensation.
G19J
G20 1
Unassigned according to EIA standards; however, they may be
through >
assigned by the control system or machine tool builder.
G32 )
Modes selected for machines equipped with thread-cutting capabil¬
G331
ities and generally referring to lathes. G33 is used when a constant
G34
lead is sought. G34 is used when a constantly increasing lead is re¬
G35 )
quired, and G35 is used to designate a constantly decreasing lead.

222
 EIA AND AIA NATIONAL CODES • 223

G36 |
through ) Unassigned.
G39 1
G40 A command which will terminate any cutter compensation.
A code associated with cutter compensation in which the cutter is
G41 on the left side of the work surface, looking in the direction of the
cutter motion.
A code associated with cutter compensation in which the cutter
G42
is on the right side of the work surface.
Used with cutter offset to adjust for the difference between the
G43~j
G44 J actual and programmed cutter radii or diameters. G43 refers to an
inside corner, and G44 refers to an outside corner.
G45 |
through) Unassigned.
G49 \
G50 |
through ) Reserved for adaptive control.
G59 3
G60 j
through) Unassigned.
G69 3
G70 Inch programming.
G71 Metric programming.
G72 Three-dimensional circular interpolation-CW.
G73 Three-dimensional circular interpolation-CCW.
G74 Cancel multiquadrant circular interpolation.
G75 Multiquadrant circular interpolation.
G76 ]
through > Unassigned.
G79 3
G80 Cancel cycle.
G81 Drill, or spotdrill, cycle.
G82 Drill with a dwell.
G83 Intermittent, or deep-hole, drilling.
G84 Tapping cycle.
G85 |
through > Boring cycles.
G89 ]
G90 Absolute input. Input data is to be in absolute dimensional form.
G91 Incremental input. Input data is to be in incremental form.
G92 Preload registers to desired values. An example would be to pre¬
load axis position registers.
G93 Inverse time feed rate.
G94 Inches (millimetres) per minute feed rate.
G95 Inches (millimetres) per revolution feed rate.
G97 Spindle speed in revolutions per minute.
224 • APPENDIX A

G98j
Unassigned.
G99)
MISCELLANEOUS FUNCTIONS
M Word Explanation
MOO Program stop. Operator must cycle start in order to continue
with the remainder of the program.
M01 Optional stop. Acted upon only when the operator has previously
signaled for this command by pushing a button. When the control
system senses the M01 code, machine will automatically stop.
M02 End of program. Stops the machine after completion of all com¬
mands in the block. May include rewinding of tape.
M30 End of tape command. Will rewind the tape and automatically
transfer to a second tape reader if incorporated in the control
system.
M03 Start spindle rotation in a clockwise direction.
M04 Start spindle rotation in a counterclockwise direction.
M05 Spindle stop.
M06 Command to execute the change of a tool (or tools) manually
or automatically.
M07 Turn coolant on (flood).
M08 Turn coolant on (mist).
M09 Coolant off.
MIO] Automatic clamping of the machine slides, workpiece, fixture,
Mil J spindle, etc. Mil is an unclamping code.
M12 An inhibiting code to synchronize multiple sets of axes, such as a
four-axis lathe having two independently operated heads or slides.
M13 Combines simultaneous clockwise spindle motion and coolant on.
M14 Combines simultaneous counterclockwise spindle motion and
coolant on.
Ml 5] Rapid traverse or feed motion in either the +(M15) or -(M16) di¬
M16j rection.
M17]
Unassigned.
M18]
M19 Oriented spindle stop. Spindle stop at a predetermined angular
position.
M20 ]
through > Unassigned.
M29 J
M31 A command known as interlock bypass for temporarily circum¬
venting a normally provided interlock.
M32 |
through / Unassigned.
M39 J
M40 ]
Used to signal gear changes if required at the machine; otherwise,
through >
unassigned.
M46 )
 EIA AND AIA NATIONAL CODES • 225

M47 Continues program execution from the start of the program unless
inhibited by an interlock signal.
M48 Cancel M49.
M49 A function that deactivates a manual spindle or feed override and
returns to the programmed value.
M50 1
through > Unassigned.
M57 3
M58 Cancel M59.
M59 A function which holds the RPM constant at its value when M59 is
initiated.
M60 1
through i Unassigned.
M99 \

OTHER ADDRESS CHARACTERS

Address
Character Explanation
A Angular dimension about the X axis.
B Angular dimension about the Y axis.
C Angular dimension about the Z axis.
D Can be used for an angular dimension around a special axis, for
a third feed function or for tool offset.
E Used for angular dimension around a special axis or for a second
feed function.
H Unassigned.

Used with circular interpolation.

L Not used.
0 Used in place of the customary sequence number word address
N.
P A third rapid traverse code or tertiary motion dimension paral¬
lel to the X axis.
Q Second rapid traverse code or tertiary motion dimension paral¬
lel to the Y axis.
R First rapid traverse code or tertiary motion dimension parallel
to the Z axis or the radius for constant surface speed calcula¬
tion.
U Secondary motion dimension parallel to the X axis.
V Secondary motion dimension parallel to the Y axis.
W Secondary motion dimension parallel to the Z axis.
 APPENDIX B
General Safety Rules
for N/C Machines

1) Wear safety glasses at all times.

2) Wear safety shoes.
3) Do not wear neckties, long sleeves, wristwatches, rings, gloves, etc.
when operating machine.
4) Keep long hair covered when operating machine.
5) Make sure the area around the machine is well-lighted, dry, and as free
from obstructions as possible. Keep the area in good order.
6) Never perform grinding operations near an N/C machine. Abrasive dust
will cause undue wear, inaccuracies and possible failure of affected parts.
7) Do not use compressed air to blow chips from the part, machine sur¬
faces, cabinets, controls, or floor around the machine.
8) When handling or lifting parts or tooling, follow company policy on
correct procedures.
9) Work platforms around machines should be sturdy and must have
antislip surfaces.
10) Wrenches, tools, and other parts should be kept off the machine and all
its moving units. Do not use machine elements as a workbench.
11) Keep hands out of path of moving units during machining operations.
12) Never place hands near a revolving spindle.
13) Perform all setup work with spindle stopped.
14) Load and unload workpieces with spindle stopped.
15) Clamp all work and fixtures securely before starting machine.
16) When handling tools or changing tools by hand, use a glove or cloth.
Avoid contact with cutting edges. Do not operate machine with gloves.
17) Use caution when changing tools, and avoid interference with fixture or
workpiece.
18) Use only properly sharpened tools.
19) Clean the setup daily.
20) Avoid bumping any N/C machine or controls.
21) Never operate an N/C machine without consulting the specific operator's
manual for that particular machine and control type.
22) Never attempt to program an N/C machine without consulting the speci¬
fic programmer's manual for that particular machine and control type.
23) Electrical compartment doors should be opened only for electrical
and/or maintenance work. They should be opened only by experienced
electricians and/or qualified service personnel.

226
 GENERAL SAFETY RULES FOR N/C MACHINES • 227

24) Safety guards, covers, and other devices have been provided for protec¬
tion. Do not operate machine with these devices disconnected, removed,
or out of place. Operate machine only when they are in proper operat¬
ing condition and position.
25) Tools are made for right-hand or left-hand operation. Be sure spindle
direction is correct.
26) Do not remove chips from workpiece area with fingers or while spindle
is running. Use a brush to remove chips after the spindle has stopped.
Clear chips often.
 APPENDIX C
Useful Formulas
and Tables

DDy _ 3.82 X Cutspeed

RPM-Diameter-

Feed (IPM) = (RPM) X (IPR)

(inches/minutes) (RPM)(inches/revolution)

feed(IPM)
Feed (IPR) -
RPM

• To find the circumference of a circle, multiply the diameter by 3.1416.

• To find the diameter of a circle, multiply the circumference by .31831.

• To find the area of a circle, multiply the square of the diameter by

.7854.

• To obtain the circumference, multiply the radius of a circle by 6.283185.

• To obtain the area of a circle, multiply the square of the circumference

of a circle by .07958.

• To find the area of a circle, multiply one-half the circumference of a

circle by one-half its diameter.

• To obtain the radius of a circle, multiply the circumference of a circle

by .159155.

• To find the radius of a circle, multiply the square root of the area of a
circle by .56419.

• To find the diameter of a circle, multiply the square root of the area of
a circle by 1.12838.

• To find the area of the surface of a ball (sphere), multiply the square of
the diameter by 3.1416.

• To find the volume of a ball (sphere), multiply the cube of the diameter
by .5236.

228
 USEFUL FORMULAS AND TABLES • 229

Trigonometry

c2 = a2 + b2

c=Va2+b2

a =y/c2 - b2

b =v/c2 - a2

_ side opposite Cosecant- hYPotenuse

Cosecant sjde opposjte
hypotenuse

_ . side adjacent Secant- hVP°tenuse

hypotenuse becani side adjacent

__ side opposite _ _ side adjacent

Cotangent = $ide opposjte
Tan9ent = side adjacent
230 • APPENDIX C

o o o O o o o o o o o O o o o o o o o o o o o o o
LU C o o o LO m LO o LO c- 00 o O LO o LO o LO LO ID o o 00 LO
O CD LO LO CM CO CO CM CO CO o CM CO CO CO CM T- CO CM
9 il

DC •
o o o O o o o LO o LO o o O o o LO o o o o o o o O o
< o> o o LO CD o LO o r** CO CM CM o 00 o T- o LO CD CM T- o CO o LO
LO CO CO CM CM CM CM CM CM CD CO CM CM CM T- CM CM CM
<3 O DC

_i
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LU .5 o o CO CD CD CD CD CM 00 LO O 00 CO CO CO 00 00 LO CD LO r** o
LU LL co CM * T- * CO
0.

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LO CO CD c- LO o LO 03 o CD O') p* LO CD CD CO 'vf CO CO CD o
CM T- CO CM
* DC

LU
O
o o o o o o LO LO o o o o O o o o o O LO o o O o O O
co o LO LO o o CO LO LO o LO o T— 00 CM 03 o LO CO LO o LO 0) CM LO
CD CO CO CM CM CM CM CM CO o CM CM CM CM CO
111 5

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00
CO o o o o LO o LO LO O o LO o o O O LO O O o o o o o o o
CO O LO CM LO 00 00 LO CD r*» CD o LO 00 00 LO r* CO LO CD CO
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LU
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o o o o o o o o O o O o o o O o O o o o o o o O o
o o o o CO CD CO o 00 CO O LO (D Is* CM 00 00 CM 00 CD o CD O LO
DC DC CO CO CM CM T— r— CM T— CM
T_ *■" T—
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Q
o CO o o o O LO LO LO LO LO o O o LO LO o o O o o O o o o o o
CO 00 LO T- CO LO 00 LO CO C- CD r* o CO CD CD CO CM LO CO IX) LO
CUTTING SPEEDS

X CM
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(Feet Per Minute)

cl co o o LO o o o O O o O o o o o LO o LO LO LO o LO LO LO o o
< CO o o r^* 03 CO CM LO CM CO CM CM CO CM CM CM CO 00
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CO CM CM CM CM r~ CM CM CM

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CO CM o CM LO CD CO LO LO 00 CO LO CO CO 00 CO CM CO CM CM
T-
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1.0 10 CM LO o 00 CM CM LO o O 1 CO 03 CM 0) CD T— CD r- o
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llov 400 BHN

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 USEFUL FORMULAS AND TABLES • 231

CONVERSION CHART

TOOL DIAMETERS
232 APPENDIX C

TAPPING FEED RATES THREADS PER INCH-TO-LEAD

TPI LEAD TPI LEAD TPI LEAD

3 .3333 11-1/2 .0870 32 .0313
3-1/2 .2587 12 .0833 36 .0278
4 .2500 13 .0769 40 .0250
5 .2000 14 .0714 44 .0227
6 .1667 16 .0625 48 .0208
7 .1430 18 .0556 56 .0179
8 .1250 20 .0500 64 .0156
9 .1111 24 .0417 72 .0139
10 .1000 27 .0370 80 .0125
11 .0909 28 .0357

Program feed rate = Lead of tap (inches) X RPM

 USEFUL FORMULAS AND TABLES • 233

CONVERSION CHART
(Based on 25.4 mm = 1")
Inches into Millimeters

Inches M/M Inches M/M Inches M/M Inches M/M Inches M/M
1/64 .0156 0.3969 49/64 .7656 19.4469 34 863.600 82 2082.80 130 3302.00
1/32 .0313 0.7937 25/32 .7813 19.8437 35 889.000 83 2108.20 131 3327.40
3/64 .0469 1.1906 51/64 .7969 20.2406 36 914.400 84 2133.60 132 3352.80
1/16 .0625 1.5875 13/16 .8125 20.6375 37 939.800 85 2159.00 133 3378.20
5/64 .0781 1.9844 53/64 .8281 21.0344 38 965.200 86 2184.40 134 3403.60
3/32 .0938 2.3812 27/32 .8438 21.4312 39 990.600 87 2209.80 135 3429.00
7/64 .1094 2.7781 55/64 .8594 21.8281 40 1016.00 88 2235.20 136 3454.40
1/8 .1250 3.1750 7/8 .8750 22.2250 41 1041.40 89 2260.60 137 3479.80
9/64 .1406 3.5719 57/64 .8906 22.6219 42 1066.80 90 2286.00 138 3505.20
5/32 .1563 3.9687 29/32 .9063 23.0187 43 1092.20 91 2311.40 139 3530.60
11/64 .1719 4.3656 59/64 .9219 23.4156 44 1117.60 92 2336.80 140 3556.00
3/16 .1875 4.7625 15/16 .9375 23.8125 45 1143.00 93 2362.20 141 3581.40
13/64 .2031 5.1594 61/64 .9531 24.2094 46 1168.40 94 2387.60 142 3606.80
7/32 .2188 5.5562 31/32 .9688 24.6062 47 1193.80 95 2413.00 143 3632.20
15/64 .2344 5.9531 63/64 .9844 25.0031 48 1219.20 96 2438.40 144 3657.60
1/4 .2500 6.3500 1 25.4000 49 1244.60 97 2463.80 145 3683.00
17/64 .2656 6.7469 2 50.800 50 1270.00 98 2489.20 146 3708.40
9/32 .2813 7.1437 3 76.200 51 1295.40 99 2514.60 147 3733.80
19/64 .2969 7.5406 4 101.600 52 1320.80 100 2540.00 148 3759.20
5/16 .3125 7.9375 5 127.000 53 1346.20 101 2565.40 149 3784.60
21/64 .3281 8.3344 6 152.400 54 1371.60 102 2590.80 150 3810.00
11/32 .3438 8.7312 7 177.800 55 1397.00 103 2616.20 151 3835.40
23/64 .3594 9.1281 8 203.200 56 1422.00 104 2641.60 152 3860.80
3/8 .3750 9.5250 9 228.600 57 1447.80 105 2667.00 153 3886.20
25/64 .3906 9.9219 10 254.000 58 1473.20 106 2692.40 154 3911.60
13/32 .4063 10.3187 11 279.400 59 1498.60 107 2717.80 155 3937.00
27/64 .4219 10.7156 12 304.800 60 1524.00 108 2743.20 156 3962.40
7/16 .4375 11.1125 13 330.200 61 1549.40 109 2768.60 157 3987.80
29/64 .4531 11.5094 14 355.600 62 1574.80 110 2794.00 158 4013.20
15/32 .4688 11.9062 15 381.000 63 1600.20 111 2819.40 159 4038.60
31/64 .4844 12.3031 16 406.400 64 1625.60 112 2844.80 160 4064.00
1/2 .5000 12.7000 17 431.800 65 1651.00 113 2870.20 161 4089.40
33/64 .5156 13.0969 18 457.200 66 1676.40 114 2895.60 162 4114.80
17/32 .5313 13.4937 19 482.600 67 1701.80 115 2921.00 163 4140.20
35/64 .5469 13.8906 20 508.000 68 1727.20 116 2946.40 164 4165.60
9/16 .5625 14.2875 21 533.400 69 1752.60 117 2971.80 165 4191.00
37/64 .5781 14.6844 22 558.800 70 1778.00 118 2997.20 166 4216.40
19/32 .5938 15.0812 23 584.200 71 1803.40 119 3022.60 167 4241.80
39/64 .6094 15.4781 24 609.600 72 1828.80 120 3048.00 168 4267.20
5/8 .6250 15.8750 25 635.000 73 1854.20 121 3073.40 169 4292.60
41/64 .6406 16.2719 26 660.400 74 1879.60 122 3098.80 170 4318.00
21/32 .6563 16.6687 27 685.800 75 1905.00 123 3124.20 171 4343.40
43/64 .6719 17.0656 28 711.200 76 1930.40 124 3149.60 172 4368.80
11/16 .6875 17.4625 29 736.600 77 1955.80 125 3175.00 173 4394.20
45/64 .7031 17.8594 30 762.000 78 1981.20 126 3200.40 174 4419.60
23/32 .7188 18.2562 31 787.400 79 2006.60 127 3225.80 175 4445.00
47/64 .7344 18.6531 32 812.800 80 2032.00 128 3251.20
3/4 .7500 19.0500 33 838.200 81 2057.40 129 3276.60

0.001" = .0254 mm 0.001 mm = 0.0004"

 APPENDIX D
Available N/C
Motion Pictures

Bendix Corporation
Industrial Controls Division
12843 Greenfield Road
Detroit, Michigan 48227
Turning a Profit. 16 mm, 45 min., color/sound.
Use of numerical control equipment in modern industry. Features a lathe machine
with Bendix 800 control.
Manufacturing by NC. 16 mm, 25 min., color/sound.
Educational in nature; is intended primarily for viewers with little or no background in
the field of numerical control. Film is outdated regarding latest equipment; however,
many educational institutions still use it because of the basic information it contains.
Progress in NC. 16 mm, 25 min., color/sound.
Follow-up film to Manufacturing by NC. Shows current applications. Outdated regard¬
ing latest equipment being used.

Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.

4701 Marburg Avenue
Cincinnati, Ohio 45209
Machine Tool Division
Advanced Systems Capability. 16 mm, 17 min., color/sound.
A product sales film showing four examples of large, specialized machine tool systems
designed to machine large parts for earth-moving equipment and aerospace hardware.
(When ordering, list alternative showing dates.)
The CIM-Xchanger 25 HC NC Machining Center. 16 mm, 8 min., color/sound.
Shows features and applications of a numerically controlled travelling column, hori¬
zontal machining center with 90-tool storage.
10V, 10VC Machining Centers. 16 mm, 15 min., color/sound.
Film shows the features and applications of a 10 HP N/C vertical machining center
having a 30-tool storage capability.
10HC Machining Center. 16 mm, 10 min., color/sound.
Features and application of N/C 10 HP travelling column, horizontal machining
center with 30-tool storage drum.
The Cinturn N/C Chucking Centers. 16 mm, 18 min., color/sound.
A product film about details, features, and capabilities of the line of N/C chucking
centers.

234
 AVAILABLE N/C MOTION PICTURES • 235

The Cleveland Twist Drill Co.

P.O. Box 6656
Cleveland, Ohio 44101
Use and Care of Twist Drills. 16 mm, 23 min., color/sound.
Describes twist drill terms and construction, drill pointing and drill point angles for
various materials, fundamentals of good drilling practice, and data on speeds and feeds.
(List alternative showing dates when ordering.)

Ex-Cell-0 Corporation
2855 Coolidge
Troy, Michigan 48084
Applications of Automation. 16 mm, 30 min., BW/sound.
Automated machine tools in action. Some are standard machines on which work¬
handling equipment has been applied; others are specially designed to fit into auto¬
mated production lines. A technical film, yet understandable to students and the
general public.

Giddings & Lewis-Bickford Machine Company

A Division of Giddings & Lewis, Inc.
820 Hyland Avenue
Kaukauna, Wisconsin 54130
10-Vand 15-VNumeriCenter. 16 mm, 13 1/2 min., color/sound.
Features the economic values of N/C machining with automatic tool changing. Ma¬
chines bore, drill, mill, and tap; they have 40-tool storage capacity; they show indexers
and multiple station arrangements.

Kearney & Trecker Corporation

11000 Theodore Trecker Way
Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53214
Changing Months to Minutes. 16 mm, 14 min., color/sound.
Presents the Model II, Milwaukee-Matic tape-controlled machining center in action.
Features automatic tool changing, absolute positioning, and a combination of contour¬
ing and positioning without the use of computer. Multiple operations performed in
milling, drilling, boring, and related functions.
Milwaukee-Matic 180. 16 mm, 13 min., color/sound.
Presents a chronology of a Value Engineering project, showing the development of a high-
performance, low-cost machining center. The result of this project, the Milwaukee-
Matic 180 Machining Center, is shown in actual operations, depicting innovative devel¬
opment in machine design and computerized numerical control.
Producing for Prof it. 16 mm, 18 min., color/sound.
Introduces Milwaukee-Matic Series E, tape-controlled machining center with automatic
tool changer. Describes how the production approach is applied to job lot machining.
The machine performs milling, drilling, boring, tapping, and related operations.
236 • APPENDIX D

In Search of a Better Way. 16 mm, 18 min., color/sound.

Describes combination of N/C technology and production systems to create a new manu¬
facturing concept — the N/C processing line. Includes process details of a specific sys¬
tem built and shipped in 1977, including N/C milling, specialized turning, and head¬
changing machines providing multiple-spindle drilling, boring, reaming, and tapping.

The Warner & Swasey Company

Turning Machine Division
5701 Carnegie Avenue
Cleveland, Ohio 44103
New Directions in Turning. 16 mm, 18 min., color/sound.
Details the operation and features of Warner & Swasey's 1-SC, 2-SC, and 3-SC N/C
turning machines on bar and chucking work.

The Warner & Swasey Company

Wiedemann Division
211 South Gulph Road
King of Prussia, Pennsylvania 19406
Wiedematic and You. . . It's About Time. 16 mm, 16 min., color.
Action scenes of CNC turret punch press and automatic right angle blade-shearing sys¬
tem. Manufacturing facilities, sales and service, and school for customer training.

White-Sundstrand Machine Tool Co.

A Div. of White Consolidated Ind.
3615 Newburg Road
Belvedere, Illinois 61108
Series 80 Omnimil. 16 mm, 15 min., color/sound.
Illustrates large machining centers of different configurations performing boring, milling,
drilling, and tapping operations on several workpieces.
GLOSSARY
TERM AND DEFINITION EXAMPLE

A AXIS. The axis of circular motion of a machine tool >(

member or slide about the X axis. (Usually called 1\

alpha.)

c
0
Z

ABSOLUTE ACCURACY. Accuracy as measured from

a reference which must be specified.

ABSOLUTE READOUT. A display of the true slide

position as derived from the position commands
within the control system.
6
ABSOLUTE SYSTEM. A numerical control system in
which all positional dimensions, both input and feed¬

\
PT3

back, are given with respect to a common datum 5 -

point. The alternative is the incremental system.

4
Y axis
Inches

. \
3

PT1 PT2

1 1 1 1 1 1
(0,0) 1 2 3 4 5 6

Inches

X axis

Coordinate Positions

Point X value Y value

PT1 2 2
PT2 5 2
PT3 4 5

In an absolute system, all points are relative to (0,0), and

the absolute coordinates for each of the required points
are programmed with respect to (0,0).

237
238 • GLOSSARY

TERM AND DEFINITION EXAMPLE

speed full slow

ACCAIMDEC. (Acceleration and deceleration) Acceler¬
up acceleration down
ation and deceleration in feed rate. It provides
smooth starts and stops when operating in N/C and
when changing from one feed rate value to another.
Beginning Ending
point ^ point
Most modern numerical control systems have automatic
acceleration and deceleration.

ACCURACY. 1. Measured by the difference between

the actual position of the machine slide and the posi¬
tion demanded. 2. Conformity of an indicated value
to a true value, i.e., an actual or an accepted standard
value. The accuracy of a control system is expressed
as the deviation (the difference between the ultimate¬
X
co
ly controlled variable and its ideal value), usually in >-

the steady state or at sampled instants.

(0.0) 1 2 3

Inches

X axis
The position of point 1 in this example is X = 2 and Y =
2. If the machine accuracy is specified as ± .001, the
X axis movement could be between X = 1.999 and
X = 2.001. The Y axis movement could be between
Y = 1.999 and Y = 2.001.

Cl = circle/center, PT1, radius, 2.5

AD-APT. An Air Force adaptation of APT program
language with limited vocabulary. It can be used on Similar to the APT language except it does not possess
some small to medium sizes of U.S. computers for the advanced contouring capabilities of APT.

N/C programming.
 GLOSSARY • 239

TERM AND DEFINITION EXAMPLE

ADAPTIVE CONTROL. A technique which automa¬

tically adjusts feeds and/or speeds to an optimum by
sensing cutting conditions and acting upon them.

Sensors may measure variable factors, e.g. vibration, heat,

torque, and deflection. Cutting speeds and feeds may be
increased or decreased depending on conditions sensed.

ADDRESS. 1. A symbol indicating the significance of

the information immediately following. 2. A means
of identifying information or a location in a control X (Address)

system. 3. A number which identifies one location 0

in memory. 0

2
2

ALPHANUMERIC CODING. A system in which the apt and AD APT statements use alphanumeric coding,

characters are letters A through Z and numerals 0 e.g. gofwd, cti2/past, 2, intof, li3

through 9.

ANALOG. 1. Applies to a system which uses electrical

voltage magnitudes or ratios to represent physical
axis positions. 2. Pertains to information which can
have continuously variable values.

ANALYST. A person skilled in the definition and

development of techniques to solve problems.

APT. (Automatic Programmed Tool) A universal Typical APT geometry definition statement:
Cl = CIRCLE/XLARGE, L12, XLARGE, L13,
computer-assisted program system for multiaxis con¬
RADIUS, 3.5
touring programming. APT III provides for five axes
Typical APT tool motion statement:
of machine tool motion.
TLRGT, G0RGT/AL3, PAST, AL12
240 • GLOSSARY

TERM AND DEFINITION EXAMPLE

ARC CLOCKWISE. An arc generated by the coordi¬

nated motion of two axes, in which curvature of the i

tool path with respect to the workpiece is clockwise,

when viewing the plane of motion from the positive
direction of the perpendicular axis.

Activated by G02 preparatory function

ARC COUNTERCLOCKWISE. An arc generated by

the coordinated motion of two axes, in which curva¬ il _
ture of the tool path with respect to the workpiece is
counterclockwise, when viewing the plane of motion
from the positive direction of the perpendicular axis.

Activated by G03 preparatory function

ASCII. (American Standard Code for Information

Interchange) A data transmission code which has
been established as an American standard by the
American Standards Association. It is a code in
which seven bits are used to represent each character.
Formerly USASCII.

AUTOMATION. 1. The implementation of processes

by automatic means. 2. The investigation, design,
development, and application of methods to render
processes automatic, self-moving, or self-controlling.
 GLOSSARY • 241

TERM AND DEFINITION EXAMPLE

AUTOSPOT. (Automatic System for Positioning of

Tools) A computer-assigned program for N/C posi¬
tioning and straight-cut systems, developed in the U.S.
by the IBM Space Guidance Center. It is maintained
and taught by IBM.
• Transferring a tool to the select tool position.
AUXILIARY FUNCTION. A programmable function
• Turning coolant ON or OFF.
of a machine other than the control of the coordinate • Starting or stopping the spindle.

movements or cutter. • Initiating pallet shuttle or movement.

AXIS. A principal direction along which the relative

movements of the tool or workpiece occur. There are
usually three linear axes, mutually at right angles,
designated as X, Y, and Z.

AXIS INHIBIT. A feature of an N/C unit which en¬

ables the operator to withhold command information
from a machine tool slide.

AXIS INTERCHANGE. The capability of inputting

the information concerning one axis into the storage
of another axis.
st quadrant
AXIS INVERSION. The reversal of plus and minus 2nd quadrant

values along an axis. This allows the machining of a

Actual
left-handed part from right-handed programming or x. part

vice versa.

(-X,+Y) (+X, +Y)

3rd quadrant 4th quadrant

\ (-X, -Y) <+X, -Y)

242 • GLOSSARY

TERM AND DEFINITION EXAMPLE

B (BETA) AXIS. The axis of circular motion of a

machine tool member or slide about the Y axis.

BACKLASH. A relative movement between interacting

mechanical parts as a result of looseness.

BCD. (Binary-coded decimal) A system of number 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Track no.

representation in which each decimal digit is repre¬

sented by a group of binary digits forming a character.

Numbers and letters are expressed by punched holes

across the tape for the code or value desired.
GLOSSARY • 243
244 • GLOSSARY

TERM AND DEFINITION EXAMPLE

BLOCK DELETE. Permits selected blocks of tape to 1 2 3 \

be ignored by the control system, at the operator's
discretion with permission of the programmer.
© © © I
This feature allows certain blocks of information to be
skipped by programming a slash (/) code in front of the
block to be skipped. One lot of parts with holes 1,2, and
3 are required. On another lot, only holes 1 and
3 are required. The same tape could be used for
both lots by activating the block delete switch on
the second lot and eliminating hole 2. The (/)
code would be in front of the block of information
for hole 2.

BUFFER STORAGE. A place for storing information

in a control system or computer for planned use. In¬
formation from the buffer storage section of a con¬
trol system can be transferred almost instantly to
active storage (that portion of the control system
commanding the operation at the particular time).
Buffer storage allows a control system to act immedi¬
ately on stored information rather than wait for the
information to be read into the machine from the
tape reader.

BUG. 1. A mistake or malfunction. 2. An integrated

circuit (slang).

BYTE. A sequence of adjacent binary digits usually Eight bits equal one byte. A computer word usually
consists of either sixteen or thirty-two bits (two or
operated on as a unit and shorter than a computer four bytes).
word.

CAD. Computer aided design

CAM. (Computer aided manufacturing) The use of

computers to assist in phases of manufacturing.

CAM-1. (Computer Aided Manufacturing International)

The outgrowth and replacement organization of the
APT Long Range Program.

CANCEL. A command which will discontinue any

canned cycles or sequence commands.

CANNED CYCLE. A preset sequence of events initiated

by a single command. For example, code G84 will
perform tap cycle by N/C.

CARD TO TAPE CONVERTER. A device which con¬

verts information directly from punched cards to
punched or magnetic tape.
 GLOSSARY • 245

TERM AND DEFINITION EXAMPLE

CARTESIAN COORDINATES. A means whereby the N

position of a point can be defined with reference to a 1 (3, 4)

set of axes at right angles to each other. 3 - 1

1
1
2 - 1
|
1
1 - 1

x- —i—i—i—hx
12 3 4

C AXIS. Normally the axis of circular motion of a ><

k
machine tool member or slide about the Z axis.

- fr. x

+c A
Z )

CHAD. Pieces of material removed in card or tape

operations.
246 • GLOSSARY

TERM AND DEFINITION EXAMPLE

Channels (tracks)
CHANNELS. Paths parallel to the edge of the tape
along which information may be stored by the pres¬
ence or absence of holes or magnetized areas. This
term is also known as level or track. The El A standard
one-inch-wide tape has eight channels.

CHARACTERS. A general term for all symbols, such as

alphabetic letters, numerals, and punctuation marks.
It is also the coded representation of such symbols.

CHIP. A single piece of silicon cut from a slice by

scribing and breaking. It can contain one or more
circuits but is packaged as a unit.

CIRCULAR INTERPOLATION. 1. Capability of gen¬

erating up to 360 degrees of arc using only one block
of information as defined by EIA. 2. A mode of
contouring control which uses the information con¬
tained in a single block to produce an arc of a circle.

v-Center point

. I = X coordinate value
Center point> j = y coordinate va|ue

--— x
 GLOSSARY • 247

TERM AND DEFINITION EXAMPLE

CLOSED-LOOP SYSTEM. A system in which the out¬ Control Transducer (feedback device)

put, or some result of the output, is measured and fed

back for comparison with the input. In an N/C sys¬
tem, the output is the position of the table or head;
the input is the tape information which ordinarily
differs from the output. This difference is measured
and results in a machine movement to reduce and
eliminate the variance.

Comparator

CNC. Computer numerical control

CODE. A system describing the formation of characters

on a tape for representing information, in a language
that can be understood and handled by the control
system.

COMMAND. A signal, or series of signals, initiating

one step in the execution of a program.

COMMAND READOUT. A display of the slide position

as commanded from the control system.

CONTINUOUS-PATH OPERATION. An operation in See contouring control system.

which rate and direction of relative movement of
machine members is under continuous numerical
control. There is no pause for data reading.
Cutter path
CONTOURING CONTROL SYSTEM. An N/C system
for controlling a machine (e.g. milling, drafting) in a
path resulting from the coordinated, simultaneous
motion of two or more axes.
248 • GLOSSARY
 GLOSSARY • 249

TERM AND DEFINITION EXAMPLE

CUTTER OFFSET. The distance from the part surface Offset

to the axial center of a cutter.

0---

‘I 0
CUTTER PATH. The path defined by the center of a
cutter.

CYCLE. 1. A sequence of operations that is repeated

regularly. 2. The time it takes for one such sequence
to occur.

DATA. A representation of information in the form of

words, symbols, numbers, letters, characters, digits,
etc.

DEBUG. I.To detect, locate, and remove mistakes

from a program. 2. Troubleshoot.

DECIMAL CODE. A code in which each allowable

position has one of ten possible states. (The conven¬
tional decimal number system is a decimal code.)

DELETE CHARACTER. A character used primarily to

obliterate any erroneous or unwanted characters on
•
punched tape. The delete character consists of per¬
•
forations in all punching positions. •

•
•
•
•

DIAGNOSTIC TEST. The running of a machine pro¬

gram or routine to discover a failure or potential
failure of a machine element and to determine its
location.

DIGIT. A character in any numbering system.

250 • GLOSSARY

TERM AND DEFINITION EXAMPLE

DIGITAL. 1. Refers to discrete states of a signal (on or

off). A combination of these make up a specific
value. 2. Relating to data in the form of digits.

DISPLAY. A visual representation of data.

DOCUMENTATION. Manuals and other printed mate¬

rials (tables, magnetic tape, listing, diagrams) which
provide information for use and maintenance of a
manufactured product, both hardware and software.

DWELL TIME. A timed delay of programmed or es¬

tablished duration, not cyclic or sequential. It is not
an interlock or hold time.

EDIT. To modify the form of data.

EIA STANDARD CODE. A standard code for position¬

ing, straight-cut, and contouring control systems pro¬
posed by the U.S. EIA in their Standard RS-244.
Eight-track paper (one-inch wide) has been accepted
by the American Standards Association as an American
standard for numerical control.
END OF BLOCK CHARACTER. 1. A character indicat¬
ing the end of a block of tape information. Used to •
stop the tape reader after a block has been read. •
2. The typewriter function of the carriage return •
•
when preparing machine control tapes.
/
EOB character
•

END OF PROGRAM. A miscellaneous function (M02)

indicating the completion of a workpiece. Stops
spindle, coolant, and feed after completion of all
commands in the block. Used to reset control and/or
machine.

END OF TAPE. A miscellaneous function (M30)

which stops spindle, coolant, and feed after comple¬
tion of all commands in the block. Used to reset
control and/or machine.

END POINT. The extremities of a span.

ERROR SIGNAL. Indication of a difference between

the output and input signals in a servo system.
 GLOSSARY • 251

TERM AND DEFINITION EXAMPLE

EXECUTIVE PROGRAM. A series of programming

instructions enabling a dedicated minicomputer to
produce a specific output control. For example, it is
the executive program in a CNC unit that enables the
control to think like a lathe or machining center.

FEED. The programmed or manually established rate

of movement of the cutting tool into the workpiece
for the required machining operation.
FEEDBACK. The transmission of a signal from a late to
an earlier stage in a system. In a closed-loop N/C sys¬
tem, a signal of the machine slide position is fed back
and compared with the input signal, which specifies the
demanded position. These two signals are compared
and generate an error signal if a difference exists.

FEED FUNCTION. The relative motion between the

tool or instrument and the work due to motion of the
programmed axis.
FEED RATE (CODE WORD). A multiple-character
code containing the letter F followed by digits. It
determines the machine slide rate of feed.

FEED RATE DIVIDER. A feature of some machine

control units that gives the capability of dividing the
programmed feed rate by a selected amount as pro¬
vided for in the machine control unit.
FEED RATE MULTIPLIER. A feature of some ma¬
chine control units that gives the capability of multi¬
plying the programmed feed rate by a selected
amount as provided for in the machine control unit.

FEED RATE OVERRIDE. A variable manual control Feedrate override is a percentage function to reduce the
programmed feed rate. If the programmed feed rate was
function directing the control system to reduce the 30 inches per minute and the operator wanted 15 inches
programmed feed rate. per minute, the feedrate override dial would be set at
50 percent.

FIXED BLOCK FORMAT. A format in which the num¬

ber and sequence of words and characters appearing
in successive blocks is constant.

FIXED CYCLE. See canned cycle.

FIXED SEQUENTIAL FORMAT. A means of identi¬
fying a word by its location in a block of information.
Words must be presented in a specific order, and all
possible words preceding the last desired word must
be present in the block.
252 • GLOSSARY
 GLOSSARY • 253

TERM AND DEFINITION EXAMPLE

GAGE HEIGHT. A predetermined partial retraction _

point along the Z axis to which the cutter retreats Rapid

from time to time to allow safe XY table travel.

Gage height, usually .100 to .1 25, is a set distance estab¬

lished in the control or set by the operator. Gage height
allows the tool, while advancing in rapid traverse, to stop
at the established distance (gage height) and begin feed
motion. Without gage height, the tool would rapid into
the part causing tool damage or breakage and potential
operator injury.

G CODE. A word addressed by the letter G and fol¬

lowed by a numerical code defining preparatory
functions or cycle types in a numerical control
system.

GENERAL PROCESSOR. 1. A computer program for

converting geometric input data into cutter path data
required by an N/C machine. 2. A fixed software
program designed for a specific logical manipulation
of data.
254 • GLOSSARY

TERM AND DEFINITION EXAMPLE

HARD COPY. A readable form of data output on

paper.

HARDWARE. The component parts used to build a

computer or control system, e.g. integrated circuits,
diodes, transistors.

HARD-WIRED. Having logic circuits interconnected

on a backplane to give a fixed pattern of events.

HIGH-SPEED READER. A reading device which can

be connected to a computer or control so as to operate
on line without seriously holding up the computer or
control.

HOLLERITH. Pertaining to a particular type of code

or punched card, using twelve rows per column and
usually eighty columns per card.

INCREMENTAL DIMENSIONING. The method of

expressing a dimension with respect to the preceding
point in a sequence of points.

INCREMENTAL SYSTEM. A control system in which

each coordinate or positional dimension, both input 6
and feedback, is taken from the last position rather PT1
5
than from a common datum point, as in the absolute
system. «/> </> 4
X 2
m o
>- £
3 ^*PT2

1
PT3
1 1 _1_1_1_
(0.0) 1 2 3 4 5 6
Inches

X axis

Coordinate positions

Point X value V value

PT1 2 6
PT2 3 -2
PT3 -2 -2

In an incremental system, all points are expressed relative

to the preceding point.

INDEX TABLE. A multiple-character code containing See B (Beta) axis.

the letter B followed by digits. This code determines

the position of the rotary index table in degrees.
 GLOSSARY • 255

TERM AND DEFINITION EXAMPLE

INHIBIT. To prevent an action or acceptance of data

by applying an appropriate signal to the appropriate
input.

INPUT. Transfer of external information into the

control system.

INPUT MEDIA. 1. The form of input such as punched

cards and tape or magnetic tape. 2. The device used
to input information.

INTERCHANGEABLE VARIABLE BLOCK FORMAT. This is one of the most sophisticated tape formats in
use today.
A programming arrangement consisting of a combina¬
tion of the word address and tab sequential formats
See block.
to provide greater compatibility in programming.
Words are interchangeable within the block. Length
of block varies since words may be omitted.

INTERCHANGE STATION. The position where a tool

of an automatic tool changing machine awaits auto¬
matic transfer to either the spindle or the appropriate
coded drum station.

INTERMEDIATE TRANSFER ARM. The mechanical

device in automatic tool changing that grips and re¬
moves a programmed tool from the coded drum sta¬
tion and places it into the interchange station, where
it awaits transfer to the machine spindle. This device
then automatically grips and removes the used tool
from the interchange station and returns it to the
appropriate coded drum station.

INTERPOLATION. I.The insertion of intermediate

information based on an assumed order or computa¬
tion. 2. A function of a control whereby data points
are generated between given coordinate positions.

INTERPOLATOR. A device which is part of a numeri¬

cal control system and performs interpolation.

ISO. International Organization for Standardization.

JOG. A control function which momentarily operates

a drive to the machine.

LEADING ZEROES. Redundant zeroes to the left of a Leading zeroes

number.
X + 0062500

LEADING ZEROSUPPRESSION. See zero suppression.

256 • GLOSSARY

TERM AND DEFINITION EXAMPLE

LETTER ADDRESS. The method by which informa¬

tion is directed to different parts of the system. All
information must be preceded by its proper letter
address, e.g., X, Y, Z, M.

LINEAR INTERPOLATION. A function of a control

whereby data points are generated between given
coordinate positions to allow simultaneous movement
of two or more axes of motion in a linear (straight)
path.

The control system moves X and Y axes proportionately

to arrive at the destination point.

LOOP TAPE. A short piece of tape, with joined ends

which contains a complete program or operation.

MACHINING CENTER. Machine tools, usually numer¬

ically controlled, capable of automatically drilling,
reaming, tapping, milling, and boring multiple faces
of a part. They are often equipped with a system for
automatically changing cutting tools.
 GLOSSARY • 257

TERM AND DEFINITION EXAMPLE

MACRO. A group of instructions which can be stored An APT macro could be as follows:

and recalled as a group to solve a recurring problem. DRILL1 = MACRO/X, Y, Z, Z1, FR, RR
GOTO/POINT, X, Y, Z, RR
G0DLTA/-Z1, FR
GODLTA/+Z1, RR
TERMAC

X, Y, Z, Z1, FR, and RR would be variables which would

have values assigned when the macro is called into action.
The variables would be as follows:
X = X position
Y = Y position
Z = Z position (above work surface)
Z1 = Z feed distance
FR = feed rate
RR = rapid rate

The call statement could be:

CALL/DRILL1, X = 2, Y = 4, Z = .100, Z1 = 1.25,
FR = 2, RR = 200

To program a feed rate of 12 inches per minute in magic-

MAGIC-THREE CODING. A feed rate code that uses
three coding:
three digits of data in the F word. The first digit de¬ 1) count the number of decimal places to the left of the
fines the power of ten multiplier. It determines the decimal. J^2, = 2
2) Add magic "3” to the number of counted decimal
positioning of the floating decimal point. The last
places. (3 + 2 = 5)
two digits are the most significant digits of the 3) write the F word address, the added digit, and the first
two digits of the actual feed rate to be programmed.
desired feed rate.
(F512)
4) F512 would be the magic “3" coded feed rate.

This method of feed rate coding is now almost obsolete.

MAGNETIC TAPE. A tape made of plastic and coated

with magnetic material. It stores information by
selective polarization of portions of the surface.

MANUAL DATA INPUT. A mode or control that

enables an operator to insert data into the control
system. This data is identical to information that
could be inserted by tape.
Manual, or hand, programming is programming the actual
MANUAL PART PROGRAMMING. The preparation
codes, X and Y positions, functions, etc. as they are
of a manuscript in machine control language and punched in the N/C tape.
format to define a sequence of commands for use on
H001 G81 X+37500 Y+52500 W01
an N/C machine.

MANUSCRIPT. A written or printed copy, in symbolic

form, containing the same data as that punched on
cards or tape or retained in a memory unit.
258 • GLOSSARY

TERM AND DEFINITION EXAMPLE

A computer with a 64,000-word capacity is said to have

MEMORY. An organized collection of storage elements,
a memory of 64 K.
e.g., disc, drum, ferrite cores, into which a unit of
information consisting of a binary digit can be stored
and from which it can later be retrieved.

MIRROR IMAGE. See axis inversion.

MODAL. Information that is retained by the system

until new information is obtained and replaces it.

MODULE. An interchangeable plug-in item containing

components.
N/C. (Numerical control) The technique of controlling
a machine or process by using command instructions
in coded numerical form.

NULL. 1. Pertaining to no deflection from a center or

end position. 2. Pertaining to a balanced or zero
output from a device.

NUMERICAL CONTROL SYSTEM. A system in

which programmed numerical values are directly
inserted, stored on some form of input medium, and
automatically read and decoded to cause a correspond¬
ing movement in a machine or process.

OFFSET. A displacement in the axial direction of the

tool which is the difference between the actual tool
length and the programmed tool length.

OPEN-LOOP SYSTEM. A control system that has no Instructions

means of comparing the output with the input for

control purposes. No feedback.

OPTIMIZE. To rearrange the instructions or data in

storage so that a minimum number of transfers are
required in the running of a program. To obtain
maximum accuracy and minimum part production
time by manipulation of the program.
 GLOSSARY • 259

TERM AND DEFINITION EXAMPLE

OPTIONAL STOP. A miscellaneous function (M01)

command similar to Program Stop except the control
ignores the command unless the operator has previous¬
ly pushed a button to validate the command.

OVERSHOOT. A term applied when the motion ex¬

ceeds the target value. The amount of overshoot
depends on the feed rate, the acceleration of the slide
unit, or the angular change in direction.

Cutter path
Overshoot
Cutter

PARABOLA. A plane curve generated by a point

moving so that its distance from a fixed second point
is equal to its distance from a fixed line.

PARABOLIC INTERPOLATION. Control of cutter

path by interpolation between three fixed points by
assuming the intermediate points are on a parabola.

PARITY CHECK. 1.A hole punched in one of the

— 1 — Already
tape channels whenever the total number of holes is
odd
even, to obtain an odd number, or vice versa depend¬ number

ing on whether the check is even or odd. 2. A check of holes

that tests whether the number of ones (or zeroes) in

— 5 — Even num¬
any array of binary digits is odd or even.
ber of
holes gets
automatic
punch in
Track 5 to
yield odd
number of
holes in
Track 5
that row.

RS-244-A
(EIA or BCD)
260 • GLOSSARY

TERM AND DEFINITION EXAMPLE

PART PROGRAM. A specific and complete set of data

and instructions written in source languages for com¬
puter processing or in machine language for manual
programming to manufacture a part on an N/C
machine.

PART PROGRAMMER. A person who prepares the

planned sequence of events for the operation of a
numerically controlled machine tool.

PERFORATED TAPE. A tape on which a pattern of

holes or cuts is used to represent data.

PLOTTER. A device which will draw a plot or trace

from coded N/C data input.

POINT-TO-POINT CONTROL SYSTEM. A numerical

control system in which controlled motion is required
only to reach a given end point, with no path control
during the transition from one end point to the next. i L
\ )
*- D -7*- A /

y-B

POSITIONING/CONTOURING. A type of numerical

control system that has the capability of contouring,
without buffer storage, in two axes and positioning in
a third axis for such operations as drilling, tapping,
and boring.

POSITIONING SYSTEM. See point-to-point control

system.

POSITION READOUT. A display of absolute slide

position as derived from a position feedback device
(transducer) normally attached to the lead screw of
the machine. See command readout.
 GLOSSARY • 261

TERM AND DEFINITION EXAMPLE

POSTPROCESSOR. The part of the software which

converts the cutter path coordinate data into a form
which the machine control can interpret correctly.
The cutter path coordinate data is obtained from the
general processor and all other programming instruc¬
tions and specifications for the particular machine
and control.
Some preparatory functions are:
PREPARATORY FUNCTION. An N/C command on
the input tape changing the mode of operation of the G84 — tap cycle
control. (Generally noted at the beginning of a block G01 — linear interpolation
G82 — dwell cycle
by the letter G plus two digits.) G02 — circular interpolation — clockwise
G03 — circular interpolation — counter clockwise

See G code.

PROGRAM. A sequence of steps to be executed by a

control or a computer to perform a given function.
PROGRAMMED DWELL. The capability of command¬
ing delays in program execution for a programmable
length of time.
Manual part programming instructions:
PROGRAMMER (PART PROGRAMMER). A person
who prepares the planned sequence of events for the H001 G81 X+123750 Y+62500 W01
operation of a numerically controlled machine tool. N002 X+105000
N003 Y+51250 M06
The programmer's principal tool is the manuscript on
which the instructions are recorded. Computer part programming instructions:

TLRGT, GORGT/HL3, TANTO, Cl

GOFWD/C1, TANTO, HL2
GOFWD/HL2, PAST, VL2

PROGRAM STOP. A miscellaneous function (MOO)

command to stop the spindle, coolant, and feed after
completion of the dimensional move commanded in
the block. To continue with the remainder of the
program, the operator must push a button.
262 • GLOSSARY

TERM AND DEFINITION EXAMPLE

+Y
QUADRANT. Any of the four parts into which a
plane is divided by rectangular coordinate axes in that
plane.
2nd quadrant 1st quadrant
(-X, +Y) (+X, +Y)

—A ‘

3rd quadrant 4th quadrant

(-X, -Y) (+X, -Y)

<

RANDOM. Not necessarily in a logical order of arrange¬

ment according to usage, but having the ability to
select from any location and in any order from the
storage system.

RAPID. Positioning the cutter and workpiece into

close proximity with one another at a high rate of
travel speed, usually 150 to 400 inches per minute
(IPM) before the cut is started.

READER. A pneumatic, photoelectric, or mechanical

device used to sense bits of information on punched
cards, punched tape, or magnetic tape.

REGISTER. An internal array of hardware binary cir¬

cuits for temporary storage of information.

REPEATABILITY. Closeness of, or agreement in,

repeated measurements of the same characteristics by
the same method, using the same conditions.

RESET. To return a register or storage location to zero

or to a specified initial condition.

ROW (TAPE). A path perpendicular to the edge of the

tape along which information may be stored by the
presence or absence of holes or magnetized areas. A
character would be represented by a combination of
holes.
 GLOSSARY • 263

TERM AND DEFINITION EXAMPLE

SEQUENCE NUMBER (CODE WORD). A series of

numerals programmed on a tape or card and some¬
times displayed as a readout; normally used as a data
location reference or for card sequencing.

Sequence
number

SEQUENCE READOUT. A display of the number of

the block of tape being read by the tape reader.

SEQUENTIAL. Arranged in some predetermined logi-

cal order.

SIGNIFICANT DIGIT. A digit that must be kept to Significant digits

preserve a specific accuracy or precision.
X + 0052500
Insignificant digits

SLOW-DOWN SPAN. A span of information having Slow-down span to

maximum allowable
the necessary length to allow the machine to deceler¬ cornering feed rate
ate from the initial feed rate to the maximum allow¬
able cornering feed rate that maintains the specified
tolerance.

X+42500 Y+100000 F200

X+19750 FI 75
X+17215 F140
X+13750
Y+68750 F200
264 • GLOSSARY

TERM AND DEFINITION EXAMPLE

SOFTWARE. Instructional literature and computer Examples of software programs are:

programs used to aid in part programming, operating,
APT
and maintaining the machining center.
FORTRAN
COBOL
RPG

SPAN. A certain distance or section of a program

designated by two end points for linear interpolation; Program mecl^^^ / ®pan
point \ 'v /
a beginning point, a center point, and an ending point
for circular interpolation; and two end points and a
diameter point for parabolic interpolation.

• <> Programmed
\ point

One linear interpolation span

SPINDLE SPEED (CODE WORD). A multiple-character

code containing the letter S followed by digits. This
code determines the RPM of the cutting spindle of
the machine.
STORAGE. A device into which information can be
introduced, held, and then extracted at a later time.
TAB. A nonprinting spacing action on tape prepara¬
tion equipment. A tab code is used to separate words
O •
or groups of characters in the tab sequential format.
oooo•ooo
The spacing action sets typewritten information on a
o •
manuscript into tabular form.
0 0*0
•••••• Tab code

•
V-\

TAB SEQUENTIAL FORMAT. Means of identifying a *005 "1 *(07000| *,16000, ‘Jj
> T 1 I T
word by the number of tab characters preceding the Seq. No Prep.function X dimension V dimension Miscellaneous
function
word in a block. The first character of each word is a * = Tab

tab character. Words must be presented in a specific

order, but all characters in a word, except the tab char¬ The tab sequential format is, for the most
part, obsolete.
acter, may be omitted when the command represented
by that word is not desired.
 GLOSSARY • 265

TERM AND DEFINITION EXAMPLE

TAPE. A magnetic or perforated paper medium for

storing information.

TAPE LAGGER. The trailing end portion of a tape.

TAPE LEADER. The front or lead portion of a tape.

if -»•'

ll <W
// • NS.
-
/m /
^ ^--- Leader

f m
Reel tapes should have a leader and lagger of approxi¬
mately three feet with just sprocket holes for tape loading
and threading purposes.

TOOL FUNCTION. A tape command identifying a T06 would be a tape command calling for the tool
assigned to spindle or pocket 6 to be put in the
tool and calling for its selection. The address is
spindle.
normally a T word.

TOOL LENGTH COMPENSATION. A manual input,

by means of selector switches, to eliminate the need
for preset tooling; allows the programmer to program
all tools as if they are of equal length.

TOOL OFFSET. 1.A correction for tool position

parallel to a controlled axis. 2. The ability to reset
tool position manually to compensate for tool wear,
finish cuts, and tool exchange.
Tool offset

-^ — Depth-1
1
-- Depth-2

Tool off >ets are us ed as final adjustments to increase or

decrease depths du e to cutting forces and tool deflection,
In this c<sse, a tool offset could be used to increase the
drill dep th from di■pth-1 to depth-2.

TRAILING ZERO SUPPRESSION. See zero suppres¬

sion.
266 • GLOSSARY

TERM AND DEFINITION EXAMPLE

TURN KEY SYSTEM. A term applied to an agreement

whereby a supplier will install an N/C or computer
system so that he has total responsibility for building,
installing, and testing the system.

USASCII. United States of America Standard Code for

Information Interchange. See ASCII.

VARIABLE BLOCK FORMAT (TAPE). A format Same as word address. Variable block means the
length of the blocks can vary depending on what
which allows the quantity of words in successive
information needs to be conveyed in a given block.
blocks to vary. See block.

VECTOR. A quantity that has magnitude, direction,

and sense; is represented by a directed line segment
whose length represents the magnitude and whose
orientation in space represents the direction.

VECTOR FEED RATE. The feed rate at which a

cutter or tool moves with respect to the work surface.
The individual slides may move slower or faster than
the programmed rate, but the resultant movement is
equal to the programmed rate.

WORD. An ordered set of characters which is the

normal unit in which information may be stored,
•
transmitted, or operated upon.
•• *••• —X

• —0

• —o> Word

• •• • -5

• • -2

• • —2

• —1
s

WORD ADDRESS FORMAT. The specific arrangement See address and block.

of addressing each word in a block of information by

one or more alphabetical characters which identify
the meaning of the word.

WORD LENGTH. The number of bits or characters in See word.

a word.

X AXIS. Axis of motion that is always horizontal and

parallel to the workholding surface.

Y AXIS. Axis of motion that is perpendicular to both

the X and Z axes.
 GLOSSARY • 267

TERM AND DEFINITION EXAMPLE

Z AXIS. Axis of motion that is always parallel to the

principal spindle of the machine.

ZERO OFFSET. A characteristic of a numerical ma¬ See full range floating zero and floating zero.
chine tool control permitting the zero point on an
axis to be shifted readily over a specified range. The
control retains information on the location of the
permanent zero.

ZERO SHIFT. A characteristic of a numerical machine See floating zero. Consult chapter 4 for additional
tool control permitting the zero point on an axis to details.

be shifted readily over a specified range. (The control

does not retain information on the location of the
permanent zero.)

ZERO SUPPRESSION. Leading zero suppression: the Leading zero suppression

elimination of insignificant leading zeroes to the left

X + 0043500
of significant digits usually before printing. Trailing
zero suppression: the elimination of insignificant Insignificant digits

trailing zeroes to the right of significant digits usually

Could be written as:
before printing.
X + 43500

Trailing zero suppression

X + 0043500

Insignificant digits

Could be written as:

X + 00435
■
INDEX

Absolute mode, 109 CAD. See Computer-aided design Computer languages, available for N/C,
inside arc, 112 CAM. See Computer-aided manufactur¬ 170-172
outside arc, 113 ing Computer numerical control (CNC), 16,
Absolute systems, 39-40 Cam point taps, 196 185-190
and incremental systems, 39-40 Cams, 28 important features of unit, 187
Accuracy, 6-7 Cancel cycle (G80), 66 inch and metric controlling capabil¬
checking of, 51 Canned cycle, 63, 67 ities, 190
of computers, 168 Capital investment requirements, 14-15 soft-wired units, 184
AD-APT (adaptation of APT), 170 Carbide insert drills, 204 subroutines and, 120-121
Adaptive control, 93-94 Cartesian coordinate system, 34-35 Computers
sensing and feedback, 94 Cathode ray tube (CRT), 188, 212 characteristics of, 167-168
Aerospace Industries Association (AIA), Center drills, 193 flow of N/C program and, 168, 169
45 bell or combination, 194 local dedicated, 171
Aggressive justification, 17 Chip disposal, 148 minicomputer, 171
Alphanumeric code, 59 Chip-making machines, 3 and N/C machines, 168-170
Aluminum-mylar laminates, 46 Chip removal, 196 time-shared, 170, 171
American National Standards Institute Circular interpolation, 82-85, 110-115, Computer tape-punching equipment, 54
(ANSI), 49, 200 141 Constant surface speed (CSS), 107
American Standard Code for Informa¬ four basic elements of, 82 Continuous-path systems, 32
tion Interchange (ASCII), 49 Clamping, and fixture design, 206 Contouring systems, 32
Analog feedback system, 31 Closed-loop systems, 31 Conventional index table, 139
APT (automatic programmed tool), 170 CNC. See Computer numerical control Coolant, 204
background of, 172 COBOL (common business oriented Coordinate measuring machine, 13
definition statements, 176 language, 168 Cost analysis, 16
motion statements, 176 COMPACT II, 170-171 Cost-saving approach, to equipment
writing program for, 175-176 Compatible tape format. See Inter¬ justification, 17
AUTOMAP (automatic machining pro¬ changeable tape format Counterbores
gram), 170 Computer-aided design (CAD), 212— piloted, 203
Automation, 9, 219 214 use of end mills as, 203
Axis relationships, 27-29 important aspects of, 213-214 Counterboring, 202
Computer-aided design/computer-aided Countersinking, 202
BASIC, 168 manufacturing (CAD/CAM), 212 Cubic interpolation, 85
Basic mill cycle (G79), 66 Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM), Cutter diameter compensation (CDC),
Binary code, definition of, 47 214-215 94-95
Binary-coded decimal system (BCD), Computer Aided Manufacturing Interna¬ Cutter path, 82
47-49 tional (CAM-I), 172 Cutter radius compensation, importance
character codes and punches for, 48 Computer-aided part programming sys¬ of, 62
Bore cycle (G85), 65, 71 tem, 168 Cutting tools
Boring, 199-201 Computer-aided process planning selection of, 191
Boring bars, 200 (CAPP), 215-216 used on N/C equipment, 192-194
Boring cutter, 200 Computer graphics, 212
Buffer storage, 27 Computer graphics terminal, 213 Depth selection, 67-69

269
270 • INDEX

Descartes, Rene, 34 Four-axis tape control, 37-38 hard-wired, 184

Diagnostic tape, 188 Full floating zero, 41-42 Machines, types of, controlled by N/C,
Diagnostic tests, 188 Full range offset, 41 3-5
Digital feedback system, 31 Machine screw taps, 195
Direct numerical control (DNC), 185— Gage height, 64 Machining center(s), 131, 132
190, 215, 216 rapid depth, 68 common options, 151
installation, 216 Generative process planning, 215 horizontal, 133
DNC. See Direct numerical control Gun chip driver tap, 196 miscellaneous functions, 150-151
Double-end end mill, 201 operations performed, 142-153
Drill cycle (G81), 64, 70, 160 Hand taps, 195 tape format, 140-142
Drilling, 143-144 Hard copy, 213 Machinist, functions of, 21-22
Drills, 192-194 Hardware, 176, 184-185 Magnetic tape input, 45
price consideration, 194 Helical interpolation, 85 four prime disadvantages of, 45
Dwell cycle (G82), 64, 71 High-technology tools, 203 Maintenance, 15-16
Dwell time, 27 Horizontal tool changers, 131 Manual data input (MDI), 44, 187
Manual part programming, 79
Economic planning, 11 Inches per minute (IPM), 63, 67 Manufacturing systems, 216-218
basic functions of, 12 Inches per revolution (IPR), 67 configuration and layout, 218
Edit, 188 Incremental dimensioning, 38, 39 description of, 217
Electro-mechanical readers, 24 Incremental mode, 110 description and design of parts pro¬
Electronic Industries Association (EIA), inside arc, 113 duced, 218
28 outside arc, 114 operation and control, 219
End of block (EOB), 51-52 Incremental systems, 38-39 prior setup, 218
End of line (EL), 51 and absolute systems, 39-40 standardization of tools and preset,
End mill, 201 Information 218
Engineering, 11 collection of, 23-26 transport capabilities, 219
Environmental requirements, 16-17 reading and decoding, 27 Manuscript, 51
Error signal, 172 Input media, 44 full-page, 78
Executive program, 184 Inside diameter (ID) operation, 99-104 Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Interchangeable tape format, 56-57 (MIT), 1
Feedback systems, types of, 29-31 Interchangeable variable block format, Mechanical readers, 24, 25
Feed, definition of, 63 154 Memory, 187
Feed depth, setting of, 68 Interchange station arm, 134 of control unit, 69
Feed rate override, 105 Intermediate transfer arm, 134 Mill cycle, basic, 145, 146
Feed rates, 67, 104-107 Interpolation, 69 Milling, 144-146, 201-202
following error and, 120 circular, 82-85, 110-115, 141 sample part, 163
Finish profile, 122 cubic, 85 Minicomputers, 186, 187
Five-axis tape control, 37-38 helical, 85 advancements in, 211
Fixed cycle bore, 147 linear, 80-82, 110 M01 (optional stop), 69
Fixed cycle drill, 143 parabolic, 85 M02 (end of program), 69
Fixed cycle tap, 148, 149 Inventory, reduction of, 16 M06 (tool change), 69-70
Fixed sequential format, 54 Modal miscellaneous functions, 70
Fixed zero system, 40-41 Lathe, 97 MOO (program stop), 69
Fixture design Lathe axis, 99 M26 (pseudo tool change), 70
clamping and, 206 Lead, definition of, 115 Multiple-program store feature, 120
foolproofing of, 206 Leading zero suppression, 62-63 Mylar tape, 26
positioning in, 207 Length-to-diameter ratio (L/D), 200
Fixturing, 205-207 Letter address, 55 N/C. See Numerical control
Flexible manufacturing system (FMS), Linear interpolation, 80-82, 110 N/C turning centers. See Turning cen¬
215 Load, and unload, 218 ters, N/C
Foil tape, 46 Load tape, 184 Nonmodal codes, 70
Following error, 120 Loop tape, 69 NUFORM, 171
Format, 21 Numerical control (N/C)
Format information, 107-109 Machine control unit (MCU), 10 advantages and disadvantages of, 10-
FORTRAN (formula translation), 168 hardware and software, 176,184-185 14
 INDEX • 271

definition of, 10 Random tooling, 92-93 preparation of, for control unit, 15
error factor in, 14 Rapid, definition of, 63 specifications, 44-45
evolution of, 2 Rapid depth gage height, setting of, 68 standards, 44-45
functions controlled by, 59-70 Readout, 27-29 Tape coding, 47-52
future of, 211-221 Reaming, 197-199 comparison of BCD and ASCII, 50
general history of, 1-2 Registers, 26 Tape format
importance of, 9-10 Reliability, 7 types of, 53-57
important points about, 10 Repair, 15-16 and word structure for basic N/C
justification, 17-20 Repeatability, 7 machine, 60
miscellaneous functions, 69-70 Return on investment (ROI), 17 Tape lagger, 52
planning for use of, 14-17 Robotics, role in numerical control, 220 Tape leader, 52 »
Numerical control systems, types of, Rose chucking reamer, 198 Tape reader, 23-24
32-33 Rotary index tables, 138-140 loading, 25
sample program for, 158 Tapping, 148-150, 195
Open-loop systems, 31 two basic types of, 139 factors which reduce tap life in, 197
Oscilloscope, 188 Rough face, 122 lubricants, 197
Outside diameter (OD) operation, 99- Rough turn, 122 Taps, 195-197
104 Routines, special, 189 classification of, 195
RPM. See Spindle speeds fluteless, 197
Paper tape, 46 R work plane, 88-92 Threading, 115-120
Parabolic interpolation, 85 constant lead, 117
Parametric subroutine, 120 Sequence number, 28, 60-61 Tool assembly drawings, 86, 136, 137,
permanently stored, 121 coding, 141 164,165
Parity bit, 51 Sequential tooling, 92-93 Tool changer arm, 135
Parity check, 51 Service responsibility, 17 Tool changers, types of, 131-133
Parsons Corporation, 1 Shell reamer, 198 Tool data tape entry, 96
Parsons, John, 1, 220 Single-blade floating reamers, 198 Tool drum, 134
Part scheduling, 218 Software, 176, 184-185, 219 Tool gaging systems, 189
Personnel, training of, 15 Spade drills, 193, 194 Toolholder, qualified OD, 101, 102
Photoelectric tape reader, 23-24, 25-26 blade and shank of, 194 Tooling, 15
Point-to-point N/C systems, 24, 32 Spindle speeds, 67, 107 considerations for, 191-192
Positioning programming, 32 Spiral-fluted taps, 196, 197 data tape entry, 96
Postprocessors, 173-175, 211 Spiral-pointed taps, 196 OD and ID, relationship of, 103
primary functions of, 174-175 SPLIT (sundstrand processing language, random, 92-93
Precision surface sensing, 151 internally translated), 171-172 sample form, 163
Preparatory function (cycle code), 63, Standard chucking reamer, 198 sequential, 92-93
141 Standard qualified tool point insert tool setup identification, 96
Print reading, 22 radii, 101 tool trim function, 96
Probe, 151 Subland drills, 193 tool usage monitor, 95
Process planning, 11 Subland tools, 194 Tooling practices, guidelines for, 207-
Production, 11 Subroutines, 120-121 209
Productivity comparison built-in library of, 172 Tool length compensation, 86-88,
production lot sizes, 19 SUNDSTRAND SPLIT, 171 135-136
small lot sizes, 18 Tool length storage, 135-136
Productivity levels, 9 Tab codes, 51 Tool paths, determining, 214-215
Programmable Z depth, 85-86 Tab, definition of, 51 Tool radius tangent points, 111
Programmer, 22 Tab ignore format, 55 Tools
qualities of, 22-23 Tab sequential format, 55 high-technology, 203
Programming, 15 Tap cycle (G84), 65, 73, 160 standardization of, 218
examples of, 70-79 Tape(s) Tool set length (TL), 85
Punched-card input, 45 corrected, 189 Tool setting, 136
materials used, 45-46 Tool setting gage, typical, 104
Qualified OD toolholders, 101, 102 override, 188 Tool setup identification, 96
Quality control, 16 preparation equipment, 52-53 Tool storage capacities, 133-135
272 • INDEX

Tool trim, 95 UNIAPT, 171 Work tables, 138-140

Tool usage monitor, 95
Torque controlled machining, 93-94 Variant process planning, 215 X axis coordinate information code, 141
Trailing zero suppression, 62-63 Vector movement, 104, 105, 106 X and Y words, 61-62
Vertical Cintimatic N/C machine, 74 Y axis coordinate information coding,
Training centers, N/C, 200
Training programs, 14 Vertical machining center 141
Turning centers, N/C decimal point programmed, 154
operations performed, 109-120 program for, 153 Z axis control, 37
words used for typical, 108-109 Vertical tool changers, 131, 132 Z axis coordinate information coding,

Turret lathe, 30 141

WOO (manual cam code), 69 Z depth, programmable, 85-86
Turret punch press, 30
Word address format, 53, 55-56 Zero shift systems, 40-42
Twist drill, 193
Two-axis tape control, 35-36 Work plane, changing, 90, 91
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