UNIT-I

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE INTRODUCTION AND NATURAL RESOURCES

1.1 MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Environmental science is an interdisciplinary academic field that integrates physical and

biological sciences, (including but not limited to Ecology, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Soil
Science, Geology, Atmospheric Science and Geography) to the study of the environment, and the
solution of environmental problems. Environmental science provides an integrated, quantitative,
and interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental systems.

Related areas of study include environmental studies and environmental engineering.

Environmental studies incorporate more of the social sciences for understanding human
relationships, perceptions and policies towards the environment. Environmental engineering
focuses on design and technology for improving environmental quality.

Environmental scientists work on subjects like the understanding of earth processes, evaluating
alternative energy systems, pollution control and mitigation, natural resource management, and
the effects of global climate change. Environmental issues almost always include an interaction of
physical, chemical, and biological processes.

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 1.1.1 SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

Because of environmental studies has been seen to be multidisciplinary in nature so it is considered

to be a subject with great scope. Environment age not limited to issues of sanitation and health but
it is now concerned with pollution control, biodiversity conservation, waste management and
conservation of natural resources. This requires expert eyes and hence is creating new job
opportunities. The opportunities in this field are immense not only for scientists but also for
engineers, biologists. There is a good chance of opportunity to find a job in this field as
environmental journalists. Environmental science can be applied in the following spheres:

EcosystemStructureandFunction
The study of ecosystems mainly consists of the study of the processes that link the leaving
organism or in other words biotic component to the non-living organism or a biotic component.
So for the study of environment we should aware with biotic and a biotic components.

NaturalResourceConservation
For managing and maintenance of forests which are natural resources and for the maintenance of
wildlife forms task under natural resource conservation. It is also a scope of environmental studies

EnvironmentalPollutionControl
With the knowledge of environmental science everybody can control the pollution. He/she can
handle the waste management and also look for ways to control pollution on the aspect of pollution
control.

Environmentalmanagement
There are several independent environmental consultants who are working with Central and State
pollution control Board. They offer advice to solve the problems of environment the optimum
solution for the upcoming problems. They give direction for controlling pollution due to industrial
development. There are several current consultants who are working with government pollution
control boobs, involved in policy making, pollution control and maintenance of ecological balance.

Thescopeofenvironmentalstudiesinindustry
Environmental scientist’s work towards maintenance of ecological balance, they also work
towards conservation of biodiversity and regulation of natural resources as well as on preservation
of natural resources. Most of the industries have a separate environmental research and
development section. These sections govern the impact that their industry has on the environment.
Our environment is being degraded by the rapid industrialization. To combat this menace there is
a growing trend towards manufacture of "green" goods and products. So we can say that there is a
good scope in the field of industry from environmental studies.

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Researchanddevelopment
Research and development have tremendous scope due to increment in public awareness regarding
the environment. Various universities and governmental organizations offer a scope for such
research. These universities conduct research studies in order to develop the methods toward
monitoring and controlling the source of environmental pollution. Due to an increasing threat from
global warming, many steps are being undertaken for the reduction of greenhouse gases and the
adoption of renewable energy resources. They generate awareness now regarding the use of solar
energy for variety of purposes. This provides scope of environmental history in the field of research
and development.

SocialDevelopment
NGO (Non governmental organizations ) help in creating awareness regarding the protection of
the environment and making the masses aware of various environmental issues . They also
generate a public opinion in this field. They work towards disseminating information and in
bringing about changes in political policies that are personally effect the environment. The social
dimension of this profession includes controlling population explosion through organizing
advisory awareness camps.

1.1.2 IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENT SCIENCE

The environment studies enlighten us, about the importance of protection and conservation of
our indiscriminate release of pollution into the environment.

Environment science has become significant for the following reasons:

1. Environment Issues Being of International Importance

It has been well recognized that environment issues like global warming and ozone depletion, acid
rain, marine pollution and biodiversity are not merely national issues but are
global issues and hence must be tackled with international efforts and cooperation.

2. Problems Cropped in the Wake of Development

Development, in its wake gave birth to Urbanization, Industrial Growth, Transportation
Systems, Agriculture and Housing etc. However, it has become phased out in the developed
world. The North, to cleanse their own environment has, fact fully, managed to move ‘dirty’
factories of South. When the West developed, it did so perhaps in ignorance of the
environmental impact of its activities. Evidently such a path is neither practicable nor
desirable, even if developing world follows that.

3. Explosively Increase in Pollution

World census reflects that one in every seven persons in this planted lives in India.
Evidently with 16 per cent of the world's population and only 2.4 per cent of its land area,
there is a heavy pressure on the natural resources including land. Agricultural experts have
recognized soils health problems like deficiency of micronutrients and organic matter, soil
salinity and damage of soil structure.

4. Need for an Alternative Solution

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It is essential, especially for developing countries to find alternative paths to an alternative
goal.
We need a goal as under:
(1) A goal, which ultimately is the true goal of development an environmentally sound
and sustainable development.
(2) A goal common to all citizens of our earth.
(3) A goal distant from the developing world in the manner it is from the over-consuming
wasteful societies of the “developed” world.

5. Need to Save Humanity from Extinction

It is incumbent upon us to save the humanity from extinction. Consequent to our activities
Constricting the environment and depleting the biosphere, in the name of development.

6. Need for Wise Planning of Development

Our survival and sustenance depend. Resources withdraw, processing and use of the
product have all to by synchronized with the ecological cycles in any plan of development our
actions should be planned ecologically for the sustenance of the environment and development.

1.1.3 NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS

It is essential to make the public aware of the formidable consequences of the

Environmental Degradation, if not retorted and reformative measures undertaken, would
result in the extinction of life. We are facing various environmental challenges. It is essential
to get the country acquainted with these challenges so that their acts may be eco-friendly.

Some of these challenges are as under:

1. Growing Population
A population of over thousands of millions is growing at 2.11 per cent every year. Over
17 million people are added each year. It puts considerable pressure on its natural resources
and reduces the gains of development. Hence, the greatest challenge before us is to limit the
population growth. Although population control does automatically lead to development, yet
the development leads to a decrease in population growth rates. For this development of the
women is essential.

2. Poverty
India has often been described a rich land with poor people. The poverty and
environmental degradation have a nexus between them. The vast majority of our people are
directly dependent on the nature resources of the country for their basic needs of food, fuel
shelter and fodder. About 40% of our people are still below the poverty line. Environment
degradation has adversely affected the poor who depend upon the resources of their immediate
surroundings. Thus, the challenge of poverty and the challenge environment degradation are two
facets of the same challenge. The population growth is essentially a function of poverty. Because,
to the very poor, every child is an earner and helper and global concerns have little relevance for
him.

3. Agricultural Growth
The people must be acquainted with the methods to sustain and increase agricultural
growth with damaging the environment. High yielding varieties have caused soil salinity and

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damage to physical structure of soil.

4. Need to Ground water

It is essential of rationalizing the use of groundwater. Factors like community wastes,
industrial effluents and chemical fertilizers and pesticides have polluted our surface water
and affected quality of the groundwater. It is essential to restore the water quality of our
rivers and other water bodies as lakes is an important challenge. It so finding our suitable
strategies for consecration of water, provision of safe drinking water and keeping water
bodies clean which are difficult challenges is essential.

5. Development and Forests

Forests serve catchments for the rivers. With increasing demand of water, plan to
harness the mighty river through large irrigation projects were made. Certainly, these
would submerge forests; displace local people, damage flora and fauna. As such, the dams
on the river Narmada, Bhagirathi and elsewhere have become areas of political and scientific
debate.
1.2 NATURAL RESOURCES

The word resource means a source of supply. The natural resources include water, air, soil,
minerals, coal, forests, crops and wildlife are examples. All the resources are classified based on
quantity, quality, re-usability, men’s activity and availability.

Natural resources are naturally occurring substances that are considered valuable in their
relatively unmodified (natural) form. A natural resource’s value rests in the amount of the material
available and the demand for it. The term was introduced to a broad audience by E.F. Schumacher
in his 1970s book Small is Beautiful.

Types of Natural Resources

The natural resources are classified in 3 ways, according to their

1. Chemical nature
2. Their abundances and availability
3. Their distribution.
4. Origin

1. Chemical nature
They are of 3 types:
a) Inorganic resources including air, water and metallic minerals.
b) Organic resources including plants, animals, microorganisms and fossil fuels.
c) Mixed resources including soil, which is an inorganic as well as inorganic resource.

2. Abundance and availability

The resources are of the 2 types. They are:
a) In exhaustible
b) Exhaustible.
a) In exhaustible resources (or) Renewable resource (or) Alternate resources:
These include air, clay, sand, tidal energy and precipitation. These are not likely
to be exhausted by human race.

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 b) Exhaustible resource (or) Non-renewable resources
These are likely to be finished by human use. They are further of 2 kinds
renewable and non- renewable.

a) Renewable resource
The renewable resources can maintain themselves or can be replaced if managed
wisely. These resources are constantly renewed in nature. The renewable resources
are therefore not likely to be lost due to excessive and unwise use.

b) Non-renewable resources
These resources once used are lost forever, as they are not restored.
They include metallic minerals and fossil fuels. At current rates of usage, all the
industrial metals may lose for less than a century and those of petroleum and natural
gas may exhaust in 15-20 years.

3. Distribution
With regards to distribution they are of 3 types. National, Multi national and International.
a) National resources: These are confined to national boundaries.
Examples: Minerals and lands.
b) Multi national resources: These are shared by more then one nation.
Examples: Some rivers, certain lakes and migratory
animals.
c) International resources: These are shared by all nations.
Examples: Air and solar energy.

4. On the basis of origin, resources may be divided into

a) Biotic – Biotic resources are obtained from the biosphere (living and organic material),
such as forests, animals, birds, and fish and the materials that can be obtained from them.
Fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum are also included in this category because they are
formed from decayed organic matter.
b) A biotic – A biotic resources are those that come from non-living, non-organic material.
Examples of a biotic resources include land, fresh water, air and heavy metals including
ores such as gold, iron, copper, silver, etc.

Mainly, there are eleven different types of natural resources - each one with several subtypes. They
are:
 Geological resources: Include resources like minerals, oils, gas, rocks, mountains, and
valleys.
 Hydro geological resources: Include all the underground water, surface water (sea, river,
stream, ponds) and ice.
 Atmospheric resources: Include air, its temperature, rainfall and its pattern, sunlight.
 Edaphic resources: Include different types of soils, their fertility and vast biological wealth
in them.
 Forest resource: Include all types of forests and other naturally grown plant sources.
 Crop resources: include all cultivated crops and their potentialities.

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 Marine and aquatic resources: Include plants, animals and mineral resources in marine and
other aquatic ecosystem of world.
 Animal resources: Include vast animal resource that includes all domesticated animals and
animals that grow friendly with human society.
 Wildlife resources: Include all types of wild animals including those, which are not grown
friendly with human society.
 Human resource: Include different types of human population, their distribution and
potentialities.
 Microbial resource: Include different types of microbes, which are useful to mankind in
many ways.

Natural Resources and Associated Problems

Human population is growing day-by-day. Continuous increase in population caused an

increasing demand for natural resources. Due to urban expansion, electricity need and
industrialization, man started utilizing natural resources at a much larger scale. Non-
renewable resources are limited.

They cannot be replaced easily. After some time, these resources may come to an end. It is
a matter of much concern and ensures a balance between population growth and utilisation
of resources.

This overutilisation creates many problems. In some regions there are problems of water
logging due to over irrigation. In some areas, there is no sufficient water for industry and
agriculture. Thus, there is need for conservation of natural resources.

There are many problems associated with natural resources:

Forest resources and associated problems

1. Use and over-exploitation.

2. Deforestation.

3. Timber extraction.

4. Mining and its effects on forest.

5. Dams and their effects on forests and tribal people.

Water resources and associated problems

1. Use and overutilization of water.

2. Floods, droughts etc.

3. Conflicts over water.

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 4. Dams and problems.

Mineral resource and associated problems

1. Use and exploitation.

2. Environmental effects of extracting and using minerals.

Food resources and associated problems

1. World food problems.

2. Changes caused by agriculture and over grazing.

3. Effects of modern agriculture.

4. Fertilizer-pesticide problems.

5. Water logging and salinity.

Energy resources and associated problems

1. Growing energy needs.

Land resources and associated problems

1. Land degradation.

2. Man-induced landslides.

3. Soil erosion and desertification.

1.3 FOREST RESOURCES

Forests are one of the most important natural resources and a part of biosphere since these are
natural assets on this earth. Forests predominantly composed of trees, shrubs, woody vegetation
etc… Approximately 1/3rd of the earth’s total land area is covered by forests.
Forests are important ecologically and economically. Ecologically forests are to be considered as
earth’s lungs because they consume CO2 and release O2 which is required for sustaining the life
on this earth. The poisonous gas CO2 is absorbed by the trees of forests and reduces the global
warming and helps to continue hydrological cycle, reduce soil erosion.
Forest ecosystems are extremely good & hold a good quantity of water.
Economically forests provide timber, fodder to grazing animals, firewood (conventional fuel),
bamboos, rubbers, medicines, gums, resins, food items etc.

USES OF FOREST

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1. Watershed protection:
• Reduce the rate of surface run-off of water.
• Prevent flash floods and soil erosion.
• Produces prolonged gradual run-off and thus prevent effects of drought.
2. Atmospheric regulation:
• Absorption of solar heat during evapo-transpiration.
• Maintaining carbon dioxide levels for plant growth.
• Maintaining the local climatic conditions.
3. Erosion control:
• Holding soil (by preventing rain from directly washing soil away).
4. Land bank:
• Maintenance of soil nutrients and structure.
5. Local use - Consumption of forest produce by local people who collect it for subsistence –
(Consumptive use)
• Food - gathering plants, fishing, hunting from the forest. (In the past when wildlife was
plentiful, people could hunt and kill animals for food. Now that populations of most
wildlife species have diminished, continued hunting would lead to extinction.)
• Fodder - for cattle.
• Fuel wood and charcoal for cooking, heating.
• Poles - building homes especially in rural and wilderness areas.
• Timber – household articles and construction.
• Fiber - weaving of baskets, ropes, nets, string, etc.
• Sericulture – for silk.
• Apiculture - bees for honey, forest bees also pollinate crops.
• Medicinal plants - traditionally used medicines, investigating them as potential
source for new modern drugs.

6. Market use - (Productive use)

• Most of the above products used for consumptive purposes are also sold as a source of
income for supporting the livelihoods of forest dwelling people.
• Minor forest produce - (non-wood products): Fuelwood, fruit, gum, fiber, etc.which are
collected and sold in local markets as a source of income for forest dwellers.
• Major timber extraction - construction, industrial uses, paper pulp, etc. Timber extraction is
done in India by the Forest Department, but illegal logging continues in many of the forests of
India and the world.

OVER EXPLOITATION OF FORESTS

Forest have been known to possess huge potential for human use and they have been exploited
since early times for their vast potential. Exploitation of forest has taken place to meet human
demands in the following ways:

- Due to wood cutting and large scale logging for raw materials like timber,
pulp wood, fuel wood etc
- Deforestation due to road construction
- Clearing of forest to create more agricultural lands to meet the food needs
of growing population

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 - Encroachment of forests leading to destruction of about 19.57 lakh hectares
(2013) of forest in the country
- About 78% of forest area is under heavy grazing
- Mining activities leads to clearing of forests
- Big hydro electric projects result in large scale destruction of forest

In India, Joint forest management has come up as innovative approach involving community
participation so that the rural economy is strengthened as well as forest resources are conserved
through public involvement

DEFORESTATION

Deforestation is the permanent destruction of indigenous forests and woodlands. The term does
not include the removal of industrial forests such as plantations of gums or pines. Deforestation
has resulted in the reduction of indigenous forests to four-fifths of their pre-agricultural area.
Indigenous forests now cover 21% of the earth's land surface.
Deforestation refers to the loss of forest cover (or) the aimless destruction of trees. The clearing of
forests across the earth has been occurring on a large scale basis for many centuries. This process
involves the cutting down, burning and damaging of forests.
Currently 12 million hectares of forests are cleared annually and the current rate of deforestation
continues, the world’s forests will vanish within the next 100 years about 80% of the original
forests on the earth have already been cleared.

Major causes of Deforestation:

a. Shifting cultivation : There are an estimated 300 million people living as shifting cultivators who
practice slash and burn agriculture and are supported so clear more than 5 lakh ha of forests for
shifting cultivation annually. In India, we have this practice of North-East and to some extent in
Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and M.P. which contribute to nearly half of the forest clearing annually.

b. Fuel requirements: Increasing demands for fuel wood by the growing population in India alone
has shooted up to 300-500 million tons in 2001 as compared to just 65 million tons during
independence, thereby increasing the pressure on forests.

c. Raw materials for industrial use: Wood for making boxes, furniture, railway-sleepers, plywood,
match boxes, pulp for paper industry etc. have exerted tremendous pressure on forests. Plywood
is in great demand for packing tea for Tea industry of Assam while fir tree wood is exploited
greatly for packing apples in J & K.

d. Development projects: Massive destruction of forests occurs for various development projects
like hydroelectric projects, big dams, road construction, mining etc.

e. Growing food needs: In developing countries this is the main reason for deforestation. To meet
the demands of rapidly growing population, agricultural lands and settlements are created
permanently by clearing forests.

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f. Overgrazing: The poor in the tropics mainly rely on wood as a source of fuel leading to loss of
tree cover and the cleared lands are turned into the grazing lands. Overgrazing by the cattle leads
to further degradation of these lands.

g. Conversion of forests and woodlands to agricultural land to feed growing numbers of people

Major activities and threats to Forests resources:

1.Timber Extraction: Logging for valuable timber, such as teak and Mahogany not only involves a
few large trees per hectare but about a dozen more trees since they are strongly interlocked with
each other a by vines etc. Also road construction for making approach to the trees causes further
damage to the forests. The steps in timber extraction are:
a) Clear felling
b) Mechanized logging
c) Manual logging
d) Selective logging

2. Mining: Mining operations for extracting minerals and fossil fuels like coal often involves vast
forest areas. Mining from shallow deposits is done by surface mining while that from deep deposits
is done by sub-surface mining. More than 80000 ha of land of the country is presently under the
stress of mining activities. Mining and its associated activities require removal of vegetation along
with underlying soil mantle and overlying rock masses. This results in defacing the topography
and destruction of the landscape in the area. Large scale deforestation has been reported in
Mussorie and Dehradun valley due to indiscriminating mining of various minerals over a length
of about 40 Km.

DAMS AND OTHER EFFECTS ON FOREST AND TRIBAL PEOPLE

Forest are directly are indirectly effected by the forest. Hydro-electric dams are main cause for
deforestation. About 40,000 large dams are currently obstructing Workloads Rivers.
Destruction of forest occurs for constructing big dams, which alters ecological balance. In this
way land slides, droughts and floods conditions may rise in area. Socio-economic problems
related to tribal and native people results from big dam construction

Dam construction produces a number of health hazards. Thousands of workers who build the dams
attacked by the diseases like AIDS, measles, tuberculosis, syphilis etc. Dam building has resulted
in wide range human rights violations. Rehabilitation policy of the government is important and
typical when most of the displaced persons are tribal people. Tribal life and culture are mostly
associated with forest

CASE STUDIES:
Chipko movement related to mining or quarrying opposed by Sundarlal Bahuguna in North India
. The first Chipko action took place spontaneously in April 1973 and over the next five years spread
to many districts of the Himalaya in Uttar Pradesh. The name of the movement comes from a word

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meaning 'embrace': the villagers hug the trees, saving them by interposing their bodies between
them and the contractors' axes. The Chipko protests in Uttar Pradesh achieved a major victory in
1980 with a 15-year ban on green felling in the Himalayan forests of that state by order of India's
then Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi. Since then the movement has spread to Himachal Pradesh in
the North, Kamataka in the South, Rajasthan in the West, Bihar in the East and to the Vindhyas in
Central India. In addition to the 15-year ban in Uttar Pradesh, the movement has stopped clear
felling in the Western Ghats and the Vindhyas and generated pressure for a natural resource policy
which is more sensitive to people's needs and ecological requirements.
Sardar Sarovar – Narmada project is a multipurpose project in Gujarat

1.4 WATER RESOURCES

Water resources are sources of water that are useful or potentially useful. Uses of water include
agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities. Virtually all of these
human uses require fresh water.

Distribution of water on earth:

 97% of the water on the Earth is salt water. Only three percent is fresh water; slightly over
two thirds of this is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps. The remaining unfrozen
freshwater is found mainly as groundwater, with only a small fraction present above ground
or in the air

Fresh water occurs mainly in two forms

1. Ground water and 2. Surface water

1. Groundwater: About 9.86% of the total fresh water resources is in the form of groundwater
and it is about 35-50 times that of surface water supplied

USES OF WATER:
1. DOMESTIC USE: Water used in the houses for the purposes of drinking, bathing, washing
clothes, cooking, sanitary & other needs. The recommended value according to Indian
standard specification for domestic use is 135 liters/day
2. INDUSTRIAL USE: Water is required for various industries such as cement, mining,
textile, leather industries.
3. PUBLIC USE: This includes water used for public utility purpose such as watering parks,
Flushing streets, jails etc.
4. FIRE USE: Water is used in case of accidents and to prevent the fire issues.
5. IRRIGATION: To grow crops which is the main sources for food?
6. OTHER USES: Hydro electric power generation requires water.

OVER UTILIZATION OF GROUND WATER AND SURFACE WATER

Over use of groundwater has following effects.

1. Lowering of water table: Excessive use of ground water for drinking, irrigation and

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 domestic purposes has resulted in rapid depletion of ground water in various regions
leading to lowering of water table & drying of wells.
The reasons for shortage of water are:
a. Increase in population,
b. Increasing demand of water for various purposes.
c. Unequal distribution of fresh water.
d. Increasing pollution of water sources cause over exploitation.
2. Ground subsidence: When ground water withdrawal is greater than its recharge rate,
the sediments in the aquifer become compacted. This is called ground subsidence which
may cause damage of buildings, destroy water supply systems etc.
2. Drought. A drought is an extended period of months or years when a region notes a
deficiency in its water supply whether surface or underground water. Generally, this
occurs when a region receives consistently below average precipitation.
We can define drought in four main ways:
a) Meteorological drought: related to rainfall amounts
b) Hydrological drought: determined by water levels in reservoirs
c) Agricultural drought: related to the availability of water for crops
d) Socioeconomic Drought: related to demand and supply of economic
goods
a) Meteorological Drought: Meteorological drought is generally defined by comparing the
rainfall in a particular place and at a particular time with the average rainfall for that
place. The definition is, therefore, specific to a particular location. Meteorological
drought leads to a depletion of soil moisture and this almost always has an impact on
crop production.

b) Hydrological Drought: Hydrological drought is associated with the effect of low

rainfall
on water levels in rivers, reservoirs, lakes and aquifers. Hydrological droughts usually
are
noticed some time after meteorological droughts. First precipitation decreases and,
some time after that, water levels in rivers and lakes drops.

C) Agricultural Drought: Agricultural drought mainly effects food production and farming.
Agricultural drought and precipitation shortages bring soil water deficits, reduced ground
water or reservoir levels, and so on. Deficient topsoil moisture at planting may stop
germination, leading to low plant populations.

d) Socioeconomic Drought: Socioeconomic drought occurs when the demand for an

economic good exceeds supply as a result of a weather-related shortfall in water supply.
The supply of many economic goods, such as water, forage, food grains, fish, and
hydroelectric power, depends on weather. Due to variability of climate, water supply is
sufficient in some years but not satisfactory to meet human and environmental needs in
other year

FLOOD

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A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land which is normally dry. The European Union
(EU) Floods Directive defines a flood as a covering by water of land not normally covered by
water. Flooding may occur as an overflow of water from water bodies, such as a river or lake, in
which the water overtops or breaks, resulting in some of that water escaping its usual boundaries,
or it may occur due to an accumulation of rainwater on saturated ground in an areal flood. Floods
can also occur in rivers when the flow rate exceeds the capacity of the river channel, particularly
at bends or meanders in the waterway. Floods often cause damage to homes and businesses if they
are in the natural flood plains of rivers. While riverine flood damage can be eliminated by moving
away from rivers and other bodies of water, people have traditionally lived and worked by rivers
because the land is usually flat and fertile and because rivers provide easy travel and access to
commerce and industry.

Some floods develop slowly, while others such as flash floods, can develop in just a few minutes
and without visible signs of rain. Additionally, floods can be local, impacting a neighbourhood or
community, or very large, affecting entire river basins.

CONFLICTS OVER WATER

Water conflict is a term describing a conflict between countries, states, or groups over an access
to water resources. The United Nations recognizes that water disputes result from opposing
interests of water users, public or private.

A wide range of water conflicts appear throughout history, though rarely are traditional wars
waged over water alone. Instead, water has historically been a source of tension and a factor in
conflicts that start for other reasons. However, water conflicts arise for several reasons, including
territorial disputes, a fight for resources, and strategic advantage.

These conflicts occur over both freshwater and saltwater, and between international boundaries.
However, conflicts occur mostly over freshwater; because freshwater resources are necessary, yet
limited, they are the center of water disputes arising out of need for potable water. As freshwater
is a vital, yet unevenly distributed natural resource, its availability often impacts the living and
economic conditions of a country or region. The lack of cost-effective water desalination
techniques in areas like the Middle East, among other elements of water crises can put severe
pressures on all water users

According to the 1992 International Conference on Water and the Environment, Water is a vital
element for human life, and any human activity relates somehow to water. Unfortunately, it is not
a renewable resource and in the future it "might get worse with climate change

Water conflicts occur because the demand for water resources and potable water extend far beyond
the amount of water actually available. Elements of a water crisis may put pressures on affected
parties to obtain more of a shared water resource, causing diplomatic tension or outright conflict.

The Cauvery water dispute: Out of Indias 18 major rivers, 17 are shared between different states.
In all these cases, there are intense conflicts over these resources which badly seem to resolve. The
Cauvery river water is a born of contention between tamilnadu and Karnataka and the problem is
almost hundred years old. T amil nadu occupying the downstream region of the river wants water-
use regulated in the upstream state Karnataka refuses to do so and claims its privacy over the river

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as upstream user. The river water is almost fully utilized and both the states having increasing
demands for agriculture and industry. The consumption is more in Tamilnadu than Karnataka
where the catchment area is rockier. On June 2, 1990, the Cavery Water dispute tribunal was set
up which through an interim award directed Karnataka to ensure that 205 TMCF of water was
made available in Tamilnadus mettur dam every year, till a settlement was reached. In 1991-92
due to good monsoon, there was no disputr as there was good stock of water in Mettur , but in
1995, the situation turned into a crisis due to delayed rains and an expert committee was set up to
look into the matter which found there was a complex cropping pattern in Cauvery basin. Sambra
paddy in winter, Kurvai paddy in summer and some cash crops demanded intensive water, thus
aggravating the water crisis. Proper selection of crop varieties, optimum use of water, better
rationing and rational sharing patterns, and pricing of water are suggested as some measures to
solve the problem.

DAMS-BENEFITS AND PROBLEMS

Today there are more than 45,000 large dams around the world, which play an important role in
communities and economies that harness these water resources for their economic development.
Current estimates suggest some 30-40% of irrigated land worldwide relies on dams. Hydropower,
another contender for the use of stored water, currently supplies 19% of the world’s total electric
power supply and is used in over 150 countries. The world’s two most populous countries – China
and India – have built around 57% of the world’s large
dams.

BENEFITS:
River valley projects with big dams have usually been considered to play a key role in the
development process due to their multiple uses. India has the distinction of having the largest
number of river valley projects. The tribal’s living in the area pin big hopes on these projects as
they aim at providing employment and raising the standard and quality of life. The dams have
tremendous potential for economic upliftment and growth. They can help in checking floods and
famines, generate electricity and reduce water and power shortage, provide irrigation water to
lower areas, provide drinking water in remote areas and promote navigation, sfishery etc

PROBLEMS:
• Fragmentation and physical transformation of rivers.
• Serious impacts on riverine ecosystems.
• Social consequences of large dams due to displacement of people.
• Water logging and Stalinization of surrounding lands.
• Dislodging animal populations, damaging their habitat and cutting off their migration routes.
• Fishing and travel by boat disrupted.
• The emission of green house gases from reservoirs due to rotting vegetation and carbon
in flows from the catchment is a recently identified impact.
Large dams have had serious impacts on the lives, livelihoods, cultures and spiritual existence
of indigenous and tribal peoples. They have suffered disproportionately from the negative
impacts of dams and often been excluded from sharing the benefits. In India, of the 16 to 18
million people displaced by dams, 40 to 50% were tribal people, who account for only 8% of
our nation’s one billion people.

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 1.5 MINERAL RESOURCES

A mineral is a naturally occurring substance of definite chemical composition and identifiable

physical properties. An ore is a mineral or combination of minerals from which a useful substance,
such as a metal, can be extracted and used to manufacture a useful product.
The geological processes are caused for the formation of the minerals over million of years ago in
the earth’s crust. Minerals are generally localized in occurrence and the deposits are very sporadic
in distribution. Mineral resources are nonrenewable and the mineral /ore is extracted by the process
of mining.
Iron, aluminum, zinc, manganese and copper are important raw materials for industrial use.
Important non-metal resources include coal, salt, clay, cement and silica. Stone used for building
material, such as granite, marble, limestone, constitute another category of minerals. Minerals with
special properties that humans value for their aesthetic and ornamental value are gems such as
diamonds, emeralds and rubies. The luster of gold, silver and platinum is used for ornaments.
Minerals in the form of oil, gas and coal were formed when ancient plants and animals were
converted into underground fossil fuels.
Mineral resources can be classified under three main types. They are
Metallic: gold and silver ; haematite and magnetite (iron) ; Cuprite ( copper) ; Laterite ( aluminum)
nonmetallic : non-metallic minerals include sand ( quartz ), garnet ; steatite (talc); muscovite (
mica atomic minerals: Pitchblende (Uranium, Thorium )

Uses of minerals:
Minerals are used in a large number of ways for domestic, industrial, commercial
sectors etc…
1. Generation of energy by using coal (lignite / anthracite); uranium, gold, silver, platinum,
diamond are used in jewellery. Copper, aluminum etc are used as cables for transmission of power.
2. Some of the minerals are used in ayurvedam as medicine.
Gold is reputed to strengthen the heart muscle and increase energy and stamina.
By placing a piece of gold (devoid of stones) into 1000 ml of water and boiling it until reduced to
500 ml. Historical dose used gold ash of 10 mcg/day or gold water of 1 tsp 3x/day.
Silver is a very important healing substance due to its cooling and antiseptic properties. It is most
useful for treating Vata and Pitta especially conditions involving weakness, and some of chronic
fevers. It is also used for gastritis, inflammatory of the intestines. Historical dose used silver ash
of 10-30 mcg/day or silver water of 1 tsp 3x/day.
Copper was used to treat conditions of excess kapha (primarily) and vata (secondarily).

Mining and its Process:

Minerals and their ores need to be extracted from the earth’s interior so that they can be used. This
process is known as mining. Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological
materials from the earth, from an ore body, lode, vein, (coal) seam or reef, which forms the
mineralized horizon and package of economic interest to the miner.
Mining operations generally progress through four stages:
(1) Prospecting : Searching for minerals.
(2) Exploration : Assessing the size, shape, location,
(3) Development : Work of preparing access to the deposit so that the minerals can be
extracted from it.
(4) Exploitation : Extracting the minerals from the mines.

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Types of mining:
The method of mining has to be determined depending on whether the ore or mineral deposit
is nearer the surface or deep within the earth. The topography of the region and the
physical nature of the ore deposit is studied.
Mines are of two types a) surface (open cut or strip mines)
b) deep or shaft mines.
a) Surface Mining: Surface mining is used to obtain mineral ores that are close to Earth's
surface. The soil and rocks over the ore are removed by blasting. Typically, the remaining ore
is drilled or blasted so that large machines can fill trucks with the broken rocks. The trucks
take the rocks to factories where the ore will be separated from the rest of the rock.
Surface mining includes open-pit mining, quarrying, and strip mining.
1) Open-pit mining creates a big pit from which the ore is mined. The size of the pit grows
until it is no longer profitable to mine the remaining ore.
2) Strip mines are similar to pit mines, but the ore is removed in large strips.
3) A quarry is a type of open-pit mine that produces rocks and minerals that are used to
make buildings.

Placers are valuable minerals that have collected in stream gravels, either modern rivers or
ancient riverbeds. California’s nickname, the Golden State, can be traced back to the discovery
of placer gold in 1848. The gold that attracted would-be miners from around the world
weathered out of a hard rock, travelled downstream and then settled in a deposit of alluvium.
The gold originated in the metamorphic belt in the western Sierra Nevada, which also contains
deposits of copper, lead zinc, silver, chromite and other valuable minerals. Currently,
California has active mines for gold and silver, and also for non-metal minerals like sand and
gravel, which are used for construction.

b) Underground Mining: Underground mining is used for ores that are deep in Earth's surface.
For deep ore deposits, it can be too expensive to remove all of the rocks above the ore.
Underground mines can be very deep. The deepest gold mine in South Africa is more than 3,700
meters deep (that is more than 2 miles)! There are various methods of underground mining. These
methods are more expensive than surface mining because tunnels are made in the rock so that
miners and equipment can get to the ore. Underground mining is dangerous work. Fresh air and
lights must also be brought in to the tunnels for the miners. Miners breathe in lots of particles and
dust while they are underground. The ore is drilled, blasted, or cut away from the surrounding rock
and taken out of the tunnel

Environmental effects:
Mineral extraction and processing in mines involves a negative impact on environment. Much risk
is involved in mining process because of high temperature, pressure
variations, fire hazards and lack of ventilation in mines.

 Mining process involves removal of over burden of soil, ore extraction & transportation,
crushing & grinding of ore, water treatment of ore, storage of waste material. As a result
of these activities cause air pollution, noise pollution, water pollution, loss of habitat of
wildlife, concentration of toxic substances in tailing ponds and spreading of dust.
 People working in mines often suffer from serious respiratory system and skin diseases.

17
  Mining often causes ground subsidence which results in tilting of buildings, cracks in
houses, buckling of roads, bending of rail tracks etc.
 Exploration process before a mining involves, geochemical, geophysical surveys
drilling activities which causes for air pollution, noise pollution etc..
 In addition, disturbance of all vegetation ( flora ) and fauna ( animals ) from that a region.
 Acid mine drainage (AMD), or acid rock drainage (ARD): The outflow of acidic water
from (usually abandoned) metal mines or coal mines. However, other areas where the earth
has been disturbed (e.g. construction sites, subdivisions, transportation corridors, etc.) may
also contribute acid rock drainage to the environment

Case Studies of Mineral Resources

1 )Aravalli hills in Rajasthan: The Aravallis hills spread across Haryana, Rajasthan and Gujarat
and control the climate and drainage system of the region. Mining activity is being taken in this
region due to immense mineral wealth ( Talc, marble, granite ).
Several studies have pointed out that the natural drainage system and the ground water table of the
entire region have been badly affected. Pollution levels have also increased. Lung diseases,
silicosis were attacked by the laborers.

2) Uranium mining in Nalgonda: The Uranium Corporation of India proposed to

mine Uranium from the deposits of Lambapur and Peddagattu villages of Nalgonda dist.
Processing unit was proposed at Mallapur village in Nalgonda dist by offering employment
opportunities. But experts didn’t propose mining activity because of possible contamination of
water. The proposed mines are just 1 km away from human habitation and 10 km from
Nagarjuna sagar dam and 4 km away from Akkampalli reservoir, which is a source for drinking
water.

1.6 FOOD RESOURCES

The main sources of human food are plants and animals. Human beings consume almost all parts
of plants in the form of cereals (wheat, barley, millet, rye, oats, maize, corn, rice etc.); pulses
(peas, red grams, green grams); vegetables (carrot, cauliflower, beans); fruits (banana, orange,
grapes, pineapple) and spices (pepper, cloves). Also a number of products such as
milk, butter, egg and meat supplement the requirements.

WORLD FOOD PROBLEMS

Since world’s population is growing every year and the demand of food is also increasing
continuously. Although world’s food production has increased almost three times during the last
50 years, but at the same time rapid population growth outstripped the food production. So, the
world food problem is a complex one depending on food production, population increase, the
prevalence of poverty and environmental impacts.
Famines are due to lack of access to food but not lack of food. Modern agriculture is largely based
upon technological factors like the use of improved seeds, chemical fertilizers, synthetic pesticides
etc…
The green revolution however changed traditional agricultural practices with a rapid increase in
food production in developing countries. An American agricultural scientist, Norman Borlaug

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developed a high yielding variety of wheat through new concepts in plant breeding. By the mid
1960’s , the green revolution was fully adopted in India.

CHANGES CAUSED BY AGRICULTURE AND OVER GRAZING

CHANGES CAUSED BY AGRICULTURE

There are two types of agricultural systems:
(1) Traditional system and (2) Modern and Industrialized system

(1) Traditional system:

The traditional system is again subdivided into two types namely:
(a) Traditional Subsistence Agriculture (TSA ): In this system, only enough crops or livestock
are produced for the use of family and a little surplus to sell to meet the needs.
(b) Traditional Intensive Agriculture ( TIA ): Farmers increase their inputs of human labour,
water fertilizers to get higher yields for the use of theirfamilies and to sell a small quantities
for getting income.

(2) Modern and industrialized system: In the system of modern and industrialized
agriculture, a large extent of land will be brought under agriculture and huge quantities of fuel,
energy,
water, chemical fertilizers, pesticides used to produce large quantities of single crops purely for
sale. This system is spreading in India in the name of Green revolution. But this modern
agricultural system has its own adverse effects on environment.
a. Excessive use of chemical fertilizers to boost up the crop yield, contaminate groundwater
with nitrate. The presence of excess of nitrate in drinking water is dangerous for human
health. Excess Nitrate reacts with haemoglobin and causes for “ Blue Baby Syndrome”
which kill the infants.
b. The excessive N P K fertilizers in agriculture fields are often washed off with water and
leads to algal blooming and Eutrophication. Phosphates have been accumulating in soils,
lake sediments for decades change the ecology. Increased levels of phosphates in water
bodies cause Eutrophication ( growth of unwanted plants ).
c. The excessive use of pesticides enters the food chain and become hazardous to human life.
d. A large area of fertile land has become saline in recent years due to excessive irrigation.
e. Consumption of fuel energy is more when shifting of human and animal labour to
agriculture machinery. Use of fuel leads to air pollution.
f. Continuing to increase input of fertilizers, water and pesticides eventually produces no
additional increase in crop yield but slows down the productivity of the crop.
g. Due to increased irrigation, the underground aquifers are slowly and constantly becomes
dry. The rate at which they are being depleted is much faster than its recharge.
h. Excessive application of chemical fertilizers can increase soil salt content. The percolation
of domestic and industrial sewage also increase the salinity of soil.
i. The stagnation of water in the soil in the upper layers causes for water logging which
causes for less oxygen availability for respiration of plants.

Modern, intensive agriculture causes many problems, including the following:

• Artificial fertilizers and herbicides are easily washed from the soil and pollute rivers, lakes and
water courses.
• The prolonged use of artificial fertilizers results in soils with a low organic matter content

19
 which is easily eroded by wind and rain.
• Dependency on fertilizers. Greater amounts are needed every year to produce the same
yields of crops.
• Artificial pesticides can stay in the soil for a long time and enter the food chain where they
build up in the bodies of animals and humans, causing health problems.
• Artificial chemicals destroy soil micro-organisms resulting in poor soil structure and aeration
and decreasing nutrient availability.
• Pests and diseases become more difficult to control as they become resistant to artificial
pesticides. The numbers of natural enemies decrease because of pesticide use and habitat
loss.

WATER LOGGING

Waterlogging refers to the saturation of soil with water. Soil may be regarded as waterlogged
when the water table of the groundwater is too high to conveniently permit an anticipated
activity, like agriculture.

In agriculture, various crops need air (specifically, oxygen) to a greater or lesser depth in the soil.
Water logging of the soil stops air getting in. How near the water table must be to the surface for
the ground to be classed as waterlogged varies with the purpose in view. A crop's demand for
freedom from water logging may vary between seasons of the year, as with the growing of rice
(Oryza sativa).

In irrigated agricultural land, water logging is often accompanied by soil salinity as waterlogged
soils prevent leaching of the salts imported by the irrigation water

SALINITY

Soil salinity is the salt content in the soil; the process of increasing the salt content is known as
salinization. Salt is a natural element of soils and water. Salinization can be caused by natural
processes such as mineral weathering or the gradual withdrawal of an ocean. It can also be
caused by artificial processes such as irrigation

Salinization is a process that results from:

 high levels of salt in the water.

 landscape features that allow salts to become mobile(movement of water table).
 climatic trends that favors accumulation.
 human activities such as land clearing, aquaculture activities and the salting of icy roads.

CHANGES CAUSED BY OVER GRAZING

Overgrazing occurs when plants are exposed to intensive grazing for extended periods of time, or
without sufficient recovery periods. It can be caused by either livestock in poorly managed
agricultural applications, or by overpopulations of native or non-native wild animals.

20
Overgrazing reduces the usefulness, productivity, and biodiversity of the land and is one cause of
desertification and erosion. Overgrazing is also seen as a cause of the spread of invasive species
of non-native plants and of weeds.

Overgrazing typically increases soil erosion.[3] Reduction in soil depth, soil organic matter and soil
fertility impair the land's future natural and agricultural productivity. Soil fertility can sometimes
be mitigated by applying the appropriate lime and organic fertilizers. However, the loss of soil
depth and organic matter takes centuries to correct. Their loss is critical in determining the soil's
water-holding capacity and how well pasture plants do during dry weather.

Native plant grass species, both individual bunch grasses and in grasslands, are especially
vulnerable.

1.7 ENERGY RESOURCES

Energy is defined by physicists as the capacity to do work. Energy is found on our planet in a
variety of forms, some of which are immediately useful to do work, while others require a process
of transformation. Energy can neither be created nor destroyed but transformed from one form to
other . Energy is closely related to force. When a force causes an object to move, energy is being
transferred from the force to kinetic energy.
Energy is present in a number of forms such as mechanical, thermal, chemical, biological energy
etc.. Energy production and utilization have become essential to carry out many activities in
modern life. Energy is one of the important requirements that a country needs for its economic
growth. At the same time, energy production has its impact on environment due to pollution and
finally affects the quality of life of people.

GROWING ENERGY NEEDS

Energy plays a key role in the process of economic growth of a nation. The industrial development
of any country is dependent on the organised development of its power resources'.

Energy is also indispensable for agriculture, transport, business and domestic requirements. In fact,
electricity has such a wide range of applications in modern economic development that its per
capita consumption is, to a great extent, an index of the material advancement of the country.

Energy is the capacity for doing useful work. It is an essential input for economic growth. This
energy is used in the form of electrical energy, thermal energy, light, mechanical energy and
chemical energy etc.

Energy is measured in joules in Si units. The annual per capita energy consumption in developed
countries ranges from 5 to 11 kW whereas in the developing countries it is between 1 to 1.5 KW
Only

Uses of Energy

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1. Energy is a primary input in any industrial operation.

2. It is also a major input in sectors such as commerce, transport, tele-communications etc.

3. The wide range of services required in the household and industrial sectors.

4. Owing to the far-reaching changes in the forms of energy and their respective roles in
supporting human activities, research and training on various aspects of energy and environment
have assumed great significance.

Types of energy: There are three main types of energy;

A. Non-renewable B. Renewable C. Nuclear energy

A.Non – renewable energy resources

Fossil fuels: Fossil means the remains of an animal or a plant which have become hard and turned
into rock. All these found in earth’s crusts which have been formed in the past by the geological
processes. Fossil fuels are solid coal (lignite), liquid (crude oil / petroleum) and gases (natural gas
).
a) Coal : Huge quantity of plant materials buried under earths crust and altered by geological
process and converted into carbon rich fuel. It is a non – renewable source because it takes a very
long period (million of years) for its formation.
Coal is extracted by the process of mining and involves accidents due to mine collapse, ground
water pollution, accumulation of poisonous material, explosive gases etc cause diseases. CO2
pollution leads to green house effect ( global warming).

b)Crude oil: It is obtained in the form of liquid . The crude oil is heated upto 600 oC in the oil
refinery and condense the vapours of hydro – carbons. Petrol and other petroleum products are
refined fuels from crude oil.
Petroleum products are used in large quantities in the manufacture of detergents, plastics,
fertilizers, pharmaceuticals, synthetic rubber etc.. The transport sector consumes about 40% of
diesel; 25% industries and 19% household and rest 16% agriculture and other sectors. .

c)Natural Gas: Gas deposits are trapped from the sedimentary formations by means drilling holes
into the rock formations. While burning of natural gas, the emission of CO2 is less and thus reduces
green house effect and global warming. A total of 734 billion cubic mts of gas is estimated as
proven reserves.

B.Renewable energy resources: Renewable energy systems use resources that are constantly
replaced and are usually less polluting.
Examples include hydropower, solar, wind, and geothermal (energy from the heat inside the earth).
1.Solar energy: The energy which is derived from the sun is known as solar energy. It can be used
for direct heating or sun’s heat is converted into electricity. Photo voltaic cells convert direct solar
energy into electricity.
A number of solar equipments have been developed to utilize sun rays to heat water, to cook food,
to pump water and to run certain machines and used for street lighting, railway signals etc. But the
major problem with solar energy is that during cloudy weather it is available in less quantities than
on sunny days.

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How Solar Power Works
The sun's energy can be captured to generate electricity or heat through a system of panels or
mirrors.
 Solar, or photovoltaic, cells convert sunlight directly into electricity. Most photovoltaic cells
are made primarily of silicon, the material used in computer semiconductor chips, and arranged
on rectangular panels. When sunlight hits a cell, the energy knocks electrons free of their
atoms, allowing them to flow through the material. The resulting DC (direct current) electricity
is then sent to a power inverter for conversion to AC (alternating current).
 Solar thermal collectors use heat-absorbing panels and a series of attached circulation tubes to
heat water or buildings.
 Solar concentration systems use mirrors -- usually arranged in a series of long, parabolic
troughs, a large round dish, or a circle surrounding a "power tower" -- to focus the sun's
reflected rays on a heat-collecting element. The concentrated sunlight heats water or a heat-
transferring fluid such as molten salt to generate steam, which is then used conventionally to
spin turbines and generate electricity.
 Passive solar design is the creative use of windows, skylights and sunrooms, building site and
orientation, and thermal construction materials to heat and light buildings, or to heat water, the
natural way.

2. Hydro-Power energy: Electrical power is generated by hydro-electric projects in which dams

are constructed across the river. The kinetic energy of water is converted into mechanical energy
by means of turbines and in turn, the mechanical energy is transferred into electrical energy by
generators. Hydro power projects lead to several environmental problems like destruction of
animal habitats, deforestation , migration of people etc..
3. Geothermal energy: Geothermal energy found within rock formations. Inside the earth the
temperature rises with depth .The temperature in earth’s crust is around 4000o C. Geysers ( a
natural spring that emits hot water ) and hot springs are examples for geothermal energy where the
steam and hot water come to the surface, in areas where the steam is tapped by drilling. The
obtained steam is then used to generate power. Air pollution results in case of geothermal energy
where the gases like H2S, NH3, CO2 present in the steam coming out of the geothermal sources.
The overall efficiency for power production is low (15%) as compared to fossil fuels (40%).
4. Wind energy: Wind energy is the kinetic energy associated with the movement of atmospheric
air. Wind mills convert the wind energy into electrical energy. On an average wind mills can
convert 30 – 40 % of available wind energy into electrical energy at a steady wind speed of 8.5mts
/ sec. The efficiency of wind mill is increased with the speed of wind and length of rotor blade.
The total wind energy potential in India’s estimate is 25,000 MW of this about 6000 MW is located
in Tamil Nadu; 5000 MW in Gujarat and contribute the states of Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan for balance quantity.

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Merits & demerits of wind energy:
1. It is a non – polluting and environment friendly source of energy.
2. It is a renewable energy available at free of cost
3. Power generation is cheaper with nil recurring expenses.
4. Wind mills are suitable to erect at on shore, remote and rural areas where wind blows with
required intensity.
5. Favorable in geographic locations which are away from cities.
6. Wind turbine design, manufacturing, installation is complex due to varying atmospheric
conditions.
7. Wind power doesn’t suitable for large scale generation.
5. Ocean energy: Seas and oceans are large water bodies . Seas absorbs solar radiation and large
amounts of solar energy is stored in the tides and waves of the ocean. Ocean energy is non –
polluting in nature and suitable at a few places only. Energy from seas or oceans is obtained from
the following:
(1) Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion: The oceans collect and store huge quantities of solar on
the surface of the water while the temperature of deep waters is very low. Using this temperature
difference it is possible to convert heat into electricity.
(2) Tidal energy: Tidal waves of the sea can be used to turn turbine and generate electricity. Asia’s
first tidal power plant of 800 - 1000 MW capacity is proposed to be set up at Kandla in Gulf of
Kutch.
(3) Wave energy: The wind blowing over water generates waves. A unique property of ocean
waves is their ability to travel vast oceanic distances with negligible loss of energy and ultimately
arrives the continental margin of that basin India’s first wave energy power plant of 150 KW
capacity has been commissioned in Thiruvananthapuram, Tamil Nadu. 1 MW wave energy plant
is being set up in Andaman and Nicobar islands.
(4) Current energy: Theoretically, the ocean water used to generate energy by allowing the water
to pass through a series of turbines installed under water. The turbines are to be sealed and are kept
at a depth of 10 to 20 mts. A propeller with a dia of 5 mts can generate about 150 MW of power.

6. Bio mass energy: Bio-mass is an organic material from living beings or its residues. It is a
renewable source of energy derived from the waste of various human and natural activities. The
bio-mass energy sources include Wood, animal manure, sugarcane waste, agriculture crops, house
hold waste, roots of plants, garbage etc. The simplest way of using bio-mass
energy sources is to allow them to dry out in the sun and burn them.

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7. Bio-gas: Bio-gas is a sustainable source of energy by virtue of its production from available
natural organic wastes of cattle dung, human excreta, poultry waste, plant leaves, paddy husk
etc…. Bio-gas is a mixture of methane (68%), CO2 (31%) and N2 (1%). Methane gas (CH4) is
produced by bio-gas plants and this gas is utilized as cooking gas whose calorific value varies from
4400 – 6200 Kilo Calories / cum. Heat value of bio gas can be improved by reducing its CO2
content. Bio-gas production is carried out in an enclosed bio-gas plant made of
bricks or steel. Aslurry of waste organic matter is fed into the plant through an inlet and gas formed
is tapped by an inverted drum. As gas is produced the drum rises and the gas may be drawn through
an outlet. Bio-gas is commonly produced from cattle dung in a bio gas plant known as Gobar Gas
plant. Bio-gas is a clean, cheap fuel that can be used for lighting purpose, lifting water through
small pumps.

C.Nuclear Energy or Atomic power: It is the energy which is trapped inside the atom. It is non–
renewable source of energy which is released during fission or fusion of certain radio active
elements. The most important advantage of atomic power is the production of an enormous amount
of energy from a small quantity of radio active element. For eg: 1 kg of Uranium
liberates energy equivalent to 30000 kgs of coal.
Energy released during nuclear reaction ( mass – energy equation as per Albert Einstein’s formula
E = mc2).
Nuclear Energy is produced by two processes namely (1) Nuclear Fission and (2) Nuclear Fusion.
Nuclear Fission: The nucleus in atoms is split by fast moving neutrons and in turn a tremendous
amount of energy in the form of heat, light etc is released by a chain of reactions. Uranium is used
as fuel. The energy released slowly in this process is utilized to generate electricity or else
released suddenly all at once, results a tremendous explosion as in the case of Atom bomb.
Nuclear Fusion: Nuclear energy can be generated by fusion process which
involves two hydrogen atoms combine to produce one helium atom.
Eg: hydrogen bomb. The disposal of nuclear wastes during mining, fuel production and reactor
operation for a long time period resulting in adverse effects on environment. Disposable of nuclear
waste is a national and global problem.

USE OF ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES

Alternative energy is any energy source that is an alternative to fossil fuel. These alternatives are
intended to address concerns about such fossil fuels.

The nature of what constitutes an alternative energy source has changed considerably over time,
as have controversies regarding energy use. Today, because of the variety of energy choices and
differing goals of their advocates, defining some energy types as "alternative" is highly
controversial.

In a general sense, alternative energy as it is currently conceived, is that which is produced or

recovered without the undesirable consequences inherent in fossil fuel use, particularly high
carbon dioxide emissions, an important factor in global warming. Sometimes, this less
comprehensive meaning of "alternative energy" excludes nuclear energy

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  Solar energy is the generation of electricity from the sun. It is split up into two types,
thermal and electric energy. These two subgroups mean that they heat up homes and
generate electricity respectively.
 Wind energy is the generation of electricity from the wind.
 Geothermal energy is using hot water or steam from the Earth’s interior for heating
buildings or electricity generation.
 Biofuel and Ethanol are plant-derived substitutes of gasoline for powering vehicles.
 Nuclear binding energy uses nuclear fission to create energy.
 Hydrogen is used as clean fuel for spaceships, and some cars

CASE STUDIES
• In 1981, a plane called ‘The Solar Challenger’flew from Paris to England in 5hours, 20minutes.
It had 16,000 solarcells glued to the wings and tail of theplane and they produced enough power
to drive a small electric motor and propeller.Since 1987, every three yearsthere is a World Solar
challenge for solaroperated vehicles in Australia wherethe vehicles cover 3000 kms.

• The world’s first solar-powered hospitalis in Mali in Africa. Being situated at theedge of the
Sahara desert, Mali receivesa large amount of sunlight. Panels ofsolar cells supply the power
needed torun vital equipment and keep medicalsupplies cool in refrigerators.

• Space technology required solar energyand the space race spurred the developmentof solar cells.
Only sunlight canprovide power for long periods of timefor a space station or long distance
spaceship.

• In recent years, the popularity of buildingintegrated photovoltaics (BIPV’s) hasgrown

considerably. In this application,PV devices are designed as part of buildingmaterials (i.e. roofs
and siding) bothto produce electricity and reduce costsby replacing the costs of normal
constructionmaterials. There are more than3,000 BIPV systems in Germany and Japan
has a program that will build 70,000BIPV buildings.

1.8 LAND RESOURCES

Land as a resource: Landforms such as hills, valleys, plains, river basins and wetlands include
different resource generating areas that the people living in them depend on. Many traditional
farming societies had ways of preserving areas from which they used resources.
Eg: In the ‘sacred groves’ of the Western Ghats, requests to the spirit of the Grove for permission
to cut a tree, or extract a resource, were accompanied by simple rituals. The outcome of a chance
fall on one side or the other of a stone balanced on a rock gave
or withheld permission. The request could not be repeated for a specified period.
If land is utilized carefully it can be considered a renewable resource.
The roots of trees and grasses bind the soil. If forests are depleted, or grasslands overgrazed,
the land becomes unproductive and wasteland is formed. Intensive irrigation leads to water logging
and salinization, on which crops cannot grow. Land is also converted into a non-renewable
resource when highly toxic industrial and nuclear wastes are
dumped on it.

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Land on earth is as finite as any of our other natural resources. While mankind has learnt to
adapt his lifestyle to various ecosystems world over, he cannot live comfortably for instance on
polar ice caps, on under the sea, or in space in the foreseeable future.
Man needs land for building homes, cultivating food, maintaining pastures for domestic animals,
developing industries to provide goods, and supporting the industry by creating towns and cities.
Equally importantly, man needs to protect wilderness area in forests, grasslands, wetlands,
mountains, coasts, etc. to protect our vitally valuable biodiversity.
Thus a rational use of land needs careful planning. One can develop most of these different
types of land uses almost anywhere, but Protected Areas (National Park’s and Wildlife
Sanctuaries) can only be situated where some of the natural ecosystems are still undisturbed. These
Protected Areas are important aspects of good land use planning.

Land is the major part of the lithosphere. Land is made up of soils / rocks and are considered as
very important resources of earth. Land plays a major role for growth of crops, vegetation, forests
etc., Soils are formed due to disintegration of rocks by various physical processes like change in
temperature, pressure, blowing wind and flow of water.
The top layer of soil consists of mixtures of Humus (dead leaves & plants), some of the living
organisms and Inorganic components which supply nutrients to the soil.
Soil fertility depends on inorganic matter, organic matter, water, air and a variety of micro-
organisms viz., bacteria, fungi, which help in the decomposition of organic matter and regeneration
of nutrients.

Types of Indian Soils

Different types of soils are identified by taking into account the geographical extent, physical and
chemical properties for the purpose of agriculture, nutritional factors.

(a) Alluvial soils: This is generally alkaline and best soil for agriculture. Alluvial soils are derived
from debris brought by the floods or rivers or by tidal waves.
Eg: North Indian Plains; Indo–Gangetic Plain; Ganga and Brahmaputra Plains …
(b) Black soils: Black soils are predominantly with clay and sandy loams. These soils are found in
the regions of AP (Krishna and Tungabhadra basins) , Maharashtra ( Deccan Traps ) and Madhya
Pradesh.
(c) Red soils: The red colour is due to the presence of high proportion of iron component and
characterized by low water retention capacity. Red soils are found in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu
and parts of Bihar, Orissa and Western Ghats of Karnataka..
(d) Laterite soils: These soils are rich in hydroxides of Ferrous and aluminum. At low elevation
areas, the laterite soils are suitable for paddy cultivation whereas at higher elevations, they are
suitable for coffee, tea, rubber etc., Western Ghats, Northern part of Eastern Ghats, North of
Bangalore and West of Hyderabad are examples for laterite soils.
(e) Mountain soils: These are stony. Mountain soils are formed due to dislodgement of rocks due
to land slides and occur over altitudes between 2000 to 3000 mts. Eg: Aravallis and East of
Himalayas. Mountain soils are favour for growth of vegetation / forest .
(f) Desert soils: These soils cover the parts of areas of Rajasthan and Kutchwhere the annual
rainfall is less than 50 cms per annum.
(g) Saline soils: Presence of salt and water retention make the soils unsuitable for agriculture. Eg:
Arid ( no rain ) and Semi arid ( partly rain ) regions of northern plains and Maharashtra.

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LAND DEGRADATION AND CONTROL OF LAND DEGRADATION

Land degradation can be defined as any change in the land that alter its conditions or reduces its
quality. Land degradation occurs due to both natural disasters like volcanic eruptions, earthquakes,
heavy rains, fire etc or human induced activities. The other causes of land degradation consists of
wind blow, salinity of water, water logging, soil acidity, loss of flora and fauna.
Desertification is land degradation occurring in the arid, semi-arid regions of the world. These dry
lands cover about 40% of the earth’s surface and puts at risk more than 1 billion people who are
dependent on these lands for survival.
Land clearing and deforestation; Mining activity in forest areas; urban conversion; bringing more
land under cultivation; soil pollution ; loss of organic matter in the soils; alkalinization of soils;
salinity of water etc leads to land degradation.
Severe land degradation affects in decreasing the mineral wealth and economic development of
nations.
The methods that are followed for the prevention of land degradation are called soil conservation
methods. Some of the popular methods are;
(a) Contour farming: The land is prepared with alternate furrows ( a long narrow cut in the
ground ) and ridges at the same level . The water is caught and held in
furrows and stores which reduces run off and erosion.
(b) Mulching: Stems of maize, cotton, tobacco etc are used as a mulch ( decay of leaves ) to
reduce soil moisture, evaporation .
(c) Crop rotation: Growing same crop year after year depletes the nutrients and land becomes
unproductive. This is overcome by changing the crops and cultivating
legumes ( plants like peas, beans ) after a regular crop.
(d) Strip cropping: It consists of planting crops in rows or strips along contours to check flow of
water.
(e) Agrostological methods: Korean grass, Mexican grass is grown as erosion – resisting
plants.
(f) Miscellaneous methods: Construction of bunds, drains, widening of gullies, Afforestation
methods prevent the soil erosion.

LANDSLIDES AND MAN INDUCED LAND SLIDES

Landslides always exist on this planet and the term land slide is used to describe a wide variety of
process that result a downward movement of rocks under gravitational forces. In other words, mass
movement of rocks, debris and soil down a slope of land.
Landslides are primarily associated with steep slopes. Surface run-off and changes in drainage also
cause for landslides. Landslides can also be initiated by rainfall; earthquakes; volcanic activity,
changes in groundwater movement or any combination these factors.
Debris-flows can travel down a hillside of speeds upto 200 miles per hour (more commonly, 30 –
50 miles per hour) depending on the slope angle, water content, and type of earth and debris in the
flow.
While landslides are a naturally occurring environmental hazard they have recently increased in
frequency in certain areas due to human activities.
Building excavations, collapses in mining ( eg : coal mine) causes landslides. However, landslides
can be triggered by the human beings by induced changes in the environment.
Simply landslides can be explained in three ways:

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(a) Inherent of rocks (weakness in the structure of a rock )
(b) Due to heavy seismic or volcanic activity and
(c) Due to various environmental conditions.

SOIL EROSION AND CAUSES FOR SOIL EROSION

The top layer of the earth is called as soil. Soil erosion occurs due to deforestation, overgrazing,
industrialization; desertification etc.
a. Deforestation: Mining, industrial, urban development etc causes deforestation and leads to
exposure of the land to wind and rains causing soil erosion. Cutting trees leads to deforestation
which in turn loss of organic matter in the soils.
b. Overgrazing: When sufficient amount of grass is available for the organisms usually the entire
land /area may be subjected to exhaust and the land is exposed without grass and ultimately the
land expose to wind/rain causing soil erosion. .
c. Industrialization: Different processes carried out by industries and mining operations cause
soil pollution which leads to degradation of land.
d. Desertification: The process of conversion of productive lands to unproductive lands is called
desertification. This occurs due to loss of top layer of soil by erosion. Erosion of top layer results
in loss of water holding capacity and finally converted in to unproductive areas .

DESERTIFICATION: s

Desertification is the process which turns productive into non- productive desert as a result of poor
land-management. Desertification occurs mainly in semi-arid areas (average annual rainfall less
than 600 mm) bordering on deserts. In the Sahel, (the semi-arid area south of the Sahara Desert),
for example, the desert moved 100 km southwards between 1950 and 1975.

CAUSES OF DESERTIFICATION

* Overgrazing is the major cause of desertification worldwide. Plants of semi-arid areas are
adapted to being eaten by sparsely scattered, large, grazing mammals which move in response to
the patchy rainfall common to these regions. Early human pastoralists living in semi-arid areas
copied this natural system. They moved their small groups of domestic animals in response to food
and water availability. Such regular stock movement prevented overgrazing of the fragile plant
cover.

In modern times, the use of fences has prevented domestic and wild animals from moving in
response to food availability, and overgrazing has often resulted. However, when used correctly,
fencing is a valuable tool of good veld management.

The use of boreholes and windmills also allows livestock to stay all-year round in areas formerly
grazed only during the rains when seasonal pans held water. Where not correctly planned and
managed, provision of drinking water has contributed to the massive advance of deserts in recent
years as animals gather around waterholes and overgraze the area.

* Cultivation of marginal lands, i.e lands on which there is a high risk of crop failure and a very
low economic return, for example, some parts of South Africa where maize is grown.

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* Destruction of vegetation in arid regions, often for fuelwood.

* Poor grazing management after accidental burning of semi-arid vegetation.

* Incorrect irrigation practices in arid areas can cause salinization, (the build up of salts in the soil)
which can prevent plant growth.

When the practices described above coincide with drought, the rate of desertification increases
dramatically.

Increasing human population and poverty contribute to desertification as poor people may be
forced to overuse their environment in the short term, without the ability to plan for the long term
effects of their actions. Where livestock has a social importance beyond food, people might be
reluctant to reduce their stock numbers.

EFFECTS OF DESERTIFICATION

Desertification reduces the ability of land to support life, affecting wild species, domestic animals,
agricultural crops and people. The reduction in plant cover that accompanies desertification leads
to accelerated soil erosion by wind and water. South Africa losing approximately 300-400 million
tonnes of topsoil every year. As vegetation cover and soil layer are reduced, rain drop impact and
run-off increases.

Water is lost off the land instead of soaking into the soil to provide moisture for plants. Even long-
lived plants that would normally survive droughts die. A reduction in plant cover also results in a
reduction in the quantity of humus and plant nutrients in the soil, and plant production drops
further. As protective plant cover disappears, floods become more frequent and more severe.
Desertification is self-reinforcing, i.e. once the process has started, conditions are set for continual
deterioration.

1.8.1 ROLE OF AN INDIVIDUAL CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

Different natural resources like forests, water, soil, food, mineral and energy resources play a vital
role in the development of a nation. With our small individual efforts we can together help in
conserving our natural resources to a large extent. Following are the ways:

a) Conserve Water:
1. Don’t keep water taps running while brushing, shaving, washing or bathing.
2. In washing machines fill the machine only to the level required for your clothes.
3. Install water saving toilets that use not more than 6 liters per flush.
4. Check for water leaks in pipes and toilets and repair them promptly.
5. Reuse the soapy water of washing from clothes for gardening, driveways etc.
6. Water the plants and the lawns in the evening when evaporation losses are minimum.
Never water the plants in mid-day.

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 7. Install a system to capture rain water.
b) Conserve energy:
1. Turn off lights fans and other appliances when not in use.
2. Obtain as much heat as possible from natural sources. Dry the clothes in sun instead
of direr if possible.
3. Use solar cooker for cooking which will be more nutritious and will save your LPG
expenses.
4. Build your house with provision for sunspace which will keep your house warmer and
will provide more light.
5. Drive less, make fewer trips and use public transportations whenever possible. Share
a car-pool if possible.
6. Control the use of A.C.
7. Recycle and reuse glass, metals and papers.
8. Use bicycle or just walk down small distances instead of using vehicle.

Protect the Soil:

1. Grow different types of ornamental plants, herbs and trees in your garden.Grow grass
in the open areas which will bind the soil and prevent its erosion.
2. Make compost from your kitchen waste and use it for your kitchen-garden.
3. Do not irrigate the plants using a strong flow of water as it would wash off thesoil.
4. Better use sprinkling irrigation.

Promote Sustainable Agriculture:

1. Do not waste food; Take as much as you can eat.
2. Reduce the use of pesticides.
3. Fertilize your crop with organic fertilizers.
4. Use drip irrigation.
5. Eat local and seasonal vegetables.
6. Control pests.

UNIT-II

ECOSYSTEM AND BIODIVERSITY

2.1 ECOSYSTEM

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An ecosystem is a community of organisms that interact with each other and non living
components for sustainable development and adaptation to changing conditions. There are
different type of ecosystems around us which involves living organisms and non living organisms.
If we combine all the ecosystems present on earth, it is called Biosphere.
The term ecosystem was first proposed by A.G.Tansley (1935) who defined ecosystem as follows:
“Ecosystem is defined as a self-sustained community of plants and animals existing in its own
environment.”Odum (1971) defined ecosystem as any unit that includes all the organisms in a
given area interacting with the physical environment, so that a flow of energy give rise to a clearly
defined tropic structure, biotic diversity and material cycles with in the system ”Michael Allaby
(1983) defined ecosystem as a community of interdependent organisms together with the
environment
Ecology is derived from two Greek words “Oikos” & “Logos” •Ecology= Oikos + Logos •Oikos
means house or dwelling place •Logos means study of •Thus Ecology can be define as “Study of
organisms with respect to their house or dwelling place.

SCOPE OF ECOSYSTEM:
Ecology plays an important role in agriculture crop rotation, weed control (unwanted plant);
management of grasslands, forestry etc., biological surveys, fishery surveys, conservation of soil,
wild life, surveys of water bodies like rivers, lakes; ponds etc...

CONCEPT OF ECOSYSTEM:
In an ecosystem, the interaction of life with its environment takes place at many levels. A single
bacteria in the soil interacts with water, air around it within a small space while a fish in a river
interacts with water and other animals, rivals in a large space. .
Considering the operational point of view; the biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem are
so interlinked such that their separation from each other is practically difficult. So, in an ecosystem
both organisms (biotic communities) and abiotic environment (rainfall, temperature, humidity)
each influence the properties with other for maintenance of life.

TERMINOLOGY USED IN ECOLOGY

•Species: A Uniform interbreeding population spreading over time & space is known as species.
•Community: A group of similar or dissimilar species species living to gather under more or less
similar environmental condition.
•Population: It is a group of similar community living together under similar environmental
condition.
•Biome: The complex of several type of community, at different stages of succession living to
gather under similar environmental condition.
•Vegetation: A collective growth of plants in space is known as vegetation.
•Habitat: The place where an organism live or the place where one would go to find a
particular organism is known as habitat
•Factor: Any external force, substance, or condition that affects the organism in any way is
known as factor.
•Standing state: The total amount of inorganic substances i.e. minerals Such as phosphorous,
sulfur, nitrogen, hydrogen, etc. present at any given time in the environment
of an ecosystem is known as standing state.
•Biomass: Biomass is the total amount of living material present in terms of weight/ unit area.

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 STRUCTURE OF ECOSYSTEM

A structure of Ecosystem comprise of

•The Composition of biological community including, species number, biomass, life history, and
distribution in space.
•The quantity and distribution of non-living material, such as nutrient water, etc.
•The rage of condition of existence such as temperature, light.

FUNCTION OF ECOSYSTEM:

•The rate of biological energy flow i.e. production & respiration rates of the community.
•The rate of material or nutrient cycles
•Biological or ecological regulation including both regulation of organism by environment and
regulation
of environment by the organisms.

2.1.1 COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM:

There are two components of an ecosystem; Living components and non living components.
Non Living Components: (Abiotic) Non living components are the physical and chemical factors
that directly or indirectly affect the living components e.g. air, water, land, rock etc. Non living
components are also called Abiotic components.
Physical factors include sunlight, water, fire, soil, air, temperature etc.
Chemical factors include moisture, salinity of water, soil nutrients, oxygen dissolved in water etc.
Living Components: Living components in an ecosystem are either producers or consumers. They
are also called biotic components. Producers can produce organic components e.g. plants can
produce starch, carbohydrates, cellulose from a process called photosynthesis. Consumers are the
components that are dependent on producers for their food e.g. human beings and animals•

Biotic Components are further classified into 3 main groups

•Producers •Consumers •Decomposers or Reducers

1. Producer(Autotrophs): The green plants have chlorophyll with the help of which they
trap solar energy and change it into chemical energy of carbohydrates using simple
inorganic compound namely, water and carbon dioxide. This process is known as
photosynthesis. The chemical energy stored by the producers is utilized partly by the
producers for their own growth and survival and the remaining is stored in the plants for
their future use. They are classified into two categories based on their source of food.
a) Photoautotrophs: An organism capable of synthesizing its own food from inorganic
substances using light as an energy source. Green plants and photosynthetic bacteria are
photoautotrophs.

b)Chemotrophs: Organisms that obtain energy by the oxidation of electron donors in their
environments. These molecules can be organic (chemoorganotrophs) or inorganic
(chemolithotrophs).

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 2. Consumers(Heterotrophs): The animals lack chlorophyll and are unable to synthesis their
own food therefore they depend on the producers for their food. •They are known as
heterotrophs (i.e. heteros= others, trophs= feeder).The Consumers are of 4 types:
(a) Primary Consumer: ( Herbivores) i.e. Animal feeding on plants, e.g. Rabbit, deer,
goat etc.
(b) Secondary Consumers: The animal feeding on Herbivores are called as secondary
Consumer or primary carnivores. e.g. Cats, foxes, snakes.
(c) Tertiary Consumers: These are large carnivores which feed on secondary consumers.
e.g. Wolves
(d) Quaternary Consumers: They are also called omnivores these are largest carnivores
Which feed on tertiary consumers and are not eaten up by
any other animals. e.g. lion and Tiger.

3. Decomposers or Detrivores: Bacteria & fungi belong to this category. They break down
the dead organic matter of producers & consumers for their food and release to the
environment the simple inorganic and organic substance. These simple substances are
reused by the producers resulting in a cyclic exchange of material between biotic &
abiotic environment.
Eg: Bacteria, Earth worms, Beetles etc

2.1.2 ENERGY FLOW IN AN ECOSYSTEM

•Biological activities require energy which ultimately comes from the sun. Solar energy is
transformed into chemical energy by a process of photosynthesis this energy is stored in plant
tissue and then transformed into heat energy during metabolic activities.
•Thus in biological world the energy flows from the sun to plants and then to all heterotrophic
organisms. The flow of energy is unidirectional and non-cyclic.
This one way flow of energy is governed by laws of thermodynamics which states that:
(a) Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed but may be transformed from one form
to another
(b) During the energy transfer there is degradation of energy from a concentrated form
(mechanical,
chemical, or electrical etc.) to a dispersed form (heat).
No energy transformation is 100 % efficient, it is always accompanied by some dispersion
or loss of energy in the form heat. Therefore, biological systems including ecosystems, must be
supplied with energy on a continuous Basis.

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MODELS OF ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEM

1. Single Channel Energy Flow Model: The flow of energy takes place in a unidirectional manner
through a single channel of producers to herbivores and carnivores. The energy captured by
autotrophs does not revert back to solar input but passes to herbivores; and that which passes to
herbivores does not go back to autotrophs but passes to consumers. Due to one way flow of energy,
the entire system would collapse if primary source of energy were cut off. At each tropic level
there occurs progressive decrease in energy which is mainly due to loss of energy as heat in
metabolic reactions and also some of the energy is utilized at each tropic level

2. Y- shaped model: shows a common boundary, light and heat flow as well as import , export
and storage of organic matter . Decomposers are placed in separate box to partially separate the
grazing and detritus food chains. In terms of energy levels decomposers are in fact a mixed group.
•Y- shaped energy flow is more realistic and practical than the single channel energy flow model
because: •It conforms to the basic stratified structure of ecosystems •It separates the two chains
i.e. grazing & detritus food chain in both time and space. •Micro consumers ( bacteria & fungi)
and the macro consumers (animals) differ greatly in size- metabolism relations in two models.

35
3.Universal energy flow model :As the flow of energy takes place, there is gradual loss of energy
at each level there by resulting in less energy available at the next tropic level as indicated by
narrower pipes (energy flow) and smaller boxes (stored energy in biomass). The loss of energy is
mainly the energy which is not utilized (U). This is the energy loss in locomotion, excretion etc.
or it the energy lost in respiration (CR) which is for maintenance. The remaining energy is used
for production (P).

2.1.3 ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

Ecological Succession is the phenomenon or process by which a community progressively

transforms itself until a stable community is formed. It is a fundamental concept in ecology, refers

36
to more or less predictable and orderly changes in the composition or structure of an ecological
community. Succession may be initiated either by formation of new, unoccupied habitat (e.g., a
lava flow or a severe landslide) or by some form of disturbance (e.g. fire, severe wind throw ,
logging) of an existing community. Succession that begins in areas where no soil is initially present
is called primary succession, whereas succession that begins in areas where soil is already present
is called secondary succession.

Clement's theory of succession/Mechanisms of succession

F.E. Clement (1916) developed a descriptive theory of succession and advanced it as a general
ecological concept. His theory of succession had a powerful influence on ecological thought.
Clement's concept is usually termed classical ecological theory. According to Clement,
succession is a process involving several phases:

1. Nudation: Succession begins with the development of a bare site, called Nudation
(disturbance).
2. Migration: It refers to arrival of propagules.
3. Ecesis: It involves establishment and initial growth of vegetation.
4. Competition: As vegetation became well established, grew, and spread, various species
began to compete for space, light and nutrients. This phase is called competition.
5. Reaction: During this phase autogenic changes affect the habitat resulting in replacement
of one plant community by another.
6. Stabilization: Reaction phase leads to development of a climax community.

Seral communities:

A seral community is an intermediate stage found in an ecosystem advancing towards its

climax community. In many cases more than one seral stage evolves until climax
conditions are attained. A prisere is a collection of seres making up the development of
an area from non-vegetated surfaces to a climax community. Depending on the
substratum and climate, a seral community can be one of the following:

Hydrosere : Community in freshwater

Lithosere :Community on rock
Psammosere :Community on sand
Xerosere : Community in dry area
Halosere : Community in saline body (e.g. a marsh)

Climax community
The final or stable community in a sere is the climax community or climatic vegetation. It is self-
perpetuating and in equilibrium with the physical habitat. There is no net annual accumulation of
organic matter in a climax community mostly. The annual production and use of energy is balanced
in such a community.
Characteristics of climax

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 The vegetation is tolerant of environmental conditions.
 It has a wide diversity of species, a well-drained spatial structure, and complex food
chains.
 The climax ecosystem is balanced. There is equilibrium between gross primary production
and total respiration, between energy used from sunlight and energy released by
decomposition, between uptake of nutrients from the soil and the return of nutrient by litter
fall to the soil.
 Individuals in the climax stage are replaced by others of the same kind. Thus the species
composition maintains equilibrium.
 It is an index of the climate of the area. The life or growth forms indicate the climatic type.

2.1.4 FOOD CHAIN, FOOD WEB & ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS:

FOOD CHAIN:
In food chain each organism eats the smaller organisms and is eaten by the larger one. All those
organisms which are interlinked with each other through food to gather constitute the ecosystem.
•The different levels in a food chain are called tropic levels, Each food chain has three main
tropic levels:- Producer level, Consumer level, and decomposer level. •If any of the intermediate
stage of the food chain is removed, the succeeding links of the food chain will be affected.

Types of Food Chains :

a) Grazing Food Chain: This type of food chain starts from living green plants goes to
grazing herbivores and onto carnivores. Ecosystem with such type of food chain directly
depends upon the solar energy for their food requirements. Most of the ecosystem in nature
follow this type of food chain.

b) Detritus food Chain: This type of food chain goes from dead organic matter onto
microorganisms and then to the organisms feeding on detritus and their predators. Such
ecosystem are less dependent on direct solar energy.

c) Parasitic Food Chain: This type of food chain starts from big hosts and ends with parasitic
organisms

FOOD WEB:

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The interconnected, interlocking pattern of food chain is known as food web. •Under natural
condition of the linear arrangement of food chain hardly occurs and they remain interconnected
with each other through different types of organisms at different levels Such a interconnected and
interlocking pattern of food chain is known as food web..

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

The different species in a food chain are called tropic levels. Each food chain has 3 main trophic
level, producer, consumer, and decomposers. •Thus Graphical representation of these trophic
levels is called as Ecological Pyramids. It was devised by an ecologist “ Charles Elton” therefore
this pyramid are also called Ecological pyramid or Eltonian pyramids.

Types of Ecological Pyramids :

Ecological pyramids are of three types:

I

I) Pyramid of Number II)Pyramid of biomass

III)Pyramid of Energy
I) Pyramid of Number:

•They show the relationship between producers, herbivores, and carnivores at successive tropic
levels in terms of their number.

•In case of pond ecosystem the producers are mainly phytoplankton and are always maximum in
number this number then shows a decrease towards apex as primary consumers are zooplanktons
are lesser in number than phytoplankton, the secondary consumers are large fish are even lesser in
number than the phytoplankton. Thus the shape of pyramid is upright. But in case of forest
ecosystem the pyramids is always inverted because the producers are mainly large trees, are lesser

39
in numbers, the herbivores fruit eating birds are more in number than the producers, then there is
gradual decrease in number of secondary consumers thus making pyramid upright again. Thus the
pyramid of number does not give a true picture of the food chain and are not very functional.

II) Pyramid of Biomass:

•The pyramid of biomass represents the relationship between different tropic levels in terms of
biomass. •There is generally gradual decrease in biomass of organisms at successive levels from
the producers to the top carnivores. Thus pyramid of biomass is upright for grassland ecosystem.
•However in case of a pond as the producers are algae, are least in number and this value gradually
shows an increase towards the apex of pyramid thus making the pyramid inverted in shape.

III) Pyramid of energy:

•Of the 3 types of ecological pyramid the energy pyramid gives the best picture of overall nature
of the ecosystem. In this type of pyramid the tropic level is decided depending upon the rate at
which food is being produced.
•In shape it is always upright as in most of the cases there is always gradual decrease in the energy
content at successive trophic level from producers to various consumers.

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 2.1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF ECOSYSTEMS

Due to the abiotic factors, different ecosystems develop in different ways. These factors and their
interaction between each other and with biotic components have resulted in formation of different
types of ecosystems as explained below.
Ecosystem may be natural or artificial.
Artificial Ecosystem: These are maintained or created artificially by man. The man tries to control
biotic community as well as physico-chemical environment.
Eg: Artificial pond, urban area development.
Natural Ecosystem: It consists of Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems which are maintained
naturally.

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Terrestrial ecosystems:

 Tropical Rain-Forests
 Temperature Forests
 Tropical Seasonal Forests
 Temperate Deciduous Forest
 Woodland and Shrub Land
 Boreal Forest
 Temperate Grassland
 Tundra
 Cultivated Land
 Extreme desert, Rock, Sand and Ice
 Desert/Semi-desert Shrub

Aquatic ecosystems:

 Open Oceans
 Lakes and Streams
 Continental Shelf
 Estuaries and Brackish Waters
 Swamp and Marsh
 Upwelling Zones
 Algal beds and Reefs

Different types of ecosystem of biosphere artificially categorized as follows:

•Natural Ecosystems •Artificial ecosystems

I) Natural Ecosystems : These ecosystems operate by themselves under natural conditions

without any major interference by man. Based upon the particular kind of habitat, these are further
divided as: •Terrestrial as forest, grassland, desert etc.
•Aquatic which may be further distinguished as
•Freshwater which may be lotic (running water as springs, stream, river) or lentic (standing water
as
lake, pond, pools, ditch, swamps, etc.)
•Marine Ecosystems: as an ocean or shallow ones like sea or estuary etc.
II) Artificial Ecosystems: These are maintained by man where, by addition of energy & planned
manipulations natural balance is disturbed regularly.
For eg : croplands like maize, wheat, rice-fields etc., where man tries to control the biotic
community as well as physico-chemical environment are artificial ecosystems

Pond Ecosystem: A Pond as a whole serves a good example of freshwater ecosystem

•Abiotic Components: The chief components are heat, light, pH of water, CO2, oxygen, calcium,
nitrogen, phosphates, etc.
•Biotic Components: The various organization that constitute the biotic component are as follows,
•Producers: These are green plants, and some photosynthetic bacteria. The producer fix radiant
energy
and convert it into organic substances as carbohydrates, protein etc

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 •Macrophytes: these are large rooted plants, which include partly or completely
submerged hydrophytes, eg Hydrilla, Trapha, Typha.
•Phytoplankton: These are minute floating or submerged lower plants eg algae.
•Consumers: They are heterotrophs which depend for their nutrition on the organic food
manufactured by producers. •Primary Consumers: – Benthos: These are animals
associated with living plants ,detrivores and some other microorganisms –Zooplanktons:
These are chiefly rotifers, protozoans, they feed on phytoplankton •Secondary
Consumers: They are the Carnivores which feed on herbivores, these are chiefly insect
and fish, most insects & water beetles, they feed on zooplanktons. •Tertiary Consumers:
These are some large fish as game fish, turtles, which feed on small fish and thus become
tertiary consumers. •Decomposers: They are also known as micro-consumers. They
decompose dead organic matter of both producers and animal to simple form. Thus they
play an important role in the return of minerals again to the pond ecosystem, they are
chiefly bacteria, & fungi.

Ocean Ecosystem
are more stable than pond ecosystem, they occupy 70 % of the earth surface.
•Abiotic Components: Dissolved oxygen, light, temperature, minerals. •Biotic Components:
•Producers: These are autotrophs and are also known Primary producers. They are mainly, some
microscopic algae (phyto-planlanktons) besides them there are mainly, seaweeds, as brown and
red algae also contribute to primary production. •Consumers: They are all heterotrophic macro
consumers •Primary Consumer: The herbivores, that feed on producers are shrimps, Molluscs,
fish, etc. •Secondary Consumers: These are carnivores fish as Herring, Shad, Mackerel, feeding
on herbivores. •Tertiary Consumers: These includes, other carnivores fishes like, COD, Halibut,
Sea Turtle, Sharks etc.
•Decomposers: The microbes active in the decay of dead organic matter of producers, and animals
are chiefly, bacteria and some fungi.

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Estuarine Ecosystem

•An estuary is a partially enclosed body of water along the coast where fresh water from river and
streams meet and mix with salt water from oceans. This Ecosystems are considered as most fertile
ecosystem. •Abiotic Components: Nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen, temperature, light,
salinity, pH. •This ecosystem experience wide daily and seasonal fluctuations in temperature and
Salinity level because of variation in freshwater in flow. •Biotic Components: •Producers:
Phyplanktons- these micro-organisms manufacture food by photosynthesis and absorb nutrients
such as phosphorous and nitrogen, besides them, mangroves, sea grass, weeds, and salt marshes.
•Consumers: Primary consumers, Zooplanktons that feed on Phytoplankton, besides them some
small microorganisms that feed on producers. •Secondary Consumer: Include worms, shellfish,
small fish, feeding on Zooplanktons •Tertiary Consumer : Fishes, turtles, crabs, starfishes
feeding on secondary consumers. •Decomposers: Fungi & Bacteria are the chief microbes active
in decay of dead organic matter.

Riverine Ecosystem

•As Compared with lentic freshwater (Ponds & lakes), lotic waters such as streams, and river have
been less studied. However, the various components of an riverine and stream ecosystem can be
arranged as follows. •Producers: The chief producers that remain permanently attached to a firm
substratum are green algae as Cladophora, and aquatic mosses. •Consumers: The consumers show
certain features as permanent attachment to firm substrata, presence of hooks & suckers, sticky
undersurface, streamline bodies, flattened bodies.. Thus a variety of animal are found, which are
fresh spongy and caddis-fly larvae, snails, flat worms etc. •Decomposers: Various bacteria and
fungi like actinomycetes are present which acts as decompose

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 2.2 BIODIVERSITY

The word biodiversity is a combination of two words: “biological and diversity” and refers to the
variety of life on the Earth. Biodiversity is the degree of variation of life forms within a given
species, ecosystem, biome, or an entire planet. Biodiversity is a measure of the health of
ecosystems.
The term biological diversity was used first by wildlife scientist and conservationist Raymond
F. Dasmann in the 1968.
The term's contracted form biodiversity may have been coined by W.G. Rosen in 1985

Biodiversity is usually considered at three different levels:

The following are different types of biodiversity
1. Genetic diversity: variety in the genetic makeup among individuals within a species
2. Species diversity: variety among the species or distinct types of living organisms found in
different habitats of the planet
3. Ecosystem or ecological diversity: variety of forests, deserts, grasslands, streams, lakes,
oceans, coral reefs, wetlands and other biological
communities
4. Functional diversity: biological and chemical processes of functions such as energy flow and
matter cycling needed for the survival of species and biological
communities

In 2003 Professor Anthony Campbell at Cardiff University, UK and the Darwin Centre,
Pembrokeshire, defined a fourth level: Molecular Diversity.

1. Genetic Diversity: Genetic diversity is the “raw material” that permits species to adjust to a
changing worldwhether these changes are due to natural factors or are caused by human factors. It
refers to the variation at the level of individual genes and provides a mechanism for populations
to adapt to their ever-changing environment.
Eg: Human beings

2. Species Diversity : Species diversity refers to the different types of living organisms on Earth.
This includes the many types of birds, insects, plants, bacteria, fungi, mammals, and more. Many
differing species often live together in communities depending on each other to provide their
needs.
A species can be defined as a group or population of similar organisms that reproduce by
interbreeding within the group. Members of a species do not normally reproduce with members of
any other species. Members of a specific species possess common characteristics that distinguish
them from other species and this remains constant regardless of geographic location.
Human beings, for example, belong in a single species — Homo sapiens and can successfully
breed with different human populations around the world because they all belong to the
same species.

3. Ecosystem Diversity : Ecological diversity or ecosystem diversity is the variety of biological

communities, such as forests, deserts, grasslands and streams that interact with one another and
with their physical and chemical (nonliving) environments. It relates to the different forms of life
which are present in any one particular area or site, in more precise terms, it concerns the different

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species of a particular genus which are present in an ecological community.

4. Functional diversity: Functional diversity refers to the diversity of ecological processes that
maintain and are dependent upon the other components of diversity. Functional diversity includes
the many ecological interactions among species e.g. competition, predation, parasitism,
mutualism, etc. as well as ecological processes such as nutrient retention and recycling. It also
includes the varying tempos and intensities of natural disturbances that many species and
communities require if they are to persist.

2.2.1 VALUES OF BIODIVERSITY

The value of biodiversity (in terms of its commercial utility, ecological services, social and
aesthetic values) is enormous. There are several ways that biodiversity and its various forms are
Valuable to humans. The biodiversity value may be classified as follows:

1. CONSUMPTIVE VALUE: Biodiversity is an essential requirement for the maintenance of

global food supply. The main sources of human food include animals, fish and plant produces.
A large number of plants are consumed by human beings as food. A few animal species are
consumed by people which comes from cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, buffaloes, chickens, ducks, geese
and turkey species.
Fish: Many fresh water fish can be grown in ponds. Israel and China already get about half of their
fish from aqua culture.
Drugs & medicines: About 75% of the world’s population depends upon plants or plant extracts
for medicines. The drug Penicillin used as an antibiotic is derived from a fungus called
Penicillium. Likewise, Tetracycline from a bacteria which is used to cure malaria is obtained from
the bark of cinchona tree. .
Fuel: The fossil fuels like coal, petroleum products and natural gas are the products of biodiversity.

2. PRODUCTIVE VALUE: Some of the organisms are commercially usable where the product
is marketed and sold. The animal products like tusks of elephants; musk from deer; silk from
silkworm; wool from sheep or goats; fur of many animals etc all of which are traded in the market.
Eg: Calabar bean was tradionally used as a poison in West Africa.
Daisy plants were first used as a lice remedy in the middle east and this led to the
discovery of Pyrethrum. Mosquito coils made from Pyrethrum are sold in the market.
The bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis produces toxic proteins that kill certain insects.

3. SOCIAL VALUE: These are the values associated with the social life, religion and spiritual
aspects of the people. Many of the plants are considered to be sacred in our country like Tulasi,
Mango leaves, Banana leaves . The leaves, fruits, flowers of some of the plants are used in worship.
Many animals like cow, snake, bull, peacock also have significant place in spiritual and thus hold
special importance. Thus, biodiversity has distinct social value, attached with different societies.
4. ETHICAL VALUE: The ethical value means that human beings may or may not use a certain
species but knowing the very fact that this species exists in nature gives pleasure.
For eg: A peculiar species of Pigeon, grey / white bird with short legs is no more on this earth.
Similarly, Dodo species is also no more. Human beings are not deriving anything direct from
Kangaroo, giraffe but strongly feel that these species should exist in nature.

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5. AESTHETIC VALUE: Every one of us would like to visit vast stretches of lands to enjoy the
visible life. People from farther areas, spend a lot of time and money to visit wild life areas where
they can enjoy the aesthetic value of biodiversity and this type of tourism is known as eco tourism.
Eco-tourism is estimated to generate 12 billion dollars of revenue annually that roughly gives the
aesthetic value of biodiversity.
A study of the impact of environment on the psyche was undertaken by Kaplan and Kaplan (1989)
in which they found that being near nature relieved working stresses while people who worked in
closed environment or human made structures experienced much more job stresses and illnesses.

2.2.2 BIODIVERSITY AT GLOBAL, NATIONAL AND LOCAL LEVEL

The enormous diversity of life forms in the biosphere has evolved essentially through the process
of trial and error during course of organic evolution. The changes in character of living organism
which confer some advantage to the species are retained.

The changes in climatic conditions are reflected in the distribution of living organism and the
pattern of biodiversity on our planet. The number of species present per unit area decreases as we
move from mild tropics to the tundra's.

The Indian region (8° to 30° N and 60° to 97.5°) with total area of 329 million hectares is very rich
in biodiversity. It is estimated that about 4500 species of plants occur in this country. The position
of Indian sub-continent at the confluence of there biogeography reels is also an important
contributing factor and explain the preserve of African, European, Sind, Japanese and Indo-
Malayan elements in the flora and fauna in India. It is the sum total of such remarkable diversity
that has made India a "gene bank" for a number of food crops, forest trees, medical and aromatic
plants and domesticated animal.

Warm tropical regions between the tropic of cancer and Capricorn on either side of equator have
provided the most suitable habitat living organism. In habitat which does not provide the optimum
conditions, organisms have to adopt themselves to the prevailing adverse conditions.

Forests are important bioreserves; most of the 1700 million hectares of tropical forests are located
in poor countries. The forests surrounding Reo de Aneroid are part of vegetation which is rich in
species of plants and animals that are endemic. There are about 53.5% of trees species found only
in these forests and studies of birds, reptiles, primates and butter flies have revealed equally high
or higher endemics.

2.2.3 INDIA AS A MEGA DIVERSITY NATION

India contains a great wealth of biodiversity in the forests, wet lands and marine areas. Hence
biodiversity can be observed at all levels ie locally, nationally and globally . India, as a
subcontinent representing a major part of South Asia is rich in flora and fauna and hence it is one
of the world’s “MEGADIVERSITY NATIONS” .

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It is estimated that over 75000 species of animals and over 45000 species of plants are found in
India.

Biogeographic regions of India: According to wild life Institute of India, the country has 10
distinct biogeographic zones or regions. They are:
1. Trans – Himalayan Zone
2. Himalayan Zone
3. Desert Zone
4. Semi – arid Zone
5. Western Ghats
6. Deccan Zone
7. Gangetic plain Zone
8. NE Indian Zone
9. Coastal Zone
10. Islands around the country

2.2.4 HOT SPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY

Areas which exhibit high species richness as well as high species endemism are termed as hot
spots of biodiversity. Species which are restricted only to particular areas are known as endemic.
India shows a good number of endemic species. About 62% of amphibians and 50% of lizards are
endemic to India. Western Ghats are the site of maximum endemism. The term “Hot spots” was
introduced by Myers (1988). There are 25 such hot spots of biodiversity on a global level out of
which two are present in India, namely the Eastern Himalayas and Western Ghats. These hotspots
covering less than 2% of the world’s land area are found to have about 50% of the terrestrial
biodiversity. According to Myers an area is designated as a hotspot when it contains at least 0.5%
of the plant species as endemics.

a) Eastern Himalayas: They display an ultra-varies topography that fosters species diversity and
endemism. Recent studies have shown that North East India along with its contiguous regions of
Burma and Chinese provinces of Yunnan and Schezwan is an active center of organic evolution
and is considered to be the cradle of flowering plants. Out of the world’s recorded flora 30% are
endemic to India of which 35000 are in the Himalayas.

b) Western Ghats: It extends along a 17000 km² strip of forests in Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Tamilnadu and Kerala and has 40% of the total endemic plant species. The major centers of
diversity are Agastyamalai Hills and Silent valley- the new Amambalam Reserve Basin .It is
reported that only 6.8% of the original forests are existing today while the rest has been deforested
or degraded, which raises a serious cause of alarm, because it means we have already lost a huge
proportion of the biodiversity.

2.2.5 THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY

Extinction or elimination of a species is a natural process of evolution. In the geologic period the
earth has experienced mass extinctions. During evolution, species have died out and have been
replaced by others. However, the rate of loss of species in geologic past has been a slow process,

48
keeping in view the vast span of time going back to 444 million years. The process of extinction
has become particularly fast in the recent years of civilization. Edward O. Wilson prefers the
acronym HIPPO, standing for habitat destruction, invasive species, pollution, human
overpopulation, and over-harvesting
Following are the major causes and issues related to threats to biodiversity:

1. Habitat destruction: Habitat destruction has played a key role in extinctions, especially related
to tropical forest destruction. Factors contributing to habitat loss are: overpopulation,
deforestation, pollution (air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination) and global warming or
climate change.
Habitat size and numbers of species are systematically related. Physically larger species and those
living at lower latitudes or in forests or oceans are more sensitive to reduction in habitat area.
Conversion to "trivial" standardized ecosystems (e.g., monoculture following deforestation)
effectively destroys habitat for the more diverse species that preceded the conversion. In some
countries lack of property rights or lax law/regulatory enforcement necessarily leads to
biodiversity loss (degradation costs having to be supported by the community)

2. Poaching: Illegal trade of wildlife products by killing prohibited endangered animals i.e.
poaching is another threat to wildlife. Despite international ban on trade in products from
endangered species, smuggling of wildlife items like furs, hides, horns, tusks, live specimens and
herbal products worth millions of dollars per year continues, the developing nations in Asia, Latin
America and Africa are the richest source of biodiversity and have enormous wealth of wildlife.
The rich countries in Europe and North America and some affluent countries in Asia like Japan,
Taiwan and Hong Kong are the major importers of the wildlife products or wildlife itself. The
trading of such wild life products is highly profit making for the poachers who just hunt these
prohibited wild lives and smuggle it to other countries mediated through mafia. The worst part is
that for every live animal that actually gets into the market about 50 additional animals are caught
and killed

If you are fond of rare plants, fish or birds, please make sure that you are not going to the
endangered species or wild-caught species. Doing so will help in checking further decline of these
species. Also do not purchase fur coat, purse or bag, or items made of crocodile skin or python
skin. You will certainly help in preserving biodiversity by doing so.

3. Man-Wildlife Conflicts: We have discussed about the need to preserve and protect wildlife.
However, sometimes we come across conflicting situations when wildlife starts causing immense
damage and danger to man and under such conditions it becomes very difficult for the forest
department to pacify the affected villages and gain local support for wildlife conservation.
Instances of man animal conflicts keep on coming to lime light from several states in our country.
In Sambalpur, Orissa 195 humans were killed in the last 5years by elephants. In retaliation the
villagers killed 95 elephants in the border region of Kote-Chamarajanagar belt in Mysore have
been reported recently. The man-elephant conflict in this region has arisen because of massive
damage done by the elephants to the farmer’s cotton and sugarcane crops. The agonized villagers
electrocute the elephants and sometimes hide explosives in the sugarcane fields, which explode as
the elephants intrude into their fields. In fact, more killings are done by locals than by poachers.

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Causes of Man-animal conflicts:
Dwindling habitats of tigers, elephants, rhinos and bears due to shrinking forests cover are
compelled to move outside the forests and attack the field or sometimes even humans. Human
encroachment into the forest areas has rendered all forest living animals to trespass the borders of
human civilizations. This is because the conflicts between man and the wildlife have increased
since it is an issue of survival of both

3.1 Invasive Non-Native Species: Species that are non-native to a particular area can sometimes
spread very quickly, for example the zebra mussel and Japanese knotweed have spread rapidly in
Ireland in the past two decades. As a result, these species can destabilize an ecosystem by altering
habitats affecting food webs.

3.2 Pollution/Litter: As you will remember from the Litter and Waste theme, pollution is always
caused by humans. Pollution can have a huge impact, altering the balance within ecosystems, and
is the cause of death for millions of animals and plants around the world every year.

3.3 Land Use Change/Increased Infrastructure Development: This is the alteration of natural
areas by humans, for example, the clearing of huge areas of rainforest in South America for
farming. In Ireland, upland open habitats, such as rough grassland, scrub and heath, have been
changed by agriculture and afforestation.

3.4 Intensive Farming Practices: Extensive use and concentrations of chemical and/or biological
pesticides and the removal of hedgerows are typical practices in modern-day intensive farming.
Often large areas of land are planted with a single crop (monocultures) which greatly reduces the
level of biodiversity in that area.

3.5 Climate Change: It is now widely accepted that the current global rate of change in climate is
as a result of human activity. As global air or sea temperature changes, even by just 1 or 2 degrees,
the habitats in which species live will also change and may even become uninhabitable to some
species.

2.2.6 ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC SPECIES

Endangered species A species whose numbers are reduced to the point. That means endangered
species are in immediate danger of extinction.
The International Union Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) classified the species of plants and
animals as:
(a) Endangered species
(b) Vulnerable species means depleted species.
(c) Threatened species: Species ( including animals, plants, fungi, etc.) which are vulnerable to
endangerment in the near future)
(d) Rare species : Among the important endangered animal species, Indian wild ass; the Kashmir
stag, the Golden Langur etc .. are considered highly endangered. There are also
endangered bird species like Siberian crane; the great Indian Bustard; the florican etc..

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The IUCN published the data on endangered species of both plants and animals of India. The data
symbolizes the working signal for those species which are endangered and if not protected are
likely to become extinct in near future
A species is said to be extinct when it is not seen in the wild for 50 years at a stretch e.g. Dodo,
Passenger Pigeon.
A species is said to be endangered when its number has been reduced to a critical level or whose
habitat, have been drastically reduced and if such species is not protected and conserved, it is in
immediate danger of extinction.
A species is said to be Vulnerable if its population is facing continuous decline due to
overexploitation or habitat destruction.

Endangered species of India

The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources(IUCN)

publishes the Red Data Book which include the list of endangered species of plants and animals.
The red data symbolizes the warning signal for those species which are endangered and if not
protected are likely to become extinct in near future

The animals that are listed under the critically endangered category are as under:
1)Jenkin'sShrew
2)MalabarLargeSpottedCivet
3)NamdaphaFlyingSquirrel
4)PygmyHog
5)SalimAli'sFruitBat
6)SumatranRhinoceros
7)Wroughton'sFreeTailedBat

EndangeredSpeciesareasunder:
1)AsiaticLion
2)AsiaticBlackBear
3)DesertCat
4)GreatIndianRhinoceros
5)IndianElephant(or)AsianElephant

VulnerableSpeciesareasunder:
1)AsiaticWildDogs
2)Banteng
3)BrownBear
4)CloudedLeopard
5)GangesRiverDolphin

ThreatenedSpeciesareasunder:
1)IndianWildAss
2)Leopard
3) Red Fox

Endemic species of India

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India has two biodiversity hot-spots and thus possess a large number of endemic species.

The endemic species are those taxa whose distribution is confined to a restricted area due to their
specific ecological niches and edaphic gradients. Therefore, the habitats of endemic species are far
more vulnerable than other species. Endemic species once lost, it is a loss of biodiversity of these
species for ever.

In India there are about 5725 endemic taxa of angiosperms (33.5% of Indian flora) which are
located in 25 hot spots. The major hotspots in India which contain largest number of endemic plant
species are the Southern Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayas with 1286 and 1808 endemic
species respectively. There are about 1272 species of endemic angiosperms out of 3800 species
occurring in Kerala (33.5% of Kerala flora) which represent 22.6% of Indian endemics. Seventy
percent of the 1272 species of endemics have the major areas of distribution in Kerala with spill
over in adjacent regions. On the basis of the study of the distributional range, about 102 endemic
species occur exclusively in Kerala.

A large number out of a total of 81,000 of animals in our country is endemic. The westren ghats
are particularly rich in amphibians (frogs, toads etc) and reptiles(lizards, crocodiles etc) About
62% amphibians and 50% lizards are endemic to western ghats

2.2.7 CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY

In order to maintain and conserve biodiversity, the Ministry of Environment and Forests,
government of India has already taken several steps to manage wildlife, the objectives of which
are:
1. Maintenance of a number of species in protected areas such as National Parks, Sanctuaries..
2. To improve the biosphere reserves
3. Implement strict restrictions of export of rare plants and animals
4. Educate the public on these through the government agencies and NGO’s.

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A) In-situ conservation: The preservation of species in its natural ecosystem is called in-situ
conservation. As a consequence, protected areas are being identified and maintained for natural
conservation of species by individual countries. For the conservation and management of
endangered species several projects have been established.
These are:

Tiger Projects: Corbett National Park which is 300 km from New Delhi is the oldest National
Park of India having 1318.54 sq km. It was one of the nine Tiger Reserves created at the launch of
the Project Tiger in 1973.

Gir Lion Projects: The Gir Forest of Gujarat where lions are found. This has an area of 1412 sq
kms and declared as a National Park.

Elephant Projects: The objective was to ensure long-term survival of population of elephants
( not come into operations). Project Elephant (PE), a centrally sponsored scheme, was launched in
February 1992 to provide financial and technical support to major elephant bearing States in
the country for protection of elephants and their habitats. The Project is being implemented in 13
States/UTs, viz..Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala,
Meghalaya, Nagaland, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal.
There are about 7000 protected areas in the world which include a variety of National parks,
Sanctuaries etc which vary in size (between 100 to 500 sq km), purpose (protection of one or more
species and their habitats).. In India, there are 39 National Parks and 492 wildlife sanctuaries.

National Parks : These are protected areas exclusively for wild life. Human activities like hunting
, Firewood collection, timber harvesting etc… are restricted in these areas to that wild plants and
animals could grow in a protected environment

The following measures should be adopted for the conservation of biodiversity:

1. Over grazing in the forest and areas of vegetation should be controlled because it may
Destroy the useful rare plants.
2. The habitat of plants and animals should be conserved.
3. The natural condition of ecosystem should be studied and researched in time and again, then
Specific programs for conservation should be conducted.
4. Human activities should be done without destroying natural environment.
5. Illegal hunting and smuggling of animals and plants should be strictly avoided.
6. Effective laws and rules should be adopted for the conservation of rare animals and plants.
7. Industries are established from the raw materials. During the process of collecting raw
materials, care should be taken not to destroy useful plants and habitats of animals.
8. Public awareness should be created about the importance of rare animals and plants, causes
of rareness and measures for their preservation.

B) Ex-situ conservation: The conservation of elements of biodiversity out of the context of their
natural habitats is referred to as ex-situ conservation. Zoos, botanical gardens and seed banks are
all example of ex-situ conservation. In India we have the following important gene and seed
bank facilities.

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 i) National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) is located in New Delhi. Here
agricultural and horticultural crops are stored by cryopreservation of seeds, pollens
etc. by using liquid nitrogen at a low temperature as low as -1960C.
ii) National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (NBAGR) located at karnal, Haryana.
It preserves the semen of domesticated bovine animals.

UNIT-III
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION, GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISUES AND
CONTROL MEASURES

3.1 ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

INTRODUCTION:
According to ODUM (1971), Pollution is “an undesirable change in the characteristics of air,
water and land that harmfully affect the life and also create health hazards for all living
organisms on the
globe”.
According to SOUTHWICK ( 1976), Pollution can be defined as “ the unfavorable (or)
alteration of environment caused by human activities and causing harm to human beings ”.

TYPES OF POLLUTION:
Basically the Pollution is of two types viz.,
(1) Natural Pollution: This type of pollution is limited in its occurrence generally from natural
hazards like volcanic eruptions, emissions of natural gas, soil erosion, ultraviolet rays, cosmic
rays etc and
(2) Man made Pollution: Most of the pollution is man made only. However, Pollution is usually
categorized as Air Pollution; Water Pollution; Thermal Pollution; Noise Pollution; Land & soil
Pollution; Radio Active Pollution and Marine Pollution

3.1.1 AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution may be described as “the imbalance in quality of air so as to cause adverse effects
on the living organisms existing on earth”. Pollution is due to the presence of undesirable
substance of sufficient quantity which exists in environment.
The substance or energy which causes pollution is called pollutant.

Types of air pollutants:

Pollutants may be classified according to origin and state of matter.

a) According to Origin: Air pollutants are divided into two categories as primary & secondary.
1) Primary air pollutants are those which are emitted directly into the atmosphere.
Eg: C; CO; CO2; SOx ; N; S; H; NOx; CFC’s etc .
2) Secondary air pollutants are those which are produced in the air by the interaction
among the primary air pollutants or by reaction with atmospheric constituents.
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 Eg: Ozone (O3); Smog; Para Acetyl Nitrate (PAN); Acid Rain; Aerosols.

b) According to State of Matter: Air pollutants include fine solids; liquids and gases. Dust,
Smoke, Fumes etc are examples for solid particles whereas fog is an example for liquid particles.
Benzene (C6H6 ), Methane ( CH4 ), Butane, aldehydes, ketones, inorganic gases etc are gaseous air
pollutants.

PRIMARY POLLUTANTS
1. Carbon Monoxide: It is a colorless, odorless, poisonous gas that is produced by the incomplete
burning of carbon based fuels (coal, petrol, diesel and wood) which comes from the automobile
industries, exhaust devices, About 70% of CO emissions are from the transport sector.
When the air is polluted with CO, human blood is likely to be deprived of oxygen and leads to
coma and death. In mild dosages, it leads to headache.

2. Oxides of Sulphur: SO2 is a gas produced from burning of coal, mainly in thermal power plants.
Some industries such as paper mills produce SO2. It is injurious not only to men and plants, but it
also attacks rapidly a few rocks such as limestone, marbles, electric contacts etc. It can even
dissolve nylon.
Paper absorbs SO2 causing the paper to become brittle and fragile. SO2 polluted air leads to
corrosion of metals such as Fe, Zn, Cu, steel etc… SO 2 is a major contributor to Smog and acid
rain.
Sulphur trioxide is more irritant than SO2 because it combines immediately with water to form
sulphuric acid.

3. Oxides of Nitrogen: Combustion of coal, oil, natural gas and gasoline which produces upto 50
ppm of Nitrogen. NOx are also produced when fossil fuels are burned especially in power plants
and motor vehicles. NO2poisoning results SILOFILTER disease. High levels of NO2 exposure
causes cough and make the human beings feel short of breath. People who are exposed to NO 2 for
a long time have a higher chance of getting respiratory infections.
NOx compounds contribute for the formation of Ozone. Similarly, when nitrogen oxide when
combine with SOx to form acid rain.

4. Chloro Fluoro Carbons: CFC’s (also known as Freon) are non- toxic. They contain Carbon,
Fluorine and Chlorine atoms.The five main CFCs are the following:
CFC – 11 ( Trichloro Fluoro Methane CFCl3 )
CFC – 12 ( Dichloro Fluoro Methane CF2Cl2 )
CFC – 113 ( Trichloro Trifluoro Ethane C2 F3Cl3 )
CFC – 114 ( Dichloro Tetrafluoro Ethane C2F4Cl2 )
CFC – 115 ( Chloropenta Fluoro Ethane C2F5Cl )
The major uses of CFCs are as coolants in refrigerators and in air conditioners; as solvents in
cleaners particularly for electronic circuit boards etc.. CFCs are the main cause of ozone depletion.
CFCs have a lifetime in the atmosphere of about 20 to 100 years, and as a result one free chlorine
atom from a CFC molecule can do a lot of damage.

SECONDARY POLLUTANTS:
1) Ozone (O3) / Ozone layer Depletion: Ozone consists of oxygen molecules which contain three
oxygen atoms. It is not emitted directly into the air but produced in the atmosphere when oxygen
combines with oxygen radical (O.) in the presence of sunlight. Ozone protects us from ultra violet
radiation and other harmful rays.
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It is observed that over the last few years, many man made processes release gases into atmosphere
causing drastic depletion of ozone layer. The chlorine atoms cause depletion of ozone slowly and
holes are formed in the ozone layer.
Ozone reacts with tissues and cause for breathing and decrease the working ability of the lungs,
chest pains and coughing. It lowers the human body resistance power and leads to cold; pneumonia
also.
Antarctic Ozone depletion: According to NIMBUS-7 satellite picture which was taken on 5th
October, 1987 the protective ozone layer showed a hole over 50% of the area of the Antarctica
continent covering 7 million sq km.
On Jan 1st 1989, the country Montreal (Canada) proposed redesigning refrigeration, air
conditioning technology replacing the use of CFCs by ozone friendly substitutes.

2) Smog: Smog is a combination of smoke and fog or various gases when react in the presence of
sunlight. The effects of smog on human health cause for respiratory, irritation to the eyes, diseases
related to nose, throat, bronchitis, pneumonia, headache, nerves, liver, kidneys.
The first smog related deaths were recorded in London in 1873, when it killed 500 people. In 1892,
December, London had worst experiences causing 1000 deaths. In 1940’s severe smog began
covering the cities of Los Angeles in USA.

3) Para Acetyl Nitrate (PAN): PAN which is a harmful chemical form in nature and causes
irritation of eyes and other human sense organs. It may also cause blisters on the skin.

4) Acid rain: Acid rain has become one of the most important global environmental problems and
poses significant adverse impact on soils, rivers, lakes, forests and monuments. The phenomenon
occurs when SOx and NOx from the burning of fossil fuels such as Petrol, Diesel, Coat etc combine
with water vapour in atmosphere and fall as rain or snow or fog.
Natural sources like volcanoes, forest fires, etc also contribute SOx and NOx. Increased urban
and industrial activities cause air pollution resulting in the rise of concentration of SO 2 and NOx.
Sulphur dioxide and NO2 combines with water vapour in the atmosphere produce sulphuric acid
and Nitric acid respectively and results acid rain. Some of the examples are:
Europe and parts of W Asia have experienced rain with water pH range of 4.5 to 5.0 (acidic) in
1958.
In 1962, acid rain occurred in Sweden with pH of water ranging from 4.5 to 5.0. Netherlands and
Holland also experienced acid rains in the same year. In April 1984, acid rain occurred in
Scottland.

5) Aerosols: These are Suspended Particulate matter. It consists of dust, soot, asbestos particles,
lead, nickel, Nitrate and sulphate salts, fumes, mists, smoke and sulphuric acid particles etc.. These
particles measure less than 1 micron in size because of that, they directly enter into respiratory
track. Exhaust gases from aero planes, automobile industries are the main sources for releasing
aerosols.

AIR POLLUTION EFFECTS, PREVENTION AND CONTROL MEASURES:

Human beings breathe 22000 times a day on the average, inhaling 16 kg of air. Atmosphere
constitutes a protective cover of gases surrounding the earth which
sustains life and saves it from unfriendly environment.
The atmosphere consists of several layers viz. Troposphere, Stratosphere; Mesosphere;
Thermosphere & Exosphere.

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The lower atmosphere i.e., the troposphere contains 70% of gaseous components of major, minor
and traces. Ultra violet radiation from the sun is absorbed by ozone in the stratosphere which is so
called ozone layer located between 17 - 26 kms above sea level.

Effects of Air pollution: The effects of pollution may be direct and affect certain organisms. The
effects of pollution may posses a hazard or nuisance. Long continued pollution even affects the
evolution of a species and eliminates organisms that cannot tolerate certain pollutants and favor
others who can eat.
Air pollution causes deaths, Impair health, reduce visibility and brings vast economic losses. It can
also cause intangible losses to historic monuments such as Taj Mahal.
Finally, Air pollution can affect the environment on a global scale.

Prevention and control of Air Pollution:

 Inputs that do not contain the pollutants.
 Operating process to minimize generation of the pollutants.
 Replacing the process with one does not generate the pollutant.
 Removing the pollutants from the process.
 Substitution of raw materials.
Eg: The substitution of high sulphur coal with low sulphur coal in power plants.
Eg: Changing a fossil fuel with nuclear energy can eliminate sulphur emission.
 By involving the Process Modification:
Eg: Chemical and petroleum industries have changed by implementing
automated operations, computerized process control by reducing the
oxidation ofSO2 to SO3 by reducing excess air.
 By involving the control technologies: Control equipment viz., Wet Collector
(scrubber), Gravity Settling chamber; Cyclone Collectors, Dry Scrubbers, filters,
electrostatic precipitators etc. are to be used to minimize the air pollution.

3.1.2 WATER POLLUTION

Hydrosphere in the universe contains water in the form of oceans, rivers, lakes, tanks and many
other water sources.
Water sources in the world are of two types.
They are (1) Marine water bodies and (2) Fresh Water bodies.
Water is a good solvent for many substances. Because of this property water cannot exist in its
pure form at many parts of the world. Water pollution is mainly because of sewage, industrial
disposals i.e., effluents.

PARAMETERS OF WATER POLLUTION:

Chemical examination of water (tests): pH; Biological Oxygen Demand(BOD) ,Dissolved
Oxygen(DO), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)etc are some of the chemical tests to find the stage
of pollution of water.

1. pH: The value of pH gives the degree of acidity or alkalinity of polluted water. Determination
of pH is important in calculating the coagulant (thick or thin) dose.

2. Dissolved O2: The amount of oxygen in dissolved form in water at a particular temperature and
atmospheric pressure is known as dissolved Oxygen. In polluted waters, dissolved oxygen is the

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factor which determines whether the biological changes are carried by aerobic (needing oxygen)
or by anaerobic (oxygen not required) micro-organisms.
Eg: 5 to 8 mg/L of dissolved oxygen is required for most of the species and fishes.

3. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD): It is defined as the quantity of oxygen utilized by micro
organisms at a temperature of 20oC, generally measured for 5 days. When water is polluted by
unwanted materials, naturally the O2 content gets reduced and that water become not fit for
consumption either by human beings or animals or plants.
Living organisms require water with some quantity of sustainable oxygen in it. That oxygen is
necessary for living organisms is generally called BOD. If there is reduction in oxygen content of
water, it becomes unfit for biological consumption because there is change in BOD.

4. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD ): This test is conducted to determine the pollution
strength of the sewage. Potassium dichromate and potassium permanganate are used as oxidizing
agents.

COMMON TYPES OF WATER POLLUTANTS:

A) Based on sources B) Based on natures

A) Based on sources:
a) Disease causing agents: Bacteria, viruses, protozoan that enter water from domestic sewage
and animal wastes.
b) Water soluble inorganic chemicals: Acids, salts and compounds of toxic metals such as Lead,
Mercury can make water unfit to drink, harm fishes and other aquatic life. Also Nitrate, Phosphate
compounds dissolve in water that can cause excessive growth of algae, which then die and decay,
depleting dissolved O2 in water and killing fish.
c) Water Soluble Organic chemicals: Oil, gasoline (a type of oil is obtained from petroleum),
pesticides, detergents and many other water soluble chemicals that threaten human health and harm
fish.
d) Heat: Large quantity of water is heated when it is used in the cooling towers of thermal power
plants. When this hot water is discharged into the nearby water bodies, it causes an increase in its
temperature.
e) Sewage: sewage is waste water from municipal area where there is human habitation. Sewage
which comes from homes is called domestic sewage

B) Based on natures:
In nature water pollution is classified into three types by Kimball (1975). They are:
1. Domestic water pollution: Sewage is a part of domestic water pollution. Domestic sewage not
only contains unwanted waste materials, but it is also infested with harmful bacteria, virus etc.
These are responsible for causing diseases in animals and human beings, if they drink this polluted
water and even plants may die if polluted water is provided. Domestic water pollution leads to
Diarrhea, Cholera and Typhoid in human beings.

2. Agricultural Water Pollution: Water require for plants for its growth. Major irrigation, minor
irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, drip irrigation, lift irrigation carry waste substances and causing
water pollution in addition to the utilization of fertilizer and pesticides. Agricultural water
pollution leads to Eutrophication & Water Bloom.

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Eutrophication is the ecosystem response to the addition of artificial or natural substances, such
as nitrates and phosphates, through fertilizers or sewage, to an aquatic system. Eutrophication also
occurs when fresh water bodies like ponds, lakes, pools which contain organic waste material.
Because of that, the fresh water ponds and lakes get polluted. Eutrophication is a type of water
pollution. Eutrophication was recognized as a pollution problem in European and North American
lakes and reservoirs in the mid-20th century. Since then, it has become more widespread. Surveys
showed that 54% of lakes in Asia are eutrophic;
in Europe, 53%; in North America, 48%; in South America, 41%; and in Africa, 28%.

Ecological effects: The important troubling ecological impacts are:

1. Excessive nutrients in water bodies promote plant growth which leads to a drop in water
quality;
2. Disruption of the natural ecosystem E.g. lack of oxygen for shelf marine life (causing
a drop in their population).
3. Decrease in the recreational and aesthetic value of water bodies
4. Health problems when it occurs in drinking water reserves
5. Coral reef decline
6. Decreased biodiversity,
7. Changes in species composition and dominance, and
8. Toxicity effects.
9. Toxic phytoplankton species
10. Decreases in water transparency (increased turbidity)
11. Color, smell, and water treatment problems
12. Dissolved oxygen depletion
13. Increased incidences of fish kills
14. Loss of desirable fish species

3. Industrial water pollution: Many industries discharge waste materials containing harmful
chemicals. Such Industrial wastes are called effluents. The river Godavari is polluted because of
effluents released by the paper industry. It affects the entire water ecosystem causing enormous
damage to fishes, prawns and fresh water animals.
Eg: Minamata disease & Fluorosis.
Minamata disease is a neurological syndrome caused by severe mercury poisoning. Symptoms
include ataxia, numbness in the hands and feet, general muscle weakness, narrowing of the field
of vision and damage to hearing and speech. In extreme cases, insanity, paralysis, coma, and
death follow within weeks of the onset of symptoms.
Minamata disease was first discovered in Minamata city in Japan in 1956. It was caused by the
release of methyl mercury from, the Chisso Corporation's chemical factory, which continued
from 1932 to 1968. This highly toxic chemical bio- accumulated in shellfish and fish in
Minamata
Bay which when eaten by the local people resulted in mercury poisoning. While cat, dog, pig,
and human deaths continued over more than 30 years, the government and company did little to
prevent the pollution.
Fluorosis: People suffer from a disease called fluorosis after consuming water containing
fluorine for sufficiently a long time. Quantity of fluoride in water is only 1 ppm. Diseases caused
by fluorosis are:
Back pain and cannot easily bend.
Joints get stiffened as so movement of joints is impaired.

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 Teeth are the worst effected and a brown coating appears on the enamel
of teeth giving bad appearance.
Persons with fluorosis cannot erect freely.

CONTROL MEASURES OF WATER POLLUTION:

1. Drinking water should be boiled, cooled and then used.
2. Disinfection of drinking water should be done by using chemicals like bleaching powder.
3. Pesticides and insecticides should be prevented from nearby use of water lakes,ponds and
pools.
4. Drainage water should not be allowed to mix with drinking water.
5. Drainage system should be maintained properly.
6. Chlorination process is to be adopted for drinking water. For 1 litre of water 30 - 40 mg of
chlorine is to be added to get perfect disinfection. It kills bacteria, fungi, fungal spores
and other microbes also.

3.1.3 SOIL POLLUTION

Definition:
Soil pollution is defined as the build-up in soils of persistent toxic compounds, chemicals, salts,
radioactive materials, or disease causing agents, which have adverse effects on plant growth and
animal health.
Soil is the thin layer of organic and inorganic materials that covers the Earth's rocky surface.
The organic portion, which is derived from the decayed remains of plants and animals, is
concentrated in the dark uppermost topsoil. The inorganic portion made up of rock fragments, was
formed over thousands of years by physical and chemical weathering of bedrock. Productive soils
are necessary for agriculture to supply the world with sufficient food.

There are many different ways that soil can become polluted, such as:
• Seepage from a landfill
• Discharge of industrial waste into the soil
• Percolation of contaminated water into the soil
• Rupture of underground storage tanks
• Excess application of pesticides, herbicides or fertilizer
• Solid waste seepage
The most common chemicals involved in causing soil pollution are:
• Petroleum hydrocarbons
• Heavy metals
• Pesticides
• Solvents

Types of Soil Pollution

• Agricultural Soil Pollution and pollution due to urban activities
i) Pollution of surface soil
ii) Pollution of underground soil
• Soil pollution by industrial effluents and solid wastes
i) Pollution of surface soil
ii) Disturbances in soil profile

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CAUSES OF SOIL POLLUTION:
Soil pollution is caused by the presence of man-made chemicals or other alteration in the natural
soil environment. This type of contamination typically arises from the rupture of underground
storage links, application of pesticides, percolation of contaminated surface water to subsurface
strata, oil and fuel dumping, leaching of wastes from landfills or direct discharge of industrial
wastes to the soil. The most common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents,
pesticides, lead and other heavy metals. This occurrence of this phenomenon is correlated with the
degree of industrialization and intensities of chemical usage.
A soil pollutant is any factor which deteriorates the quality, texture and mineral content of the
soil or which disturbs the biological balance of the organisms in the soil. Pollution in soil has
adverse effect on plant growth.

Pollution in soil is associated with

• Indiscriminate use of fertilizers
• Indiscriminate use of pesticides, insecticides and herbicides
• Dumping of large quantities of solid waste
• Deforestation and soil erosion

1. Indiscriminate use of fertilizers:

Soil nutrients are important for plant growth and development. Plants obtain carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen from air and water. But other necessary nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus,
potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulfur and more must be obtained from the soil. Farmers
generally use fertilizers to correct soil deficiencies.
Fertilizers contaminate the soil with impurities, which come from the raw materials used for their
manufacture. Mixed fertilizers often contain ammonium nitrate (NH 4NO3), phosphorus as P2O5,
and potassium as K2O. For instance, arsenic, lead and cadmium present in traces in rock
phosphate mineral get transferred to super phosphate fertilizer. Since the metals are not degradable,
their accumulation in the soil above their toxic levels due to excessive use of phosphate fertilizers
becomes an indestructible poison for crops.
The over use of NPK fertilizers reduce quantity of vegetables and crops grown on soil over the
years. It also reduces the protein content of wheat, maize, grams, etc., grown on that soil. The
carbohydrate quality of such crops also gets degraded. Excess potassium content in soil decreases
Vitamin C and carotene content in vegetables and fruits. The vegetables and fruits grown on over
fertilized soil are more prone to attacks by insects and disease.

2. Indiscriminate use of pesticides, insecticides and herbicides:

The first widespread insecticide use began at the end of World War II and included DDT
(dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) and gammaxene. Insects soon became resistant to DDT and
as the chemical did not decompose readily, it persisted in the environment. Since it was soluble in
fat rather than water, it biomagnified up the food chain and disrupted calcium metabolism in birds,
causing egg shells to be thin and fragile. As a result, large birds of prey such as the brown pelican,
ospreys, falcons and eagles became endangered. DDT has been now been banned in most western
countries. Ironically many of them including USA still produce DDT for export to other
developing nations whose needs outweigh the problems caused by it.
The most important pesticides are DDT, BHC, chlorinated hydrocarbons,
organophosphates,

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aldrin, malathion, dieldrin, furodan, etc. The remnants of such pesticides used on pests may get
adsorbed by the soil particles, which then contaminate root crops grown in that soil. The
consumption of such crops causes the pesticides remnants to enter human biological systems,
affecting them adversely.
An infamous herbicide used as a defoliant in the Vietnam War called Agent Orange (dioxin),
exposure to Agent Orange.
Pesticides not only bring toxic effect on human and animals but also decrease the fertility of the
soil. Some of the pesticides are quite stable and their bio- degradation may take weeks and even
months.
Pesticide problems such as resistance, resurgence, and heath effects have caused scientists to
seek alternatives. Pheromones and hormones to attract or repel insects and using natural enemies
or sterilization by radiation have been suggested

3. Dumping of large quantities of solid waste:

In general, solid waste includes garbage, domestic refuse and discarded solid materials such as
those from commercial, industrial and agricultural operations. They contain increasing amounts of
paper, cardboards, plastics, glass, old construction material, packaging material and toxic or
otherwise hazardous substances. Since a significant amount of urban solid waste tends to be paper
and food waste, the majority is recyclable or biodegradable in landfills. Similarly, most agricultural
waste is recycled and mining waste is left on site.
The portion of solid waste that is hazardous such as oils, battery metals, heavy metals from
smelting industries and organic solvents are the ones we have to pay particular attention to. These
can in the long run, get deposited to the soils of the surrounding area and pollute them by altering
their chemical and biological properties. They also contaminate drinking water aquifer sources.
More than 90% of hazardous waste is produced by chemical, petroleum and metal-related
industries and small businesses such as dry cleaners and gas stations contribute as well.

4. Deforestation and soil erosion:

Soil Erosion occurs when the weathered soil particles are dislodged and carried away by wind
or water. Deforestation, agricultural development, temperature extremes, precipitation including
acid rain, and human activities contribute to this erosion. Humans speed up this process by
construction, mining, cutting of timber, over cropping and overgrazing. It results in floods and
cause soil erosion.

EFFECTS OF SOIL POLLUTION

1. Agricultural
• Reduced soil fertility
• Reduced nitrogen fixation
• Increased erosion
• Larger loss of soil and nutrients
• Deposition of silt in tanks and reservoirs
• Reduced crop yield
• Imbalance in soil fauna and flora
2. Industrial
• Dangerous chemicals entering underground water
• Ecological imbalance
• Release of pollutant gases
• Release of radioactive rays causing health problems

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 • Increased salinity
• Reduced vegetation
3. Urban
Clogging of drains
• Inundation of areas
• Public health problems
• Pollution of drinking water sources
• Foul smell and release of gases
• Waste management problems

Effects of soil pollution in brief:

• Pollution runs off into rivers and kills the fish, plants and other aquatic life
• Crops and fodder grown on polluted soil may pass the pollutants on to the consumers
• Polluted soil may no longer grow crops and fodder
• Soil structure is damaged (clay ionic structure impaired)
• Corrosion of foundations and pipelines
• Impairs soil stability
• May release vapours and hydrocarbon into buildings and cellars
• May create toxic dusts
• May poison children playing in the area

CONTROL MEASURES OF SOIL POLLUTION

The following steps have been suggested to control soil pollution. To help prevent soil erosion,
we can limit construction in sensitive area. In general we would need less fertilizer and fewer
pesticides if we could all adopt the three R's: Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle. This would give us less
solid waste.
1. Reducing chemical fertilizer and pesticide use Applying bio-fertilizers and manures can
reduce chemical fertilizer and pesticide use. Biological methods of pest control can also reduce the
use of pesticides and thereby minimize soil pollution.
2. Reusing of materials
Materials such as glass containers, plastic bags, paper, cloth etc. can be reused at domestic
levels rather than being disposed, reducing solid waste pollution.
3. Recycling and recovery of materials
This is a reasonable solution for reducing soil pollution. Materials such as paper, some kinds of
plastics and glass can and are being recycled. This decreases the volume of refuse and helps in the
conservation of natural resources. For example, recovery of one tonne of paper can save 17 trees.
4. Reforesting
Control of land loss and soil erosion can be attempted through restoring forest and grass cover
to check wastelands, soil erosion and floods. Crop rotation or mixed cropping can improve the
fertility of the land.
5. Solid waste treatment
Proper methods should be adopted for management of solid waste disposal. Industrial wastes
can be treated physically, chemically and biologically until they are less hazardous. Acidic and
alkaline wastes should be first neutralized; the insoluble material if biodegradable should be
allowed to degrade under controlled conditions before being disposed.

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 3.1.4 MARINE POLLUTION

Pollution of oceans is damaging the marine environment and is becoming a major problem. Marine
environment is interesting for various reasons such as Sea food; Navigation; Adventure; Tourism
etc,, Marine Pollution is harmful and its danger can be identified in a variety of ways.

Sources & causes of marine pollution:

Marine pollution originates from one of two sources --- the land or the sea which are explained
below:
Marine Oil Pollution: Oil is basically an important pollutant which destroys marine environment.
The various sources of oil pollution are:
Run-off oil from streets; disposal of lubricants from machines; Off shore oil and gas exploitation
from off-shore drilling; blowouts at off-shore drilling rigs; oil escaping under high pressure from
a bore hole in the ocean floor. Waste chemicals, mud and accumulation of toxic substances in
the ocean in the form of mercury, dioxin, PCBs, PAHs (Poly Aromatic Hydrocarbons)
Radioactivity. benzene; xylene ( colorless, flammable liquids ) and heavy metals such as lead;
copper; nickel, mercury also cause for marine pollution during the off shore drilling
activities. Both dumping and exploitation of ocean resources cause ocean pollution also.
PAHs: It is a chemical compound and organic pollutant. These occur in oil, coal and tar deposits
and are produced as by products of fuel burning.
PAHs are lipophilic meaning they mix more easily in oil than water.
Eg for PAHs are: Acenaphthene; Anthracene; Benzopyrene; Chrysene; Coronene; Fluorene;
Pyrene.

Other sources from land: The major sources of marine pollution originating from the land vary
from country to country. Effluents are discharged either directly into the sea or enters the coastal
waters through rivers. Thousands of barrels of oil burn when oil wells were set on fire. Tanker
accidents on land carries oil to the nearby streams / canals and cause for marine
pollution. Due to burning of oil, smoke, SO2, NO2, CO are added towards atmospheric
contamination.

The effects of oil pollution depend mainly on the following factors:

Type of oil and its viscosity, amount / quantity released, distance covered, time, average water
temp etc..
Effects of Marine Pollution:
S No Source Effect
1 Sewage & run- off from forestry; Depletes oxygen in water causes killing of fishes.
2 Sediments from mining Sediments clog in the gills of fishes
3 Sewage from municipalities, Contaminate sea food
towns; cities etc…
4 Industrial discharge; pesticides Cause disease in coastal marine life
from farms
5 Oil from off shore drilling; Low level contamination kill larvae whereas high
industries/ automobiles level contamination causes death for sea fishes
6 Litter (rubbish), waste, plastics Marine life disturbs
7 Hot water from power plants Kills corals.

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Marine Pollution Abatement / Prevention & control measures of Marine pollution:

The following are the some of the control measures for marine pollution:
1. Improving existing sewage disposal facilities
2. Ensuring individual houses have sewage disposal systems (such as septic tanks ).
3. Large resorts should use and manage their own packaged treatment plants.
4. Marine planning and management should be considered as processes such as land – sea
interaction; inter disciplinary co-operation; participation of public & private sector
organizations; balance between protection and development public participation
5. Oil tankers are double hulled ( two layered bottom ) to reduce the chance of oil leakage
6. Recycling facilities for used oil.

3.1.5 NOISE POLLUTION

INTRODUCTION:
Everyone knows that sound is a form of energy that is capable of causing disturbances in human
beings. Ears are the hearing organs in human beings.
A thin membrane is called Tympanum (or) ear drum receives the vibrations produced
by sound to a limited extent. Human ear is capable of perceiving about 85 decibels of sound.
Beyond the limit, the ear drum cannot bear sound.
In nature, we hear different types of sounds. Sound is a kind of vibration which travel through air,
water, and are sensed by the ear. This is from music, speech, etc from radio / television / computers
etc., one thing in this matter is that we can increase the volume of sound or decrease as per our
taste whereas, a noise is a sound which cannot be heard clearly and only mixed sounds will be
heard.
For eg: in an office one is talking on mobile, phone ringing another side, ring tones in some person's
hands, loud conversations with one and another etc., this is called noise. One cannot increase or
decrease the volume of noise. In general, a sound is a vibration from a particular machine, place
or material which can be heard clearly whereas a noise a mixed vibrations that will come to us
from all directions. A sound can be clear and can be able to hear, whereas a noise will not be clear
and cannot be heard.

SOURCES OF NOISE:
Noise is an unwanted sound and noise pollution occurs through different sources:
1. Vehicles produce noise that leads to noise pollution.
2. Automobile industry is another source of noise pollution.
3. Noise pollution is very common in industrial areas where machines are working for factories
making more noise.
The sources of noise are more in urban and industrial areas, than in rural areas. The sources of
noise may be stationary or mobile. The stationary sources include industries, loud speakers, mining
operations, use of machineries, TV, Radio and Grinders etc. The mobile sources include Road
Traffic, Highway Noise, Railway Traffic and Air Traffic.

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(1) Stationary sources:
a) Industrial noise: The main categories of industrial activity that are particularly
relevant to the study of noise are the following:
Product fabrication, Product assembly, Power generation by means of
generators,Combusting process in furnaces (burning of gases)
b) Noise from construction works: Construction noise, a major source of noise pollution
is emitted by construction equipment. The sources of noise are dozers excavators, front
end loaders, soil compactors, cranes, air compressors, concrete vibrators, Riveting steel
structure during the casting, dismantling of construction materials etc...
c) Noise from other sources: These include sources such as sirens, barking dogs,
ambulances, Police vehicles, Fire engines etc.

(2) Mobile sources:

Road traffic: Of all sources of noise pollution, road traffic is the most prevalent
and perhaps the most source of noise pollution. More people are exposed to noise
from motor vehicles and the noise depends on various factors such as Road
location, Road design, Vehicle standards, Driver behaviors, Horns, Traffic density. ,

Noise of common road vehicles

Vehicle type Noise (db)
Medium road traffic (Main roads) 70- 80
Heavy road traffic (High ways) 80- 90
Buses & Trucks upto 3.5 tons 85- 95
Trucks upto 3.5-12 tons 90-100
Motor cycles 90-105
It can be observed that motor cycles with their exposed engines and inadequate silencing
arrangements are notorious noise producers, which produce more than 30 times sound than a
small passenger car.

a) Railway traffic: Noise from railway traffic is not serious nuisance as compared to the road
traffic noise. The level of noise associated with rail traffic is related to the type of engine, the speed
of the train, track type and condition. The majority of noise emitted by trains is produced by the
engine (or) by the interaction of wheels with the tracks, horns, warning signals at crossings etc..,

b) Air traffic: The noise of air craft is different from that of road traffic in the sense it is
intermittent. Noise is maximum during take off and landing. Noise made by jet planes is more
disturbance than that of propeller driven air craft. Supersonic air craft produce noise at high levels
due to its intensity.

EFFECTS OF NOISE:
At 120 decibels the ear registers pain but hearing damage begins about 85 decibels. Apart from
hearing loss, noise can cause lack of sleep, irritation, indigestion, ulcers, High B.P., Heart diseases
, Stress etc.,.
1.Annoyance (Feeling slightly angry): One of the most important effects of noise on human is
annoyance. Due to this breathing rate affects.
2.Noise- induced hearing loss: Exposure to noise for a long enough duration results in damage
to the inner ear and thus decreases one’s ability to hear. The
louder the noise the less time it takes to cause hearing loss.

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3.Effects on sleep: Noise disturbs sleep. It has been found that the cases related to various
levels of noise are associated with sleep disturbances. Sleep disturbance by
noise depends on the characteristics of the noise such as frequency,
loudness and whether the noise is continuous or intermittent.
Other effects: There are many other effects of noises such involve aggression (ready to attack).
People may turn mad and nerves may not function normally, People may be deformed in many
ways including increased stress and strain, nonfunctioning of hands, legs etc due to noise pollution
if exposed continuously.

CONTROL MEASURES:
Noise pollution could be controlled by either reducing the noise at the source or by preventing its
transmission.
The first step in the prevention of noise pollution is to control the noise at source itself.
For eg: Lubrication of machines reduces the noise produced, Tightening the loose nuts, Reducing
the vibrations produced by machines etc…
Failing to control the noise at its source, the second step is to prevent its transmission for eg:
keeping the noise machine covered in an enclosure so that the sound does not escape and reach the
receivers, construction of noise barriers on road sides, sound proof the buildings by using heavy
curtains on the windows, acoustical tiles on the ceiling and walls, by sealing the cracks in the walls
to reduce the noise coming from outside.
If the noise levels are not able to bring down to the desired levels in some cases, the only alternative
is to follow:
Avoiding horns except in emergency situations.
Sound proof or eco-generators and Turning down the volume of stereos.
Conducting the awareness programs

3.1.6 THERMAL POLLUTION

Thermal pollution is also known as heat pollution and occurs when heat is released into water or
air that produces undesirable effects. Sudden heat release usually due to forest fire or volcanoes or
human induced activities. Thermal pollution is also the addition of excess undesirable heat to water
that makes it harmful to human, animal or aquatic life.

Sources of Thermal Pollution:

Various sources of thermal pollution include
Thermal Power Plants ; Nuclear Power Plants ; Petroleum Refineries; Steel Plants; Metallurgical
industries; Paper Mills; Chemical Plants. Coal fired power plants constitute major sources of
thermal pollution. Nuclear plants discharge much heat and also traces of toxic radio active
substances. Many industries use water for cooling purpose and thus the heat effluents are
finally discharged into water.

Temperature and its effects: Temperature plays an important role in determining the conditions
in which living things can survive.
Birds and mammals require a narrow range of body temp for survival whereas aquatic species can
exist at a certain range of temperatures.
Thermal pollution increases water temperature causing a change (lowering) of dissolved oxygen
levels. This disrupts and causes decay of plant and animal species.

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For eg: The warmer water increases the metabolic rate of fish and other animals in the sea; this
decreases the life expectancy of aquatic animals.

Management of Thermal Pollution:

Thermal Pollution is controlled by the following methods:
1. Cooling Towers are designed to control the temperature of water which transfer some of the
heat from the water to the surrounding atmosphere by evaporation. There are two types of
cooling towers namely wet cooling towers and dry cooling towers.
2. Cooling ponds are employed for thermal discharges. Heated effluents on the surface of water
in cooling ponds maximize dissipation of heat to the atmosphere.
3. Artificial lakes are man made bodies of water which offer possible alternative. The heating
effluents are discharged into lake at one end and the water for cooling purpose may be
withdrawn from the other end

3.1.7 NUCLEAR HAZARDS

Radioactivity is the phenomenon of emission of energy from radioactive isotopes (i.e., unstable
isotopes), such as Carbon-14, Uranium-235, Uranium-238, Uranium-239, Radium-226, etc. The
emission of energy from radioactive substances in the environment is often called as 'Radioactive
Pollution'.

Sources/causes of nuclear hazards

The sources of radioactivity are both natural and man-made. The natural sources include:
a) Natural sources:
1) Cosmic rays from outer space. The quantity depends on altitude and latitude; it is more at
higher latitudes and high altitudes.
2) Emissions from radioactive materials from the Earth's crust.
People have been exposed to low levels of radiation from these natural sources for several
millennia. But it is the man-made sources which are posing a threat to mankind.

b) Man-Made Sources: The man-made sources of radioactivity are nuclear wastes (i.e., waste
material that contains radioactive nuclei) produced during the:
1) Mining and processing of radioactive ores;
2) Use of radioactive material in nuclear power plants;
3) Use of radioactive isotopes in medical, industrial and research applications; and
4) Use of radioactive materials in nuclear weapons.
The greatest exposure to human beings comes from the diagnostic use of X-rays, radioactive
isotopes used as tracers and treatment of cancer and other ailments.

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Effects of nuclear hazards:
The effects of radioactive pollutants depend upon half-life, energy releasing capacity, rate of
diffusion and rate of deposition of the contaminant. Various atmospheric conditions and climatic
conditions such as wind, temperature and rainfall also determine their effects.
The effects may be somatic (individual exposed is affected) or genetic (future generations)
damage. The effects are cancer, shortening of life span and genetic effects or mutations.

Some of the possible effects are listed as under:

1) Radiations may break chemical bonds, such as DNA in cells. This affects the genetic make-up
and control mechanisms. The effects can be instantaneous, prolonged or delayed types. Even it
could be carried to future generations.

2) Exposure at low doses of radiations (100-250 rads), men do not die but begin to suffer from
fatigue, nausea, vomiting and loss of hair. But recovery is possible.

3) Exposure at higher doses (400-500 rads), the bone marrow is affected, blood cells are reduced,
natural resistance and fighting capacity against germs is reduced, blood fails to clot, and the
irradiated person soon dies of infection and bleeding.

4) Higher irradiation doses (10,000 rads) kill the organisms by damaging the tissues of heart,
brain, etc.

5) Workers handling radioactive wastes get slow but continuous irradiation and in course of time
develop cancer of different types.6) Through food chain also, radioactivity effects are
experienced by man.

But the most significant effect of radioactivity is that it causes long range effects, affecting the
future of man and hence the future of our civilization.

Control measures:

On one hand, the peaceful uses of radioactive materials are so wide and effective that modern
civilization cannot go without them; on the other hand, there is no cure for radiation damage.
Thus the only option against nuclear hazards is to check and prevent radioactive pollution. For
this:

1) Leakages from nuclear reactors, careless handling, transport and use of radioactive fuels,
fission products and radioactive isotopes have to be totally stopped;
2) Safety measures should be enforced strictly;
3) Waste disposal must be careful, efficient and effective;
4) There should be regular monitoring and quantitative analysis through frequent sampling in
the risk areas;

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5) Preventive measures should be followed so that background radiation levels do not exceed
the permissible limits;
6) Appropriate steps should be taken against occupational exposure; and
7) Safety measures should be strengthened against nuclear accidents

Disposalofnuclearwastes
Since nuclear waste can be extremely dangerous and, therefore, the way in which they are to be
disposed of is strictly controlled by international agreement. Since 1983, by international
agreement, the disposals in the Atlantic Ocean and into the atmosphere have been banned.

After processing, to recover usable material and reducing the radioactivity of the waste, disposal
is made in solid form where possible. The nuclear wastes are usually classified into three
categories:

1) High Level Wastes (HLW): High level wastes have a very high-radioactivity per unit volume.
For example, spent nuclear fuel. HLWs have to be cooled and are, therefore, stored for several
decades by its producer before disposal. Since these wastes are too dangerous to be released
anywhere in the biosphere, therefore, they must be contained either by converting them into inert
solids (ceramics) and then buried deep into earth or are stored in deep salt mines.
2) Medium level wastes (MLW): Medium level wastes (e.g., filters, reactor components, etc.,)
are solidified and are mixed with concrete in steel drums before being buried in deep mines or
belowtheseabedinconcretechambers.
3) Low liquid wastes (LLW): Low liquid wastes (e.g., solids or liquids contaminated with trace
of radioactivity) are disposed of in steel drums in concrete-lined trenches in designated sites.

3.2 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Solid wastes are the material that arises from various human and economic activities. It is being
produced since the beginning of civilization. Ever increasing population growth, urbanization and
industrialization are contributing to the generation of solid waste in huge quantities.

Waste is enviable; waste is by product of human activity which has lack of use. The term waste
refers to the useless material generated from different sources such as household, public places,
hospital, commercial centre construction sites and production of waste from industries.

Waste can be classified through various methods on the basis of physical state (solid, liquid and
gaseous) and then within solid waste (according to its original use packaging waste, food waste
etc.) material (glass, paper etc.) physical properties, domestic, commercial, biodegradable, non-
biodegradable etc. Solid wastes have prevailing characteristics which sets them apart from the
liquid and gaseous wastes.

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The characteristics are that the waste remains highly visible in the environment. Liquid wastes are
quickly relegated to sewer and are out of sight and gaseous wastes disperse in to the atmosphere.
Accumulation of large quantities of solid wastes is having an adverse impact on the environment.

There are many waste types defined by modern systems of waste management, notably including:

 municipal solid waste (MSW)

 construction waste and demolition waste (C&D)
 institutional waste, commercial waste, and industrial waste (IC&I)
 medical waste (also known as clinical waste)
 hazardous waste, radioactive waste, and electronic waste
 biodegradable waste

Waste management is the collection, transport, processing, recycling or disposal, and monitoring
of waste materials. The term usually relates to materials produced by human activity, and is
generally undertaken to reduce their effect on health, the environment or aesthetics. Waste
management is also carried out to recover resources from it. Waste management can involve solid,
liquid, gaseous or radioactive substances, with different methods and fields of expertise for each.

Waste management practices differ for developed and developing nations, for urban and rural
areas, and for residential and industrial producers. Management for non-hazardous residential and
institutional waste in metropolitan areas is usually the responsibility of local government
authorities, while management for non-hazardous commercial and industrial waste is usually the
responsibility of the generator.

Effects

a) Health Hazard

If solid wastes are not collected and allowed to accumulate, they may create unsanitary conditions.
This may lead to epidemic outbreaks. Many diseases like cholera, diarrhea, dysentery, plague,
jaundice, or gastro-intestinal diseases may spread and cause loss of human lives.

In addition, improper handling of the solid wastes is a health hazard for the workers who come in
direct contact with the waste.

b) Environmental Impact

If the solid wastes are not treated properly, decomposition and putrefaction may take place, causing
land and water pollution when the waste products percolate down into the underground water
resources. The organic solid waste during decomposition may generate obnoxious odors. Stray
dogs and birds may sometimes invade garbage heaps and may spread it over the neighborhood
causing unhygienic and unhealthy surroundings.

Control measures

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An integrated waste management strategy includes three main components

1. Source reduction

2. Recycling

3. Disposal

Source reduction is one of the fundamental ways to reduce waste. This can be done by
using less material when making a product, reuse of products on site, designing products or
packaging to reduce their quantity. On an individual level we can reduce the use of unnecessary
items while shopping, buy items with minimal packaging, avoid buying disposable items and also
avoid asking for plastic carry bags.

Recycling is reusing some components of the waste that may have some economic value.
Recycling has readily visible benefits such as conservation of resources reduction in energy used
during manufacture and reducing pollution levels. Some materials such as aluminum and steel can
be recycled many times. Metal, paper, glass and plastics are recyclable. Mining of new aluminum
is expensive and hence recycled aluminum has a strong market and plays a significant role in the
aluminum industry. Paper recycling can also help preserve forests as it takes about 17 trees to
make one ton of paper. Crushed glass (cullet) reduces the energy required to manufacture new
glass by 50 percent. Cullet lowers the temperature requirement of the glassmaking process thus
conserving energy and reducing air pollution.

However even if recycling is a viable alternative, it presents several problems. The

problems associated with recycling are either technical or economical. Plastics are difficult to
recycle because of the different types of polymer resins used in their production. Since each type
has its own chemical makeup different plastics cannot be recycled together. Thus separation of
different plastics before recycling is necessary. Similarly in recycled paper the fibers are weakened
and it is difficult to control the colour of the recycled product. Recycled paper is banned for use in
food containers to prevent the possibility of contamination. It very often costs less to transport raw
paper pulp than scrap paper. Collection, sorting and transport account for about 90 percent of the
cost of paper recycling.

The processes of pulping, deinking and screening wastepaper are generally more expensive
than making paper from virgin wood or cellulose fibers. Very often thus recycled paper is more
expensive than virgin paper. However as technology improves the cost will come down.

Disposal of solid waste is done most commonly through a sanitary landfill or through
incineration. A modern sanitary landfill is a depression in an impermeable soil layer that is lined
with an impermeable membrane. The three key characteristics of a municipal sanitary landfill that
distinguish it from an open dump are:

• Solid waste is placed in a suitably selected and prepared landfill site in a carefully prescribed
manner.

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• The waste material is spread out and compacted with appropriate heavy machinery.

• The waste is covered each day with a layer of compacted soil. The problems with older landfills
are associated with groundwater pollution. Pollutants seeping out from the bottom of a sanitary
landfill (leachates) very often percolate down to the groundwater aquifer no matter how thick the
underlying soil layer. Today it is essential to have suitable bottom liners and leachate collection
systems along with the installation of monitoring systems to detect groundwater pollution.

The organic material in the buried solid waste will decompose due to the action of
microorganisms. At first the waste decomposes aerobically until the oxygen that was present in
the freshly placed fill is used up by the aerobic microorganisms. The anerobes take over producing
methane which is poisonous and highly explosive when mixed with air in concentrations between
5 and 15 percent. The movement of gas can be controlled by providing impermeable barriers in
the landfill. A venting system to collect the blocked gas and vent it to the surface where it can be
safely diluted and dispersed into the atmosphere is thus a necessary component of the design of
sanitary landfills.

Even though landfilling is an economic alternative for solid waste disposal, it has become
increasingly difficult to find suitable landfilling sites that are within economic hauling distance
and very often citizens do not want landfills in their vicinity. Another reason is that no matter how
well engineered the design and operation may be, there is always the danger of some environmental
damage in the form of leakage of leachates. Incineration is the process of burning municipal solid
waste in a properly designed furnace under suitable temperature and operating conditions.
Incineration is a chemical process in which the combustible portion of the waste is combined with
oxygen forming carbon dioxide and water, which are released into the atmosphere.

This chemical reaction called oxidation results in the release of heat. For complete
oxidation the waste must be mixed with appropriate volumes of air at a temperature of about 815o
C for about one hour.

Incineration can reduce the municipal solid waste by about 90 percent in volume and 75
percent in weight. The risks of incineration however involve airquality problems and toxicity and
disposal of the fly and bottom ash produced during the incineration process. Fly ash consists of
finely divided particulate matter, including cinders, mineral dust and soot. Most of the incinerator
ash is bottom ash while the remainder is fly ash. The possible presence of heavy metals in
incinerator ash can be harmful. Thus toxic products and materials containing heavy metals (for
example batteries and plastics) should be segregated.

Thus extensive air pollution control equipment and high-level technical supervision and
skilled employees for proper operation and maintenance is required. Thus while sanitary landfills
and incinerators have their own advantages and disadvantages, the most effective method of solid
waste management is source reduction and recycling.

Vermi – Composting

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 Nature has perfect solutions for managing the waste it creates, if left undisturbed. The
biogeochemical cycles are designed to clear the waste material produced by animals and plants.
We can mimic the same methods that are present in nature. All dead and dry leaves and twigs
decompose and are broken down by organisms such as worms and insects, and is finally broken
down by bacteria and fungi, to form a dark rich soil-like material called compost.

These organisms in the soil use the organic material as food, which provides them with
nutrients for their growth and activities. These nutrients are returned to the soil to be used again
by trees and other plants. This process recycles nutrients in nature. This soil can be used as a
manure for farms and gardens.

3.2.1 ROLE OF INDIVIDUALS IN PREVENTION OF POLLUTION

The role of an individual in maintaining a pollution free, pure and congenial environment and in
preserving its resources is actually the need of the hour. Individuals can, however, play an
important role in abatement of air, water, soil or noise pollution in the following simple
manners:

1) Use low-phosphate, phosphate-free or biodegradable dishwashing liquid, laundry detergent,

and shampoo.
2) Don't use water fresheners in toilets.
3) Use manure or compost instead of commercial inorganic fertilizers to fertilize gardens and
yard plant.
4) Use biological methods or integrated pest management to control garden, yard, and
household pests.
5) Don't pour pesticides, paints, solvents, oils, or other products containing harmful chemicals
down drain or on the ground. Contact the authorities responsible for their disposal.
6) Recycle old motor oil and antifreeze at an auto service center that has an oil recycling
program.
7) If you get water from a private well or suspect that municipal water is contaminated, have
tested by an EPA certified laboratory for lead, nitrates, trihalomethanes, radon, volatile,
organic compounds and pesticides.
8) Run water from taps for several minutes every morning before using the water for drinking
or cooking. Save it and use it to water plants.
If you have a septic tank, monitor it yearly and have it cleaned out every three to five years
by a reputable contractor so that it won’t contribute to groundwater pollution. Do not use
septic tank cleaner, which contain toxic chemicals that can kill bacteria important to sewage
decomposition and that can contaminate groundwater if systems malfunction.
9) Support ecological land-use planning in your community.
10) Get to know your local water bodies and form watchdog groups to help monitor, protect,
and restore them.

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 3.3 DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Disaster means a terrible event that causes a great damage / loss to the human beings. It is a
situation arising from natural forces where large scale disruption of infrastructure, services etc.
occurs. It causes a serious impact on human life, economy and environment. Natural disasters are
always severe and sudden.

Some disasters are:

(A) Geological: in nature like the earthquakes;
(B) Landslides (rocks slides down from the side of a hill ); Volcanic eruptions etc..
(C) Climatic disasters / Natural calamities: These are of different types affect nations all over the
world. Because of the large geographical size of the country, India often faces natural
calamities like floods, cyclones and drought occurring frequently in different parts of the
country.
Natural calamities are of two types:
1. Major calamities: eg: earthquakes; droughts; floods, tsunamis; cyclones etc
2. Minor calamities: eg: hailstorms; avalanches; fire accidents
(D) Man induced disasters include wars, battles, riots, rail/road accidents, nuclear explosions.

The disaster Management: The natural disaster management involves the following steps:
Relief measures: it include rescue tools; communication equipments; heavy machines to remove
debris; water pumps; technicians; drugs, doctors, ambulances..

Disaster predictions: The predictions of natural hazards may be made on the basis of past history
of the area with regular monitoring of the environmental changes caused by human activities to
assess the genesis of natural disasters.

Education: Disaster education plays a significant role in disaster education. It create awareness
and improve the standards to prevent from the disasters.
Geographic Information Systems: (GIS): GIS is a system that captures, stores, analyzes , manages
and presents data with reference to geographic location of the area. In simple terms, GIS is the
merging of cartography, statistical analysis and database technology. GIS may be used in
Archaeology, Geography, Remote Sensing, Land surveying; Natural Resource Management;
Urban Planning etc. GIS programs help by means of maps available data of the problem areas, to
predict the severity of the disaster.

Floods

Floods are high stream flow that overflows the natural banks of the rivers and most of the times
become calamitous. India is the most flood affected nation after Bangladesh. Out of total deaths
by Floods in the world, (1/5) are from India. The main causes of floods are excessive rains in river
catchments, poor natural drainage, Change of river course, Landslide restricting river flow,
cycloneandveryintenserainfall.

Over that past few years the rise in population is forcing large settlements along the river banks,
making the country highly vulnerable to Floods. The most vulnerable states of India are Uttar

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Pradesh, Bihar, Assam, West Bengal, Gujarat, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra,PunjabandJammu&Kashmir.

In 1994, a major flood killed 147 people in Kerala, 138 in Gujarat and marooned 10000 in Madhya
Pradesh. In 1995, the states of Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Arunachal Pradesh were
severelyhitbyfloodcausinghugecasualties.

In the year 1996, a fierce flood literally paralyzed India, Thousands of people died, got homeless,
were marooned in the states of Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir also affecting many
other parts of the country. In short, nearly every year one or the other part of the country is severely
hit by Floods and creating a shameful history for India. It is high time that the policies and
measures for various preventions and disaster management activities are properly implemented.

Development of flood risk maps, flash flood run off modeling, water logging problems, systems
for monitoring and management of flood using remote sensing and GIS.

Earth-quakes

Earthquakes occur due to the sudden movements in the earth crust. The earth’s crust has several
tectonic plates of solid rocks which slowly move along their boundaries. When friction prevents
these plates from slipping, stress builds up and results in the sudden fractures which occur along
their boundaries of the plates or fault lines (planes of weakness) within the plates. This causes
earthquakes, the violent, short term vibrations in the earth. The point on a fault at which the first
movement occurs during an earth quake is called the epicenter. The severity of an earthquake is
generallymeasuredbyitsmagnitudeonRichterScale.
Richter Scale Severity of earthquake

Lessthan 4 Insignificant

4-4.9 Minor

5-5.9 Damaging

6-6.9 Destructive

7-7.9 Major

8-8.9 Great

Damage to property and life can be prevented by monitoring of buildings and structures under
Strong Earth Motion, experimental and analytical investigations on structures to predict their
behaviour under earthquake conditions, strengthening through retrofits, development of
earthquake resistant design methodologies, better materials, risk assessment, preparation of
seismic codes, seismic zonation and development of risk specific designs

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Landslides
Landslides are mass movement of rocks and debris that usually follow a cyclone, volcano or
earthquake. In the hilly areas of India, the sliding of huge masses of land has been a common
natural disaster causing havoc to life and property. One of the worst and most disastrous
landslide has been recorded in the year 1998 in the state of Uttarakhand, when nearly 380 people
were killed.

As a measure of concern many committees and other measures have been taken to protect from
this natural havoc in India. In India, the regions of Himalayas and the Western ghats are the most
vulnerable to these land-slides.

The main causes of landslides are weak, weathered materials, physical property variation,
Ground Uplift, erosion, Earthquake, Volcanic eruptions etc. The general and simple mitigation
that are adopted or should be adopted are drainage correction, proper land-utilization,
reforestation and spreading of awareness.

Cyclones
Cyclone refers to a whirl in the atmosphere with very strong winds circulating around it in anti-
clockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
Cyclones are intense low pressure areas with pressure increasing outwards. Cyclones can be
hazardous as Cyclones are normally associated with strong winds.

A storm surge is an abnormal rise of sea level near the coast caused by a severe tropical cyclone;
as a result, sea water inundates low lying areas of coastal regions drowning human beings and
lives- stock, eroding beaches and embankments, destroying vegetation and reducing soil fertility.
Apart from strong winds, cyclones can result in heavy rains causing floods.

However, the most destructive factor associated with the cyclones is the storm surge. The worst
and the oldest cyclone in India were in 1737, in Calcutta that took 300000 lives respectively.

For cyclone forecast and advance warning, the Government has strengthened the Meteorological
Department, by providing Cyclone Surveillance Radars at Calcutta, Paradeep, Visakhapatnam,
Machilipatnam, Madras and Karaikal in the east coast and at Cochin, Goa, Bombay and Bhuj in
the west coast. As India has a vast coastline it is extremely vulnerable to cyclone.

3.3.1 E-WASTE

Short term exposure causes:

Front panel of Barium
 Muscle weakness;
CRTs (Ba)
 Damage to heart, liver and spleen.

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  Carcinogenic (lung cancer)
 Inhalation of fumes and dust. Causes chronic beryllium
Beryllium
Motherboard disease or beryllicosis.
(Be)
 Skin diseases such as warts.

MANAGEMENT OF E-WASTES

It is estimated that 75% of electronic items are stored due to uncertainty of how to manage it. These
electronic junks lie unattended in houses, offices, warehouses etc. and normally mixed with
household wastes, which are finally disposed off at landfills. This necessitates implementable
management measures.

In industries management of e-waste should begin at the point of generation. This can be done by
waste minimization techniques and by sustainable product design. Waste minimization in
industries involves adopting:

 inventory management,
 production-process modification,
 volume reduction,
 recovery and reuse.

Inventory management
Proper control over the materials used in the manufacturing process is an important way to reduce
waste generation (Freeman, 1989). By reducing both the quantity of hazardous
materials used in the process and the amount of excess raw materials in stock, the quantity of waste
generated can be reduced. This can be done in two ways i.e. establishing material-purchase review
and control procedures and inventory tracking system.
Another inventory management procedure for waste reduction is to ensure that only the needed
quantity of a material is ordered. This will require the establishment of a strict inventory tracking
system. Purchase procedures must be implemented which ensure that materials are ordered only
on an as-needed basis and that only the amount needed for a specific period of time is ordered.

Production-process modification
Changes can be made in the production process, which will reduce waste generation. This
reduction can be accomplished by changing the materials used to make the product or by the more
efficient use of input materials in the production process or both. Potential waste minimization
techniques can be broken down into three categories:
i) Improved operating and maintenance procedures,
ii) Material change and
iii) Process-equipment modification.

Volume reduction
Volume reduction includes those techniques that remove the hazardous portion of a waste from a
non-hazardous portion. These techniques are usually to reduce the volume, and thus the cost of
disposing of a waste material. The techniques that can be used to reduce waste-stream volume can
be divided into 2 general categories: source segregation and waste concentration. Segregation of
wastes is in many cases a simple and economical technique for waste reduction. Wastes containing

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different types of metals can be treated separately so that the metal value in the sludge can be
recovered. Concentration of a waste stream may increase the likelihood that the material can be
recycled or reused. Methods include gravity and vacuum filtration, ultra filtration, reverse osmosis,
freeze vaporization etc.
For example, an electronic component manufacturer can use compaction equipments to reduce
volume of waste cathode ray-tube.

Recovery and reuse

This technique could eliminate waste disposal costs, reduce raw material costs and provide income
from a salable waste. Waste can be recovered on-site, or at an off-site recovery facility, or through
inter industry exchange. A number of physical and chemical techniques are available to reclaim a
waste material such as reverse osmosis, electrolysis, condensation, electrolytic recovery, filtration,
centrifugation etc. For example, a printed-circuit board manufacturer can use electrolytic recovery
to reclaim metals from copper and tin-lead plating bath.

However recycling of hazardous products has little environmental benefit if it simply moves the
hazards into secondary products that eventually have to be disposed of. Unless the goal is to
redesign the product to use nonhazardous materials, such recycling is a false solution.

Sustainable product design

Minimization of hazardous wastes should be at product design stage itself keeping in mind the
following factors*

 Rethink the product design: Efforts should be made to design a product with fewer
amounts of hazardous materials. For example, the efforts to reduce material use are
reflected in some new computer designs that are flatter, lighter and more integrated. Other
companies propose centralized networks similar to the telephone system.
 Use of renewable materials and energy: Bio-based plastics are plastics made with plant-
based chemicals or plant-produced polymers rather than from petrochemicals. Bio-based
toners, glues and inks are used more frequently. Solar computers also exist but they are
currently very expensive.
 Use of non-renewable materials that are safer: Because many of the materials used are
non-renewable, designers could ensure the product is built for re-use, repair and/or
upgradeability. Some computer manufacturers such as Dell and Gateway lease out their
products thereby ensuring they get them back to further upgrade and lease out again.

3.3.2 PLASTICS WASTE MANAGEMENT

Environmental Issues and Challenges

The quantum of solid waste is ever increasing due to increase in population, developmental
activities, changes in life style, and socio-economic conditions, Plastics waste is a significant
portion of the total municipal solid waste (MSW).
It is estimated that approximately 10 thousand tons per day (TPD) of plastics waste is generated
i.e. 9% of 1.20 lacs TPD of MSW in the country.

The plastics waste constitutes two major category of plastics;

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 (i) Thermoplastics : Thermoplastics, constitutes 80% and thermoset constitutes
approximately 20% of total post-consumer plastics waste generated in India. The
Thermoplastics are recyclable plastics.
Eg: Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET), Low Density Poly Ethylene (LDPE), Poly
Vinyal Chloride(PVC), High Density Poly Ethylene (HDPE), Polypropylene(PP),
Polystyrene (PS) etc.
(ii) Thermoset plastics: Thermoset plastics contains alkyd, epoxy, ester, melamine
formaldehyde, phenolic formaldehyde, silicon, urea formaldehyde, polyurethane,
metalised and multilayer plastics etc.
The environmental hazards due to mismanagement of plastics waste include the following
aspects:
❯ Littered plastics spoils beauty of the city and choke drains and make important public
places filthy;
❯ Garbage containing plastics, when burnt may cause air pollution by emitting polluting
gases;
❯ Garbage mixed with plastics interferes in waste processing facility and may also cause
problems in landfill operations;
❯ Recycling industries operating in non-conforming areas are posing unhygienic
problems to the environment.

Main Features of the Plastics Manufacture and Usage (Amendment) Rules, 2003

Regulation of plastics waste, particularly manufacture and use of recycled plastics carry bags and
containers is being regulated in the country as per “Recycled Plastics Manufacture and Usage
Rules, 1999 and as amended in 2003. According to these Rules:

1.No person shall manufacture, stock, distribute or sell carry bags made of virgin or recycled
plastic bags which are less than 8 x 12 inches in size and having thickness less than 20 microns.

2. No vendor shall use carry bags/containers made of recycled plastics for storing, carrying,
dispensing or packaging of food stuffs

3. Carry bags and containers made of recycled plastic and used for purposes other than storing
and packaging food stuffs shall be manufactured using pigments and colorants as per IS
9833:1981 entitled “List of pigments and colorants for use in plastics in contact with food
stuffs, pharmaceuticals and drinking water”

4. Recycling of plastics shall be undertaken strictly in accordance with the Bureau of Indian
Standard specification: IS 14534:1998 entitled “The Guidelines for Recycling of Plastics”

5. Manufacturers of recycled plastic carry bags having printing facilities shall code/mark carry
bags and containers as per Bureau of Indian Standard specification: IS 14534:1998 (The
Guidelines for Recycling of Plastics).

6. No person shall manufacture carry bags or containers irrespective of its size or weight unless
the occupier of the unit has registered the unit with respective SPCB/PCC prior to the

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 commencement of production.

7. The prescribed authority for enforcement of the provisions of these rules related to
manufacturing and recycling is SPCB in respect of States and the PCC in Union Territories and
for relating to use, collection, segregation, transportation and disposal shall be the District
Collector/ Deputy Commissioner of the concerned district

Options for Plastic Waste Management

Recycling of plastics through environmentally sound manner:
Recycling of plastics should be carried in such a manner to minimize the pollution during the
process and as a result to enhance the efficiency of the process and conserve the energy. Plastics
recycling technologies have been historically divided into four general types -primary, secondary,
tertiary and quaternary.
 Primary recycling involves processing of a waste/scrap into a product with characteristics
similar to those of original product.
 Secondary recycling involves processing of waste/scrap plastics into materials that have
characteristics different from those of original plastics product.
 Tertiary recycling involves the production of basic chemicals and fuels from plastics
waste/scrap as part of the municipal waste stream or as a segregated waste.
 Quaternary recycling retrieves the energy content of waste/scrap plastics by burning /
incineration. This process is not in use in India.

Steps Involved in the Recycling Process

1.Selection: The recyclers / reprocessors have to select the waste / scrap which are suitable for
recycling /reprocessing.
2.Segregation: The plastics waste shall be segregated as per the Codes 1-7 mentioned
3.Processing: After selection and segregation of the pre-consumer waste (factory waste) shall be
directly recycled. The post consumer waste (used plastic waste) shall be washed, shredded,
agglomerated, extruded and granulated

Polymer Coated Bitumen Road

The CPCB has undertaken a project in collaboration with Thiagarajar College of Engineering
Madurai to evaluate the performance of polymer coated built roads laid during 2002-2006 in
different cities.
The observations are as below:
 The coating of plastics over aggregate improves Impact, Los Angels Abrasion and
Crushing Value with the increase in the percentage of plastics.
 The extracted bitumen showed almost near value for Marshall stability.
 The entire road was having good skid resistance and texture values.
 All the stretches in the roads have been found reasonably strong.
 The unevenness index values of these roads are nearly 3000 mm/km, which indicate a good
surface evenness.
 The plastic tar roads have not developed any potholes, rutting, raveling or edge flaw, even
though these roads are more than four years of age.
 Polymer coated aggregate bitumen mix performs well compared to polymer modified
bitumen mix.
 Higher percentage of polymer coating improves the binding strength of the mix.
 Foam plastics have better binding values.

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 3.4 WATER CONSERVATION

Water being one of the most precious and indispensable resources needs to be conserved. The
following strategies can be adopted for conservation of water.

1. Decreasing run-off losses: Huge water-loss occurs due to run-off on most of the soils, which
can be reduced by allowing most of the water to infiltrate into the soil.
This can be achieved by using contour cultivation, terrace framing, water spreading, chemical
treatment or improved water-storage system.
a) Contour cultivation: on small furrows and ridges across the slopes trap rainwater and
allow more time for infiltration. Terracing constructed on deep soils have large water-
storage capacity. On gentle slopes trapped run off is spread over a large area for
better infiltration
b) Conservation-bench terracing: It involves construction of a series of benches for
catching the run off water.
c) Water spreading is done by channeling or lagoon-leveling, In channeling, the water
flow is controlled by a series of diversions with vertical intervals. In lagoon leveling,
small depressions are dug in the area so that there is temporary storage water
d) Chemical wetting agents (Surfactants): These seem to increase the water intake rates
when added to normal irrigated soil.
e) Surface crop residues, tillage, mulch, animal residues etc. help in reducing run-off by
allowing more time for water to penetrate into the land.
f) Chemical conditioners like gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) when applied to sodic soils
improve soil permeability and reduce run off. Another useful conditioner is
HPAN(hydrolyzed polyacrylonitrile)
g) Water-storage structures like farm ponds, dug-outs etc. build by individual farmers
can be useful measures for conserving water through reduction of runoff.

2. Reducing evaporation losses: This is more relevant in humid regions. Horizontal barriers of
asphalt placed below the soil surface increase water availability and increase crop yield by 35-
40%. This is more effective on sandy soil but less effective on loamy sand soils.A co-polymer of
starch and acrylonitrile called ‘super slumper’ has been reported to absorb water up to 1400 times
its weight. The chemical has been found to be useful for sandy soils.
3. Storing water in soil: Storage of water takes place in the soil root zone in humid regions when
the soil is wetted to field capacity. By leaving the soil fallow for one season water can be made
available for the crop grown in next season.
4. Reducing irrigation losses:
a) Use of lined or covered canals to reduce seepage
b) Irrigation in early morning or late evening to reduce evaporation losses

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 c) Sprinkling irrigation and drip irrigation to conserve water by 30-50%
d) Growing hybrid crop varieties with less water requirements and tolerance to saline
water help conserve water.
5. Reuse of water:
a) Treated wastewater can be used for ferti-irrigation
b) Using grey water from washings, bath-tubs etc. for watering gardens, washing cars
or paths help in saving fresh water.

6. Preventing wastage of water: This can be done in households, commercial buildings and
public places.
a) Closing taps when not in use
b) Repairing any leakage from pipes
c) Using small capacity flush in toilets.
7. Increasing block pricing: The consumer has to pay a proportionately higher bill with higher
use of water. This helps in economic use of water by the consumer

3.5.1 RAIN WATER HARVESTING

Introduction:
The term rainwater harvesting is being frequently used these days, however, the concept of water
harvesting is not new for India. Water harvesting techniques had been evolved and developed
centuries ago.
Ground water resource gets naturally recharged through percolation. But due to indiscriminate
development and rapid urbanization, exposed surface for soil has been reduced drastically with
resultant reduction in percolation of rainwater, thereby depleting ground water resource. Rainwater
harvesting is the process of augmenting the natural filtration of rainwater in to the underground
formation by some artificial methods. "Conscious collection and storage of rainwater to cater to
demands of water, for drinking, domestic purpose & irrigation is termed as Rainwater Harvesting.

Why to harvest rain water?

 To arrest ground water decline and augment ground water table
 To beneficiate water quality in aquifers
 To conserve surface water runoff during monsoon
 To reduce soil erosion
 To inculcate a culture of water conservation

Rainwater harvesting can be harvested from the following surfaces:

Rooftops: If buildings with impervious roofs are already in place, the catchment area is
effectively available free of charge and they provide a supply at the point of consumption.
Paved and unpaved areas i.e., landscapes, open fields, parks, storm water drains, roads
and pavements and other open areas can be effectively used to harvest the runoff. The main
advantage in using ground as collecting surface is that water can be collected from a larger
area. This is particularly advantageous in areas of low rainfall.
Water bodies: The potential of lakes, tanks and ponds to store rainwater is immense. The
harvested rainwater can not only be used to meet water requirements of the city, it also
recharges groundwater aquifers.

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 Storm water drains: Most of the residential colonies have proper network of storm water
drains. If maintained neatly, these offer a simple and cost effective means for harvesting
rainwater.

Types of Harvesting System

Broadly rainwater can be harvested for two purposes
A. Roof top rain water harvesting (RTRWH)
B. Charged into the soil for withdrawal later (groundwater recharging)
A. Roof top rain water harvesting (RTRWH)

It is a system of catching rainwater where it falls. In rooftop harvesting, the roof becomes the
catchments, and the rainwater is collected from the roof of the house/building. It can either be
stored in a tank or diverted to artificial recharge system. This method is less expensive and very
effective and if implemented properly helps in augmenting the ground water level of the area.

Components of Roof top Rainwater harvesting system:

The system mainly constitutes of following sub components:

 Catchment, Coarse mesh, Gutters, Conduits or Conveyance
 Transportation
 First flush
 Filter
 Storage
 Supply unit

The system mainly constitutes of following sub components:

 Catchment, Coarse mesh, Gutters, Conduits or Conveyance
 Transportation
 First flush
 Filter

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  Storage
 Supply unit
.
1. Catchments: The catchment of a water harvesting system is the surface which directly
receives the rainfall and provides water to the system. It can be a paved area like a terrace
or courtyard of a building, or an unpaved area like a lawn or open ground. A roof made of
reinforced cement concrete (RCC), galvanized iron or corrugated sheets can also be used
for water harvesting.
2. Coarse mesh: Present at the corners of the roof
to prevent the passage of debris

3.Gutters:
Channels all around the edge of a sloping roof to
collect and transport rainwater to the storage
tank. Gutters can be semi-circular or rectangular Source: A water harvesting manual
and could be made using: for urban areas
 Locally available material such as plain galvanized iron sheet (20 to 22 gauge),
folded to required shapes.
 Semi-circular gutters of PVC material can be readily prepared by cutting those
pipes into two equal semi-circular channels.
 Bamboo or betel trunks cut vertically in half.
The size of the gutter should be according to the flow during the highest intensity rain. It
is advisable to make them 10 to 15 per cent oversize.
Gutters need to be supported so they do not sag or fall off when loaded with water. The
way in which gutters are fixed depends on the construction of the house; it is possible to
fix iron or timber brackets into the walls, but for houses having wider eaves, some method
of attachment to the rafters is necessary.
4 Conduits or Conveyance:
Conduits are pipelines or drains that carry rainwater from the catchment or rooftop area to
the harvesting system. Conduits can be of any material like polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or
galvanized iron (GI), materials that are commonly available.
.
5. First-flushing
A first flush device is a valve that ensures that runoff from the first spell of rain is flushed
out and does not enter the system. This needs to be done since the first spell of rain carries
a relatively larger amount of pollutants from the air and catchment surface.

6. Filtration or Purification:
The filter is used to remove suspended pollutants from rainwater collected over roof. A
filter unit is a chamber filled with filtering media such as fiber, coarse sand and gravel
layers to remove debris and dirt from water before it enters the storage tank or recharges
structure. Charcoal can be added for additional filtration.
(i)Charcoal water filter: A simple charcoal filter can be made in a drum or an earthen pot.
The filter is made of gravel, sand and charcoal, all of which are easily available.

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(ii) Sand filters
Sand filters have commonly available sand as filter media. Sand filters are easy and
inexpensive to construct. These filters can be employed for treatment of water to
effectively remove turbidity (suspended particles like silt and clay), colour and
microorganisms.
In a simple sand filter that can be constructed domestically, the top layer comprises coarse
sand followed by a 5-10 mm layer of gravel followed by another 5-25 cm layer of gravel
and boulders.

7. Storage or Sump: A storage provision to collect filtered water from the tank through
the filter channel for storage and collection.
There are various options available for the construction of these tanks with respect to the
shape, size and the material of construction.
Shape: Cylindrical, rectangular and square.
Material of construction: Reinforced cement concrete, (RCC), ferrocement, masonry,
plastic (polyethylene) or metal (galvanized iron) sheets are commonly used.
Position of tank: Depending on space availability these tanks could be constructed above
ground, partly underground or fully underground. Some maintenance measures like
cleaning and disinfection are required to ensure the quality of water stored in the container.

B. Charged into the soil for withdrawal later (groundwater recharging)

Ground water aquifers can be recharged by various kinds of structures to ensure

percolation of rainwater in the ground instead of draining away from the surface.
Commonly used recharging methods are:

a) Recharging of bore wells

b) Recharging of dug wells.
c) Recharge pits
d) Recharge Trenches
e) Soak ways or Recharge Shafts
f) Percolation Tanks

a) Recharging of bore wells

Rainwater collected from rooftop of the building is diverted through drainpipes to

settlement or filtration tank. After settlement filtered water is diverted to bore wells to
recharge deep aquifers. Abandoned bore wells can also be used for recharge.

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Optimum capacity of settlement tank/filtration tank can be designed on the basis of area
of catchments, intensity of rainfall and recharge rate as discussed in design parameters.
While recharging, entry of floating matter and silt should be restricted because it may clog
the recharge structure. "first one or two shower should be flushed out through rain
separator to avoid contamination. This is very important, and all care should be taken to
ensure that this has been done."

b) Recharge pits

Recharge pits are small pits of any shape rectangular, square or circular, contracted with
brick or stone masonry wall with weep hole at regular intervals, top of the pit can be
covered with perforated covers. Bottom of pit should be filled with filter media

The capacity of the pit can be designed on the basis of catchment area, rainfall intensity
and recharge rate of soil. Usually the dimensions of the pit may be of 1 to 2 m width and
2 to 3 m deep depending on the depth of pervious strata. These pits are suitable for
recharging of shallow aquifers, and small houses.

c)soak away or recharge shaft

Soak away or recharge shafts are provided where upper layer of soil is alluvial or less
pervious. These are bored hole of 30 cm dia. up to 10 to 15 m deep, depending on depth
of pervious layer. Bore should be lined with slotted/perforated PVC/MS pipe to prevent

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collapse of the vertical sides. At the top of soak away required size sump is constructed to
retain runoff before the filters through soak away. Sump should be filled with filter media.

d)Recharging of dug well

Dug well can be used as recharge structure. Rainwater from the rooftop is diverted to dug
wells after passing it through filtration bed. Cleaning and desalting of dug well should be
done regularly to enhance the recharge rate. The filtration method suggested for bore well
recharging could be used

e) Recharge trenches

Recharge trench in provided where upper impervious layer of soil is shallow. It is a trench
excavated on the ground and refilled with porous media like pebbles, boulder or brickbats.
It is usually made for harvesting the surface runoff. Bore wells can also be provided inside
the trench as recharge shafts to enhance percolation. The length of the trench is decided as
per the amount of runoff expected. This method is suitable for small houses, playgrounds,
parks and roadside drains. The recharge trench can be of size 0.50
to1.0mwideand1.0to1.5mdeep.

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 f) Percolation tanks

Percolation tanks are artificially created surface water bodies, submerging a land area with
adequate permeability to facilitate sufficient percolation to recharge the ground water.
These can be built in big campuses where land is available and topography is
suitable.Surface run-off and roof top water can be diverted to this tank. Water
accumulating in the tank percolates in the solid to augment the ground water. The stored
water can be used directly for gardening and raw use. Percolation tanks should be built in
gardens, open spaces and roadside green belts of urban area.

3.5.2 WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

Introduction:
The land area drained by a river is known as the river basin. The watershed is defined as the land
area from which water drains under gravity to a common drainage channel. Thus watershed is a
delineated area with a well defined topographic boundary and one water outlet. The watershed can
range from a few square kilometers to few thousand square kilometers in size.

In the watershed the hydrological conditions are such that water becomes concentrated within a
particular location like a river or a reservoir, by which the watershed is drained. The watershed
comprises complex interactions of soil, landform, vegetation, land use activities and water. People
and animals are an integral part of a watershed having mutual impacts on each other. We may live
anywhere we would be living in some watershed. A watershed affects as it is directly involved in
sustained food production, water supply for irrigation, power generation, transportation as well as
for influencing sedimentation and erosion, vegetation growth, floods and droughts. Thus
management of watersheds treating them as a basic functional unit is extremely important and the
first such Integrated Watershed Management was adopted in 1949 by the Damodar Valley
Corporation.

Watershed degradation:
The watersheds are very often found to be degraded due to uncontrolled, unplanned and
unscientific land use activities. Organizing, deforestation, mining, construction activities,
industrialization, shifting cultivation, natural and artificial fires, soil erosion and ignorance of local
people have been responsible for degradation of various watersheds.

Objectives of Watershed Management:

Rational utilization of land and water sources for optimum production causing minimum damage
to the natural resources is known as watershed management.
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The objectives of watershed management are as follows:
1. To rehabilitate the watershed through proper land use adopting conservation strategies for
minimizing soil erosion and moisture retention so as to ensure good productivity of the land for
the farmers.
2. To manage the watershed for beneficial developmental activities like domestic water supply,
irrigation, hydropower generation etc.
3. To minimize the risks of floods, droughts and land slides.
4. To develop rural areas in the region with clear plans for improving the economy of the regions.

Watershed management practices:

In the fifth year plan, watershed management approach was included with a number of programs
for it and a national policy was developed. In watershed management the aspects of development
are considered with regard to availability of the resources.
The practices of conservation and development of land and water are taken up with respect to their
suitability for people’s benefit as well as sustainability.

Various measures taken up for management include the following:

1. Water harvesting: Proper storage of water is done with provision for use in dry seasons in low
rainfall areas. It also helps in moderation of floods.

2. Afforestation and agro-forestry: In watershed development, afforestation and crop plantation

play a very important role. They help to prevent soil erosion and retention of moisture. In high
rainfall areas, woody trees are grown in between crops to substantially reduce the runoff and loss
of fertile soil. In Dehradun trees like Eucalyptus, Leucaena and grasses like chrysopogon are grown
along with maize or wheat to achieve the objectives. Woody trees grown successfully in such agro-
forestry programs include Sheesham, Teak and Keekar which have been used in watershed areas
of river Yamuna.

3. Mechanical measures for reducing soil erosion and runoff losses: Several mechanical
measures like terracing, bunding, bench terracing, no-till farming, contour cropping, strip cropping
etc. are used to minimize runoff and soil erosion particularly on the slopes of watersheds. Bunding
has proved to be a very useful method in reducing runoff, peak discharge and soil loss in Dehradun
andSiwaliks

4. Scientific mining and quarrying: Due to improper mining, the hills lose stability and get
disturbed resulting in landslides, rapid erosion etc. Contour trenching a tan interval of one meter
on overburdened dump, planting some soil binding plants land draining of water courses in the
mined area are recommended for minimizing the destructive effects of mining in watershed areas.

5. Public participation: People’s involvement including the farmers and tribals is the key to the
success of any watershed management program, particularly the soil and water conservation.
People’s cooperation as well as participation has to be ensured for the same.

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 3.5.3 RESETTLEMENT AND REHABILITATION OF PEOPLE

Problems and concerns: Economic development raises the quality and standard of living of the
people of a country. Developmental projects are planned to bring benefits to the society. However,
in the process of development, very often there is over-exploitation of natural resources and
degradation of the environment. Besides this, quite often, the native people of the project site are
directly affected. These native people are generally the poorest of the poor, underprivileged tribal
people. Various types of projects result in the displacement of the native people who undergo
tremendous economic and psychological distress, as the socioeconomic and ecological base of the
local community is disturbed.

a) Displacement problems due to dams :

The big river valley projects have one of the most serious socio-economic impacts due to large
scale displacement of local people from their ancestral home and loss of their traditional profession
or occupation. India is one of the countries in the world leading in big dam construction and in the
last 50 years more than 20 million people are estimated o have directly or indirectly affected by
these dams e.g. Hirakum Dam, Bhakra Nangal Dam, Tehri Dam are the examples where many
people and their villages in the vicinity got affected. It also resulted in movement lead by Sunderlal
Bahuguna- movement called Chipko Movement- One more stir is currently on is Sardar Sarovar
Project- three states people and many villages get affected.

b) Displacement due to mining:

Mining is another developmental activity, which causes displacement of the native people. Several
thousands of hectares of land area is covered in mining operation and the native people are
displaced. Sometimes displacement of local people is due to accidents occurring in mined areas
like subsidence of land that often leads to shifting people e.g. various mines are predominant in
Jharkhand, these mines had displaced many people.

c) Displacement due to creation of National park :

When some forests are covered under a National Park, it is a welcome step for conservation of
the natural resources. However, it also has a social aspect associated with it which is often
neglected. A major portion of the forest is declared as core-area, where the entry of local dwellers
or tribals is prohibited. When these villagers are deprived of their ancestral right or access to
forests, they usually retaliate by starting destructive activities. There is a need to look into their
problems and provide them some employment

REHABILITATION ISSUES:
The United Nations Universal Declaration on Human Rights has declared that right to housing is
a basic human right. In India, most of the displacements have resulted due to land acquisition by
the government for various reasons. For this purpose, the government has the Land Acquisition
Act, 1894 which empowers it to serve notice to the people to vacate their lands if there is a need
as per government planning. Provision of cash compensation in lieu of the land vacated exists in
the Act.
The major issues related to displacement and rehabilitation are as follows:
a) Tribals are usually the most affected amongst the displaced who are already poor. Displacement
further increases their poverty due to loss of land, home, jobs, food insecurity, loss of access to
common property assets, increased morbidity and mortality and social isolation.

91
b) Break up of families in an important social issue arising due to displacement in which the
women are the worst affected and they are not even given cash/land compensation.
c) The tribals are not familiar with the market policies and trends. Even if they get cash
compensation, they get alienated in the modern economic set up.
d) The land acquisition laws ignore the communal ownership of property, which is an inbuilt
system amongst the tribals. Thus the tribals lose their communitarian basis of economic and
cultural existence. They feel like fish out of water.
e) Kinship systems, marriages, social and cultural functions, their folk-songs ,dances and activities
vanish with their displacement, Even when they are resettled; it is individual-based resettlement,
which totally ignores communal settlement.
f) Loss of identity and loss of the intimate link between the people and the
environment is one of the biggest loss. The age-long indigenous knowledge,
which has been inherited and experienced by them about the flora, fauna, their uses etc. gets lost.

Rehabilitation policy:
There is a need for a comprehensive National Rehabilitation Policy. Different states are following
different practices in this regard.
CASE STUDY:
In case of sardar sarovar project Gujarat Government is formulating its policy through
various government resolutions. It has decided that each landed outstee shall be entitled to
allotment of irrigable land in the state which he chooses for his resettlement. The area of the land
would be equal to that owned by his earlier and the minimum land given to an outstee would be 2
hectares. However, there are problems of landless outstees and those natives who were cultivating
forest land. The cut-off date for identifying an adult son in a family has been fixed. It is important
since the adult son is to be treated as a separate family. The people of 20 submerged villages in
Gujrat hane been resettled at different locations leading to disintegration of joint families.

3.5.4 CLIMATE CHANGE

Climate is the average weather of an area. It is the general weather conditions, seasonal variations
and extremes of weather in region. Such conditions which average over a long period at least 30
years is called climate.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1990 and 1992published best available
evidence about past climate change, the green house effect and recent changes in global
temperature. It is observed that earth’s temperature has changed considerably during the geological
times. It has experienced several glacial and interglacial periods.
However, during the past10000 years of the current interglacial period, the mean average
temperature has fluctuated by 0.51˚ c over 100 to 200 year period. We have relatively stable
climate for thousands of years due to which we have practiced agriculture and increased
population.
Even small changes in climatic conditions may disturb agriculture that would lead to migration of
animals including humans.
Anthropogenic activities are upsetting the delicate balance that has been established between
various components of the environment.
Green house gases are increasing in atmosphere resulting in increase in the average global
temperature.

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This may upset the hydrological cycle; result in floods and droughts in different regions of the
world, cause sea level rise, changes in agricultural productivity, famines and death of humans as
well as livestock

3.5.5 GLOBAL WARMING

Introduction:

Before the Industrial Revolution, human activities released very few gases into the atmosphere
and all climate changes happened naturally. After the Industrial Revolution, through fossil fuel
combustion, changing agricultural practices and deforestation, the natural composition of gases in
the atmosphere is getting affected and climate and environment began to alter significantly.
Over the last 100 years, it was found out that the earth is getting warmer and warmer, unlike
previous 8000 years when temperatures have been relatively constant. The present temperature is
o
0.3 - 0.6 C warmer than it was 100 years ago.

The greenhouse effect is a naturally occurring process that aids in heating the Earth's surface and
atmosphere. It results from the fact that certain atmospheric gases, such as carbon dioxide, water
vapor, and methane, are able to change the energy balance of the planet by absorbing longwave
radiation emitted from the Earth's surface. Without the greenhouse effect life on this planet would
probably not exist as the average temperature of the Earth would be a chilly -18° Celsius, rather
than the present 15° Celsius.

Some greenhouse gases occur naturally in the atmosphere, while others result from human
activities. Naturally occurring greenhouse gases include water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane,
nitrous oxide, and ozone (refer Figure 9.4). Certain human activities, however, add to the levels of
most of these naturally occurring gases.

Carbon dioxide is released to the atmosphere when solid waste, fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, and
coal), and wood and wood products are burned.

Methane is emitted during the production and transport of coal, natural gas, and oil. Methane
emissions also result from the decomposition of organic wastes in municipal solid waste landfills,
and the raising of livestock. Nitrous oxide is emitted during agricultural and industrial activities,
as well as during combustion of solid waste and fossil fuels.

Very powerful greenhouse gases that are not naturally occurring include hydro fluorocarbons
(HFCs), per fluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), which are generated in a variety
of industrial processes.

Often, estimates of greenhouse gas emissions are presented in units of millions of metric tons of
carbon equivalents (MMTCE), which weights each gas by its Global Warming Potential or GWP
value.

As energy from the Sun passes through the atmosphere a number of things take place. A portion
of the energy (26% globally) is reflected or scattered back to space by clouds and other
atmospheric particles. About 19% of the energy available is absorbed by clouds, gases (like

93
ozone), and particles in the atmosphere. Of the remaining 55% of the solar energy passing through
the Earth's atmosphere, 4% is reflected from the surface back to space. On average, about 51% of
the Sun's radiation reaches the surface. This energy is then used in a number of processes, including
the heating of the ground surface; the melting of ice and snow and the evaporation of water; and
plant photosynthesis.

The heating of the ground by sunlight causes the Earth's surface to become a radiator of energy in
the long wave band (sometimes called infrared radiation). This emission of energy is generally
directed to space . However, only a small portion of this energy actually makes it back to space.
The majority of the outgoing infrared radiation is absorbed by the greenhouse gases

Absorption of long wave radiation by the atmosphere causes additional heat energy to be added to
the Earth's atmospheric system. The now warmer atmospheric greenhouse gas molecules begin
radiating long wave energy in all directions. Over 90% of this emission of long wave energy is
directed back to the Earth's surface where it once again is absorbed by the surface. The heating of
the ground by the long wave radiation causes the ground surface to once again radiate, repeating
the cycle described above, again and again, until no more long wave is available for absorption.

A number of gases are involved in the human caused enhancement of the greenhouse effect .These
gases include: carbon dioxide (CO2); methane (CH4); nitrous oxide (N2O);
chlorofluorocarbons (CFxClx); and tropospheric ozone (O3). Of these gases, the single most
important gas is carbon dioxide which accounts for about 55% of the change in the intensity of
the Earth's greenhouse effect. The contributions of the other gases are 25% for
chlorofluorocarbons, 15% for methane, and 5% for nitrous oxide. Ozone's contribution to the
enhancement of green house effect is still yet to be quantified.

Average concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide in the year 2005 were about 380 parts per
million .Prior to 1700, levels of carbon dioxide were about 280 parts per million. This increase in
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is primarily due to the activities of humans. Beginning in 1700,
societal changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution increased the amount of carbon
dioxide entering the atmosphere. The major sources of this gas include fossil fuel combustion for
industry, transportation, space heating, electricity generation and cooking; and vegetation changes
in natural prairie, woodland, and forested ecosystems. Emissions from fossil fuel combustion
account for about 65% of the extra carbon dioxide now found in our atmosphere. The remaining
35% is derived from deforestation and the conversion of prairie, woodland, and forested
ecosystems primarily into agricultural systems. Natural ecosystems can hold 20 to 100 times more
carbon dioxide per unit area than agricultural systems.

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Artificially created chlorofluorocarbons are the strongest greenhouse gas per molecule. However,
low concentrations in the atmosphere reduce their overall importance in the enhancement of the
greenhouse effect. Current measurements in the atmosphere indicate that the concentration of these
chemicals may soon begin declining because of reduced emissions. Reports of the development of
ozone holes over the North and South Poles and a general decline in global stratospheric ozone
levels over the last two decades has caused many nations to cutback
ontheirproductionanduseofthesechemicals.

Since 1750, methane concentrations in the atmosphere have increased by more than 150%. The
primary sources for the additional methane added to the atmosphere (in order of importance) are
rice cultivation, domestic grazing animals, termites, landfills, coal mining, and oil and gas
extraction. Anaerobic conditions associated with rice paddy flooding results in the formation of
methane gas. However, an accurate estimate of how much methane is being produced from rice
paddies has been difficult to obtain. More than 60% of all rice paddies are found in India and China
where scientific data concerning emission rates are unavailable. Nevertheless, scientists believe
that the contribution of rice paddies is large because this form of crop production has more than
doubled since 1950. Grazing animals release methane to the environment as a result of herbaceous
digestion. Some researchers believe the addition of methane from this source has more than
quadrupled over the last century. Termites also release methane through similar processes. Land-
use change in the tropics, due to deforestation, ranching, and farming, may be causing termite
numbers to expand. If this assumption is correct, the contribution from these insects may be
important. Methane is also released from landfills, coal mines, and gas and oil drilling. Landfills
produce methane as organic wastes decompose over time. Coal, oil, and natural gas deposits
release methane to the atmosphere when these deposits are excavated or drilled.

The average concentration of nitrous oxide in the atmosphere is now increasing at a rate of 0.2 to
0.3% per year. Sources for this increase include land-use conversion; fossil fuel combustion;
biomass burning; and soil fertilization. Most of the nitrous oxide added to the atmosphere each
year comes from deforestation and the conversion of forest, savanna and grassland ecosystems
into agricultural fields and rangeland. Both of these processes reduce the amount of nitrogen stored
in living vegetation and soil through the decomposition of organic matter. Nitrous oxide is also
released into the atmosphere when fossil fuels and biomass are burned. However, the combined
contribution of these sources to the increase of this gas in the atmosphere is thought to be minor.
The use of nitrate and ammonium fertilizers to enhance plant growth is another source of nitrous
oxide. Accurate measurements of how much nitrous oxide is being released from fertilization have
been difficult to obtain. Estimates suggest that the contribution from this source may represent
from 50% to 0.2% of nitrous oxide added to the atmosphere annually.

Ozone's role in the enhancement of the greenhouse effect has been difficult to determine
scientifically. Accurate measurements of past long-term (more than 25 years in the past) levels of
this gas in the atmosphere are currently unavailable. Concentrations of ozone gas are found in two
different regions of the Earth's atmosphere. The majority of the ozone (about 97%) found in the
atmosphere is localized in the stratosphere at an altitude of 15 to 55 kilometers above the Earth's
surface. In recent years, the concentration of the stratospheric ozone has been decreasing because
of the buildup of chlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere. Since the late 1970s, scientists have
discovered that total column ozone amounts over Antarctica in the springtime have decreased by
as much as 70%. Satellite measurements have indicated that the zone from 65° North to 65° South
latitude has had a 3% decrease in stratospheric ozone since 1978. Ozone is also highly concentrated

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at the Earth's surface. Most of this ozone is created as an artificial by product of photochemical
smog.

Global Warming (Climate Change) Implications

Rise in global temperature
Observations show that global temperatures have risen by about 0.6 °C over the 20th century.
There is strong evidence now that most of the observed warming over the last 50 years is caused
by human activities. Climate models predict that the global temperature will rise by about 6 °C by
the year 2100.

Rise in sea level

In general, the faster the climate change, the greater will be the risk of damage. The mean sea level
is expected to rise 9 - 88 cm by the year 2100, causing flooding of low lying areas and other
damages.

Food shortages and hunger

Water resources will be affected as precipitation and evaporation patterns change around the
world. This will affect agricultural output. Food security is likely to be threatened and some regions
are likely to experience food shortages and hunger.

3.5.6 ACID RAIN

Oxides of sulfur and nitrogen originating from industrial operations and fossil fuel combustion are
the major sources of acid forming gases. Acid forming gases are oxidized over several days by
which time they travel several thousand kilometers. In the atmosphere these gases are ultimately
converted into sulfuric and nitric acids. Hydrogen chloride emission forms hydrochloric acid.
These acids cause acidic rain. Acid rain is only one component of acidic deposition. Acidic
decomposition is the total wet acidic deposition (acid rain) and dry deposition. Rain water is turned
acidic when its pH falls below 5.6. In fact clean or natural rain water has a pH of 5.6 at 20˚ c
because of formation of carbonic acid due to dissolution of CO2 in water. In absence of rain, dry
deposition of acid may occur. Acid forming gases like oxides of sulphur and nitrogen and acid
aerosols get deposited on the surface of water bodies, vegetation, soil and other materials. On moist
surfaces or in liquids these acid forming gases can dissolve an form acids similar to that formed in
acid rain.

Effects of acid rain:

Acid rain causes a number of harmful effects below pH 5.1. The effects are visible in the aquatic
even at pH less than 5.5.
1. It causes deterioration of buildings especially made of marble e.g. monuments like Taj Mahal.
Crystals of calcium and magnesium sulphate are formed as a result of corrosion caused by acid
rain.
2. It damages stone statues. Priceless stone statues in Greece and Italy have been partially dissolved
by acid rain.
3. It damages metals and car finishes.
4. Aquatic life especially fish are badly affected by lake acidification
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5. Aquatic animals suffer from toxicity of metals such as aluminium, mercury, manganese, zinc
and lead which leak from the surrounding rocks due to acid rain.
6. It results in reproductive failure, and killing of fish.
7. Many lakes of Sweden, Norway, Canada have become fishless due to acid rain.
8. It damages foliage and weakens trees
9. It makes trees more susceptible to stresses like cold temperature, drought, etc . Many insects
and fungi are more tolerant to acidic conditions and hence they can attack the susceptible trees and
cause diseases.

Control measures:
1. Emission of SO2 and NO2 from industries and power plants should be
reduced by using pollution control equipments.
2. Liming of lakes and soils should be done to correct the adverse effects of acid
rain.
3. A coating of protective layer of inert polymer should be given in the interior of water pipes
for drinking water

3.5.7 OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

As early as 1896, the Swedish scientist Svante Arrhenius had predicted that human activities would
interfere with the way the sun interacts with the earth, resulting in global warming and climate
change. His prediction has become true and climate change is now disrupting global environmental
stability. The last few decades have seen many treaties, conventions, and protocols for the cause
of global environmental protection.
Few examples of environmental issues of global significance are:
• Ozone layer depletion
• Global warming

One of the most important characteristics of this environmental degradation is that it affects all
mankind on a global scale without regard to any particular country, region, or race. The whole
world is a stakeholder and this raises issues on who should do what to combat environmental
degradation.

Earth’s atmosphere is divided into three regions, namely troposphere, stratosphere and
mesosphere. The stratosphere extends from 10 to 50 kms from the Earth’s surface. This region is
concentrated with slightly pungent smelling, light bluish ozone gas. The ozone gas is made up of
molecules each containing three atoms of oxygen; its chemical formula is O 3.
The ozone layer, in the stratosphere acts as an efficient filter for harmful solar Ultraviolet B (UV-
B) rays Ozone is produced and destroyed naturally in the atmosphere and until recently, this
resulted in a well-balanced equilibrium .

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Ozone is formed when oxygen molecules absorb ultraviolet radiation with wavelengths less than
240 nanometres and is destroyed when it absorbs ultraviolet radiation with wavelengths greater
than 290 nanometres. In recent years, scientists have measured a seasonal thinning of the ozone
layer primarily at the South Pole. This phenomenon is being called the ozone hole.

Ozone Depletion Process

Ozone is highly reactive and easily broken down by man-made chlorine and bromine compounds.
These compounds are found to be most responsible for most of ozone layer depletion.

The ozone depletion process begins when CFCs (used in refrigerator and air conditioners) and
other ozone-depleting substances (ODS) are emitted into the atmosphere. Winds efficiently mix
and evenly distribute the ODS in the troposphere. These ODS compounds do not dissolve in rain,
are extremely stable, and have a long life span. After several years, they reach the stratosphere by
diffusion.

Strong UV light breaks apart the ODS molecules. CFCs, HCFCs, carbon tetrachloride, methyl
chloroform release chlorine atoms, and halons and methyl bromide release bromine atoms. It is
the chlorine and bromine atom that actually destroys ozone, not the intact ODS molecule. It is
estimated that one chlorine atom can destroy from 10,000 to 100,000 ozone molecules before it is
finally removed from the stratosphere.

Chemistry of Ozone Depletion

When ultraviolet light waves (UV) strike CFC* (CFCl3) molecules in the upper atmosphere, a
carbon-chlorine bond breaks, producing a chlorine (Cl) atom. The chlorine atom then reacts with
an ozone (O3) molecule breaking it apart and so destroying the ozone. This forms an ordinary
oxygen molecule (O2) and a chlorine monoxide (ClO) molecule. Then a free oxygen** atom breaks
up the chlorine monoxide. The chlorine is free to repeat the process of destroying more ozone
molecules. A single CFC molecule can destroy 100,000 ozone molecules.
* CFC - chlorofluorocarbon: it contains chlorine, fluorine and carbon atoms. ** UV radiation
breaks oxygen molecules (O2) into single oxygen atoms.
CFCl3 + UV Light ==> CFCl2 + Cl Cl + O3 ==> ClO + O2 ClO + O ==> Cl + O2
The free chlorine atom is then free to attack another ozone molecule
Cl + O ==> ClO + O ClO + O ==> Cl + O
3 2 2
and again ...

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 Cl + O3 ==> ClO + O2 ClO + O ==> Cl + O2

Effects of Ozone Layer Depletion

1) Effects on Human and Animal Health: Increased penetration of solar UV-B radiation is likely
to have high impact on human health with potential risks of eye diseases, skin cancer and infectious
diseases.

2) Effects on Terrestrial Plants: In forests and grasslands, increased radiation is likely to change
species composition thus altering the bio-diversity in different ecosystems. It could also may affect
the plant community.

3) Effects on Aquatic Ecosystems: High levels of radiation exposure in tropics and subtropics
may affect the distribution of Phytoplankton’s, which form the foundation of aquatic food webs.
It can also cause damage to early development stages of fish, shrimp, crab, amphibians and other
animals, the most severe effects being decreased reproductive capacity and impaired larval
development.

4)Effects on Bio-geo-chemical Cycles: Increased solar UV radiation could affect terrestrial and
aquatic bio-geo-chemical cycles thus altering both sources and sinks of greenhouse and important
trace gases, e.g. carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), carbonyl sulfide (COS), etc. These
changes would contribute to biosphere-atmosphere feedbacks responsible for the atmosphere
build-up of these greenhouse gases.

5) Effects on Air Quality: Reduction of stratospheric ozone and increased penetration of UV-B
radiation result in higher photo dissociation rates of key trace gases that control the chemical
reactivity of the troposphere. This can increase both production and destruction of ozone and
related oxidants such as hydrogen peroxide, which are known to have adverse effects on human
health, terrestrial plants and outdoor materials.

The ozone layer, therefore, is highly beneficial to plant and animal life on earth filtering out the
dangerous part of sun’s radiation and allowing only the beneficial part to reach earth. Any
disturbance or depletion of this layer would result in an increase of harmful radiation reaching the
earth’s surface leading to dangerous consequences.

3.5.8 NUCLEAR HOLOCOST AND NUCLEAR ACCIDENTS

Nuclear holocaust refers to a possible nearly complete annihilation of human civilization by

nuclear warfare. Under such a scenario, all or most of the Earth is made uninhabitable by nuclear
weapons in future world wars.

Nuclear physicists and others have speculated that nuclear holocaust could result in an end to
human life, or at least to modern civilization on Earth due to the immediate effects of nuclear
fallout, the loss of much modern technology due to electromagnetic pulses, or nuclear winter and

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resulting extinctions. Since 1947, the Doomsday Clock of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
visualizes how far the world is from a nuclear holocaust.

The threat of a nuclear holocaust plays an important role in the popular perception of nuclear
weapons. It features in the security concept of mutually assured destruction (MAD) and is a
common scenario in survivalism. Nuclear holocaust is a common feature in literature, especially
in speculative genres such as science fiction, dystopian and post-apocalyptic fiction.

The English word "holocaust", derived from the Greek term "holokaustos" meaning "completely
burnt", is commonly defined as "a great destruction resulting in the extensive loss of life, especially
by fire."

Case study: Chernobyl reactor

A mishandled reactor safety test led to an uncontrolled power excursion, causing a severe steam
explosion, meltdown and release of radioactive material at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant
located approximately 100 kilometers north-northwest of Kiev. Approximately fifty fatalities
resulted from the accident and the immediate aftermath most of these being cleanup personnel. An
additional nine fatal cases of thyroid cancer in children in the Chernobyl area have been attributed
to the accident. The explosion and combustion of the graphite reactor core spread radioactive
material over much of Europe. 100,000 people were evacuated from the areas immediately
surrounding Chernobyl in addition to 300,000 from the areas of heavy fallout in Ukraine, Belarus
and Russia. An "Exclusion Zone" was created surrounding the site encompassing approximately
1,000 mi² (3,000 km²) and deemed off-limits for human habitation for an indefinite period. Several
studies by governments, UN agencies and environmental groups have estimated the consequences
and eventual number of casualties. Their findings are subject to controversy.

Nuclear weapons causes holocaust:

If all the nuclear weapons in the world were used, then all of humanity would most like be
destroyed. This is for several reasons. Firstly, most major cities would be destroyed by incoming
warheads. However, this would leave some areas untouched. Thes e areas would most likely be
reached by radioactive fall-out blown by the wind. These would be the immediate repurcussions.
Later, the world would go into what is called "Nuclear Winter". Global temperatures would drop
significantly, as well as the amount of sunlight received by the earth. This is very similar to what
is believed happened to the dinosaurs. It is believed that a large asteroid collided with the earth,
and stirred up a lot of dust into the atmosphere. This blotted out the sun, and plants died. With very
few plants to eat, the dinosaurs (and many other animals) went extinct. Nuclear winter would be a
lot like this. The only difference is that there the dust would be raised up by impacting nuclear
warheads and their explosions. Additionally, the dust would be radioactive. The combination of
radioactivity, lack of food, and lowering temperatures cause a Nuclear Holocaust, with the chances
of humans surviving it very low.

Tragic results on Hiroshima:

At 8:15 am August 6, 1945, the first atomic bomb dropped in history exploded approximately 580
meters above the city of Hiroshima. Three days later, "Fat Man" was dropped onto Nagasaki. In

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an instant, the atomic bomb reduced the city to a scorched plain, wiping out countless precious
lives and inflicting devastation on all city structures. This unprecedented tragedy was on a
completely different scale from the destruction caused by natural disasters or conventional
weapons. Furthermore, the large amount of radiation that instantly descended upon the earth
penetrated deeply into people's bodies, destroying cells.
The temperature of the fireball from the Atomic Bomb at the time of explosion was over 100,000
degrees Celsius. The surface temperature of was 7,700 degrees Celsius within 0.2 seconds.
The death toll of Hiroshima was approximately 140,000. Nagasaki approximately lost 70,000 of
itscitizens.
Cataracts were common after exposure to the brilliance of the blast.
An increase in cancer was also common. Survivors might have experienced thyroid, breast, lung,
or salivary gland cancer.

UNIT-IV

GREEN ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

4.1. CLEAN DEVELOPMENT MECHANISM

History and Objectives of the Mechanism:

Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is an economic instrument for inducing initiatives to meet
the challenges faced by the impending threat of climate change. It is a mechanism for promoting
technology transfer and investment from developed countries to the developing countries for
projects to reduce the emissions of Greenhouse Gases (GHGs). The mechanism allows the
governments or private parties of developed countries to make investment for emission reduction
projects in developing countries and, in turn, get the benefit in terms of “Certified Emission
Reduction (CER)” which could be credited against their national emission reduction targets.

The concept of CDM owes its origin to the Kyoto Protocol (1997) under the UN Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) mooted at the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (Earth Summit) in 1992. The Convention on Climate Change and
the follow-up initiatives were prompted by the increasing evidence of global warming triggered
by anthropogenic emissions of Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) which include Carbon Dioxide, Nitrous
Oxide, Methane, Halogenated Hydrocarbon and Tropospheric Ozone. According to an assessment,
doubling of carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere or an equivalent increase of a mixture
of greenhouse gases can cause 1.5 to 4.5oC rise in global temperature with associated impacts such
as sea level rise,
floods and droughts.

Purpose

The purpose of the CDM is to promote clean development in developing countries, i.e., the "non-
Annex I" countries (countries that aren't listed in Annex I of the Framework Convention). The
CDM is one of the Protocol's "project-based" mechanisms in that the CDM is designed to promote
projects that reduce emissions. The CDM is based on the idea of emission reduction "production".
These reductions are "produced" and then subtracted against a hypothetical "baseline" of

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emissions. The emissions baseline are the emissions that are predicted to occur in the absence of a
particular CDM project. CDM projects are "credited" against this baseline, in the sense that
developing countries gain credit for producing these emission cuts. The CDM is one of the
"flexibility mechanisms" that is defined in the Kyoto Protocol. The flexibility mechanisms are
designed to allow Annex B countries to meet their emission reduction commitments with reduced
impact on their economies (IPCC, 2007).The flexibility mechanisms were introduced to the Kyoto
Protocol by the US government.

For participation in CDM, all countries are required to meet the following prerequisites:
􀂾 Ratification of the Kyoto Protocol;
􀂾 Establishment of a National CDM Authority; and
􀂾 Willingness for voluntary participation in CDM.

In addition to the aforesaid pre-requisites, the developed countries should also comply
with the following requirements as stipulated in the Protocol:
􀂾 National System for the estimation of GHG emissions;
􀂾 National registry and annual inventory;
􀂾 Accounting system for sale and purchase of emission reductions; and
􀂾 Establishment of assigned amount as per emission limitation and reduction
commitment to reduce their overall GHG emission by at least 5 per cent below 1990
levels in the first commitment period of 2008-2012.

The eligibility criteria for the CDM projects include the following:
􀂾 The projects must be approved by all parties involved;
􀂾 The projects should promote sustainable development in host countries;
􀂾 The projects should result in real, measurable and long term benefits towards
climate change mitigation; and
􀂾 The emission reduction should be additional to what would have otherwise
occurred without the projects.

Institutional structure
The institutional structure created for implementation of CDM includes three new
entities:
􀂾 Executive Board;
􀂾 Designated National Authority; and
􀂾 Designated Operational Entity.

Sequence of the CDM project cycle: actors and activities

Stage Actors Activities

1. Project Proponent Project design

2. Host Country Designated National Project approval
Authority (DNA)
3. Designated Operational Entity Validation of the project
(DOE) design document

4. CDM Executive Board (EB) Registration of the project

5. Project Proponent Project Implementation and
Monitoring

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6. Designated Operation Entity (DOE) Verification andcertification of emission
reduction from the project.
7. CDM Executive Board (EB) Issuance of Certified Emission
Reductions (CERs)

The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) Project Cycle

The Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol defines a series of steps necessary to
develop certified emissions reductions (CERs):

1. Project Design
2. Project Validation
3. Host Country Approval
4. Registration with the CDM Executive Board
5. Implementation and Monitoring
6. Verification/Certification and Issuance of CERs
7. Sale of CERs

1.ProjectDesign
The first step starts with a determination of whether the project concept would qualify as a CDM
project, including screening against project criteria, estimating the magnitude of emissions
reductions, and preparing a Project Design Document (PDD) to meet certain specifications. The
PDD must address the following key issues:

 Establishing the "baseline" for the project, which represents the anthropogenic emissions
that would occur in the absence of the proposed project activity. The current flaring of gas
may be an important consideration in establishing this baseline.
 Demonstrating "additionality," which in essence is a demonstration that the proposed
project is not "business as usual." While this criterion has proved to be controversial on
some projects, a series of guidelines is now available for making the additionality

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 demonstration. and there is precedent for landfill gas recovery projects of the type
envisioned.
 A monitoring methodology that effectively addresses gas flow and composition.

It is also critical to provide a basis for legal ownership of the project activity, i.e. the rights to the
gas generated at landfill or wastewater treatment plant.

2.ProjectValidation
Validation is the process by which the PDD is independently evaluated by a "designated operation
entity" (DOE) against the requirements of the CDM. The DOE must be a third party, separate and
apart from the project developer and preparer of the PDD. Information submitted to the DOE
should include comments by the local stakeholders and a summary of how due account was taken
of any such comments, as well as an analysis of any environmental impact of the project's activity.

Based on its review, the DOE issues a validation report and opinion as to the adequacy of the PDD.
The project developer/PDD consultant must respond to queries and comments to the satisfaction
of the DOE for the final validation report to be issued.

3.Host Country Approval

Upon validation of the proposed project by the DOE, the following documentation must be
submitted to the designated national authority (DNA) for host country approval:
1. The validation report.
2. The PDD, including a description of how the project will contribute to sustainable
development.
3. If required by local law, an approved environmental impact assessment.
4. A written commitment to deliver an annual report on the results of monitoring,
certification, and issuance of CERs.
Once the DNA requirements have been satisfied, a Letter of Approval is issued for the project.

4.RegistrationwiththeCDMExecutiveBoard
Following the issuance of the Letter of Approval, a request for registration is submitted to the
CDM Executive Board in the form of the validation report, including the PDD, the written approval
of the DNA and an explanation of how this takes into account any comments received. The CDM
Executive Board reviews the proposal and may invite public comment or ask for additional
information/details before rejecting or accepting the proposal, which becomes a public document
once submitted to the CDM Executive Board. Registration is a formal acceptance by the CDM
Executive Board of a validated project as a CDM project activity and is the official recognition of
the project feasibility to generate CER.

5.ImplementationandMonitoring
Once the project has been validated, detailed engineering activities can be undertaken in parallel
with the CDM approval process. Typically, construction would not occur until after CDM
Executive Board approval. Monitoring of emissions reductions, as specified in the PDD
monitoring plan, would then be implemented. In order to calculate the emissions reductions, the
emissions of the project activity have to be subtracted from the reference scenario or Baseline
outlined in the PDD.

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6.Verification/CertificationandissuanceofCERs
Verification is required by a DOE, separate and apart from the preparer of the PDD and the DOE
responsible for project validation, in order to demonstrate that actual emissions reductions are
consistent with the PDD. A certification report is required on an annual basis to quantify the actual
emissions reductions achieved during that period. The second DOE conducts on-site inspections,
reviews monitoring results, and provides a verification report to the CDM Executive Board.
The certification constitutes a request to the CDM Executive Board for issuance of CERs equal to
the verified amount of reductions from the project. This issuance should be considered final 15
days after the day of receipt of the request for issuance, unless issues are raised by the CDM
Executive Board or other parties involved. The requisite amount of CERs is then deposited in the
registry account of the project developer.

7.SaleofCERs
The process of negotiating the sale of the CERs can usually start as the PDD is being finalized. A
Term Sheet spelling out the terms of the agreement is initially prepared and later used for drafting
the so-called Emissions Reductions Purchase Agreement (ERPA). These agreements define the
amount of CERs to be transferred, the purchase price, the time period of delivery, and other
relevant conditions. ENVIRON is experienced in developing these agreements and working with
the buyers in the emissions reductions marketplace, e.g., World Bank’s Prototype Carbon Fund,
tenders by national governments, brokers, and private sector buyer

Benefits and beneficiaries of the CDM

The CDM has the potential of multi-faceted benefits and multiple beneficiaries
Benefits
• Global reduction of greenhouse gases.
• Lesser cost of climate change mitigation.
• Additional benefits through reduction of other pollutants besides GHGs.
• Opening a market for carbon investment.
• Additional financial resources and alternative technologies.
• Initiatives for adaptation to climate change impacts.
• Focus on sustainable development.
• Scope for cooperation at various levels (national, sub-regional,
regional and global).
Beneficiaries
• Developed countries.
• Countries with economy in transition.
• Developing countries.
• Small inland countries.
• Public sector.
• Private sector.

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 4.2 CARBON FOOTPRINT

INTRODUCTION:

‘Carbon footprint’ measures the total greenhouse gas emissions caused directly and indirectly by
a person, organization, event or product.

The footprint considers all six of the Kyoto Protocol greenhouse gases: Carbon dioxide (CO2),
Methane (CH4), Nitrous oxide (N2O), Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and
Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6).

A carbon footprint is measured in tones of carbon dioxide equivalent (tCO2e). The carbon dioxide
equivalent (CO2e) allows the different greenhouse gases to be compared on a like-for-like basis
relative to one unit of CO2. CO2e is calculated by multiplying the emissions of each of the six
greenhouse gases by its 100 year global warming potential (GWP).

The main types of carbon footprint for organizations are:

A) ORGANISATIONAL CARBON FOOTPRINT

Emissions from all the activities across the organization, including buildings’ energy use,
industrial processes and company vehicles.

An organizational or business carbon footprint measures the direct and indirect greenhouse
gas emissions arising from all of an organization’s activities. A good place to get an estimation
of your business carbon footprint is our carbon footprint indicator. Read more about
organizational carbon footprints below.

 Types of emissions
 Why calculate
 How to calculate - organizational carbon footprints
 How we can help

The Greenhouse Gas Protocol* standard is commonly used to categorize an organization’s

emissions into 3 groups or ‘scopes’:

 Scope 1 - Direct emissions

Direct emissions resulting from activities within the organization’s control. Includes on-
site fuel combustion, manufacturing and process emissions, refrigerant losses and
company vehicles.
 Scope 2 - Indirect emissions: electricity and heat
Indirect emissions from electricity, heat or steam purchased and used by the organization.
 Scope 3 - Indirect emissions: other
Any other indirect emissions from sources not directly controlled by the organization.
Examples include: employee business travel, outsourced transportation, waste disposal,
water usage and employee commuting.

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Under the Greenhouse Gas Protocol, an organization must include scope 1 and 2 emissions within
its carbon footprint. There is broad discretion about which scope 3 emissions should be included
in a business carbon footprint - for example; organizations often include waste disposed to landfill
and employee business travel from scope 3.

If you have your energy usage details, use our carbon footprint calculator to calculate your
organizational carbon footprint.

* The Greenhouse Gas Protocol: A Corporate Accounting and Reporting Standard, revised
edition. World Business Council for Sustainable Development and World Resources Institute.

The 2 main reasons for calculating an organizational carbon footprint are that it will help you to:

 Manage and reduce emissions

Reducing your business carbon footprint often results in cost savings. Analyzing your
organization’s carbon footprint will help you to identify and prioritize areas for potential
reduction.
 Reporting
More and more organizations want to be able to demonstrate their carbon footprint for
reasons of:
o Mandatory reporting requirements
Climate change legislation such as the Carbon Reduction Commitment Energy
Efficiency Scheme (CRC) or EU Emissions Trading Scheme require such
reporting, for example.
o Corporate social responsibility (CSR)
Showing that you are behaving in a responsible and ethical way is becoming ever
more important
o Responding to requests
Partners, customers and investors are increasingly interested in carbon emissions
data. There are also carbon reporting initiatives such as the Carbon Disclosure
Project.

Steps:

The basic 6 steps required to calculate a carbon footprint for an organization are as follows:

1. Establishment of the assessment boundaries:

• Organizational
• Operational
• Greenhouse gases
2. Collection of data.
3. Calculation of emissions using appropriate emissions factors
4. Convert usage into CO2 equivalent
5. Verifying the results (optional)
6. Reporting the carbon footprint

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1. Method definition
You need to have a consistent method to get accurate results – especially if you are going to rely
on lots of different people to collect and interpret data.
Good sources of standards include:

 Greenhouse Gas Protocol

Free set of commonly used standards
 International Organization for Standardization, ISO 14064
Builds on many of the concepts introduced by the GHG Protocol

2. Establishment of the assessment boundaries:

You will need to define:

 Organizational boundaries
What parts of the organization are included? This can be complex for large organizations
with many subsidiaries, joint ventures or leased assets.
 Operational boundaries
All scope 1 and scope 2 emissions should be included, but the organization can choose
which scope 3 emissions to include.

When choosing a boundary try to take account of how your organization works, other reporting
periods, legislative requirements, and the practicalities of data collection.

3. Collate data
It is important to collect data as thoroughly and accurately as possible. The main sources of data
are usually:

 Gas and electricity – meter readings or bills (kWh)

 Other fuels – usage in liters, kWh, MJ, liters
 Transport – usage by fuel type (if this is not possible estimate it based on the mileage of
the vehicles and fuel economy assumptions)

4.ConvertusageintoCO2equivalent
The carbon footprint is measured in tones CO2 equivalent (tCO2e). This is calculated by
converting the data you have collected. You should always use conversions from credible sources,
see our conversion factor tables. It is important that you identify any data gaps and list the
assumptions you have made in calculating the footprint.

5.Verifyingtheresults(optional)
To add credibility, it makes sense for a third party to verify your carbon footprint. The Carbon
Trust Standard is one such company that can do this – as well as helping you to measure, reduce,
and communicate your carbon footprint.

6.Reportingthecarbonfootprint
Make sure you carbon footprint is presented clearly and honestly. This means providing complete
information about each of the steps above, including methods, footprint boundaries, data quality
and assumptions. Also - try to keep a consistent approach over different years, explaining any
changes in reporting or business structure that might impact the footprint.

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B) PRODUCT CARBON FOOTPRINT

Emissions over the whole life of a product or service, from the extraction of raw materials and
manufacturing right through to its use and final reuse, recycling or disposal.

A product carbon footprint measures the greenhouse gas emissions at each stage of the product’s
life.

A product carbon footprint measures the greenhouse gas emissions at each stage of the product’s
life. This includes:

 Extraction, production and transportation of raw materials

 Manufacture or service provision
 Distribution
 End-use
 Disposal/recycling

At each stage greenhouse gas emissions can result from such sources as: energy use, transportation
fuel refrigerant losses from air conditioning units and waste. In the case of a “service product” the
life-cycle stages are defined across the duration of the service.

Measuring a product’s carbon footprint offers a number of benefits, including:

 Attracting customers
Customers are becoming increasingly aware of the environmental impact of the goods
and services they use. Working with the Carbon Trust Foot printing Company or
demonstrating a lower footprint than competitor products can deliver competitive
advantage.
 Brand identity
Reporting product carbon footprints shows that an organization takes its social
responsibility seriously.
 Leadership
Reporting your products’ carbon footprints will support your corporate responsibility
programme and enhance your reputation.
 Cost savings
Identifying areas where greenhouse gas emissions can be reduced often results in cost
savings - in terms of transport energy, waste and packaging for example.
 Emissions savings
Looking at the whole supply chain could help you identify savings.

The basic steps required to calculate a carbon footprint for a product are as follows:
1. Analyze the materials and supply chain processes.
2. Build a supply chain map for the product.
3. Define the assessment boundaries (including the selection of greenhouse gases
and the emissions sources which will be included).
4. Data collection
5. Calculation of emissions using appropriate emissions factors.

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1. The primary footprint is a measure of our direct emissions of CO2 from the burning of fossil
fuels including domestic energy consumption and transportation (e.g. car and plane). We have
direct control of these.

2. The secondary footprint is a measure of the indirect CO2 emissions from the whole lifecycle
of products we use - those associated with their manufacture and eventual breakdown. To put it
very simply – the more we buy the more emissions will be caused on our behalf.

Product Carbon Footprints are commonly expressed either as ‘cradle to gate’ footprints, or
‘cradle
to grave’ depending on the life-cycle stages included.

4.3 CARBON CREDIT

INTRODUCTION

Carbon credits are a tradable permit scheme. It is a simple, non-compulsory way to counteract the
greenhouse gasses that contribute to climate change and global warming. Carbon credits create a
market for reducing greenhouse emissions by giving a monetary value to the cost of polluting the
air. The Carbon Credit is this new currency and each carbon credit represents one tonne of carbon
dioxide either removed from the atmosphere or saved from being emitted. Carbon credits are also
called emission permit. Carbon credit is in the Environment and Pollution Control subject. Carbon
credits are certificates awarded to countries that are successful in reducing emissions of greenhouse
gases.

GENERATIONOFCARBONCREDITS
Carbon credits are generated as the result of an additional carbon project. Carbon credits can be
created in many ways but there are two broad types:
1. Sequestration (capturing or retaining carbon dioxide from the atmosphere) such as
afforestation and reforestation activities.
2. Carbon Dioxide Saving Projects such as use of renewable energies
These credits need to be authentic, scientifically based and Verification is essential.
Carbon credit trading is an innovative method of controlling emissions using the free market.

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NEEDFORCARBONCREDITS
Over millions of years, our planet has managed to regulate concentrations of greenhouse gases
through sources (emitters) and sinks (reservoirs). Carbon (in the form of CO2 and methane) is
emitted by volcanoes, by rotting vegetation, by burning of fossil fuels and other organic matter.
But CO2 is absorbed, by trees, forests or by some natural phenomenon like photosynthesis and
alsooceanstosomeextent.

TYPES OF CARBON CREDIT

There are two main markets for carbon credits:
A) Compliance Market credits
B) Verified Market credits (VERs)

VALUE OF CARBON CREDITS

Carbon credits create a market for reducing greenhouse gases emissions by giving a monetary
value to the cost of polluting the air such as carbon emitted by burning of fossil fuels. This
means that carbon becomes a cost of business and is seen like other inputs such as raw materials
or labor.

Carbon credits are measured in tonnes of carbon dioxide.

1 credit = 1 tonne of CO2.
Each carbon credit represents one metric ton of C02 either removed from the atmosphere or
saved from being emitted. The carbon credit market creates a monetary value for carbon credits
and allows the credits to be traded.
For each tonne of carbon dioxide that is saved or sequestered carbon credit producers may sell
one carbon credit.

4.4 CARBON SEQUESTRATION or CARBON CAPTURE AND STROAGE or

SCRUBBING OF CO2

Carbon sequestration is the capture of carbon dioxide (CO2) and may refer specifically to:

 "The process of removing carbon from the atmosphere and depositing it in a reservoir."
When carried out deliberately, this may also be referred to as carbon dioxide removal,
which is a form of geoengineering.

 The process of carbon capture and storage, where carbon dioxide is removed from flue
gases, such as on power stations, before being stored in underground reservoirs.

 Natural biogeochemical cycling of carbon between the atmosphere and reservoirs, such
as by chemical weathering of rocks.

Carbon sequestration describes long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to
either mitigate or defer global warming and avoid dangerous climate change. It has been
proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases, which
are released by burning fossil fuels.

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Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological, chemical or
physical processes. Some anthropogenic sequestration techniques exploit these natural processes,
while some use entirely artificial processes.

Carbon dioxide may be captured as a pure by-product in processes related to petroleum refining
or from flue gases from power generation.CO2 sequestration includes the storage part of carbon
capture and storage, which refers to large-scale, permanent artificial capture and sequestration of
industrially produced CO2 using subsurface saline aquifers, reservoirs, ocean water, aging oil
fields, or other carbon sinks.

STEPS :
A) Capturing or Scrubbing
B) Transporation
C) Sequestration or Storage

A) CAPTURING or SCRUBBING OF CO2:

TECHNOLOGIES:
Broadly, three different types of technologies for scrubbing of CO 2 exist:
2. post-combustion,
3. pre-combustion, and
4. oxyfuel combustion
5. Chemical looping
1. Post-Combustion: In post combustion capture, the CO2 is removed after combustion of the
fossil fuel — this is the scheme that would be applied to fossil-fuel burning power plants. Here,
carbon dioxide is captured from flue gases at power stations or other large point sources. The
technology is well understood and is currently used in other industrial applications, although not
at the same scale as might be required in a commercial scale power station.

2. Pre-Combustion : The technology for pre-combustion is widely applied in fertilizer, chemical,

gaseous fuel (H2, CH4), and power production. In these cases, the fossil fuel is partially oxidized,
for instance in a gasifier. The resulting syngas (CO and H2O) is shifted into CO2 and more H2. The
resulting CO2 can be captured from a relatively pure exhaust stream. The H2 can now be used as
fuel; the carbon dioxide is removed before combustion takes place. There are several advantages
and disadvantages when compared to conventional post combustion carbon dioxide capture. The
CO2 is removed after combustion of fossil fuels, but before the flue gas is expanded to atmospheric
pressure. This scheme is applied to new fossil fuel burning power plants, or to existing plants
where re-powering is an option. The capture before expansion, i.e. from pressurized gas, is
standard in almost all industrial CO2 capture processes, at the same scale as will be required for
utility power plants.

3. Oxy-Fuel Combustion: In oxy-fuel combustion the fuel is burned in oxygen instead of air. To
limit the resulting flame temperatures to levels common during conventional combustion, cooled
flue gas is re-circulated and injected into the combustion chamber. The flue gas consists of mainly
carbon dioxide and water vapor, the latter of which is condensed through cooling. The result is an
almost pure carbon dioxide stream that can be transported to the sequestration site and stored.
Power plant processes based on oxy fuel combustion are sometimes referred to as "zero emission"
cycles, because the CO2 stored is not a fraction removed from the flue gas stream (as in the cases

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of pre- and post-combustion capture) but the flue gas stream itself. A certain fraction of the CO2
generated during combustion will inevitably end up in the condensed water. To warrant the label
"zero emission" the water would thus have to be treated or disposed of appropriately. The
technique is promising, but the initial air separation step demands a lot of energy.

4.Chemical looping combustion (ClC): Chemical looping uses a metal oxide as a solid oxygen
carrier. Metal oxide particles react with a solid, liquid or gaseous fuel in a fluidized bed combustor,
producing solid metal particles and a mixture of carbon dioxide and water vapor. The water vapor
is condensed, leaving pure carbon dioxide which can then be sequestered. The solid metal particles
are circulated to another fluidized bed where they react with air, producing heat and regenerating
metal oxide particles that are re circulated to the fluidized bed combustor.

5. Calcium looping: A variant of chemical looping is calcium looping, which uses the alternating
carbonation and then calcinations of a calcium oxide based carrier as a means of capturing CO2.

B) TRANSPORT:
After capture, the CO2 would have to be transported to suitable storage sites. This is done by
pipeline, which is generally the cheapest form of transport. In 2008, there were approximately
5,800 km of CO2 pipelines in the United States, used to transport CO2 to oil production fields
where it is then injected into older fields to extract oil. The injection of CO 2 to produce oil is
generally called Enhanced Oil Recovery or EOR.
In addition, there are several pilot programs in various stages to test the long-term storage of CO2
in non-oil producing geologic formations.
A COA conveyor belt system or ship could also be utilized for transport. These methods are
currently used for transporting CO2 for other applications.

C) SEQUESTRATION or STORAGE:
Various forms have been conceived for permanent storage of CO 2. These forms include gaseous
storage in various deep geological formations (including saline formations and exhausted gas
fields), liquid storage in the ocean, and solid storage by reaction of CO 2 with metal oxides to
produce stable carbonates.

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i)GEOLOGICAL STORAGE: Also known as geo-sequestration, this method involves injecting
carbon dioxide, generally in supercritical form, directly into underground geological formations.
Oil fields, gas fields, saline formations, unmineable coal seams, and saline-filled basalt formations
have been suggested as storage sites. Various physical (e.g., highly impermeable cap rock) and
geochemical trapping mechanisms would prevent the CO2 from escaping to the surface.
Enhanced oil recovery: CO2 is sometimes injected into declining oil fields to increase oil
recovery. This option is attractive because the geology of hydrocarbon reservoirs is generally well
understood and storage costs may be partly offset by the sale of additional oil that is recovered.
Disadvantages of old oil fields are their geographic distribution and their limited capacity, as well
as the fact that subsequent burning of the additional oil so recovered will offset much or all of the
reduction in CO2 emissions.
Unmineable coal seams can be used to store CO2 because the CO2 molecules attach to the surface
of coal. The technical feasibility, however, depends on the permeability of the coal bed. In the
process of absorption the coal releases previously absorbed methane, and the methane can be
recovered (enhanced coal bed methane recovery). The sale of the methane can be used to offset a
portion of the cost of the CO2 storage. Burning the resultant methane, however, would produce
CO2, which would negate some of the benefit of sequestering the original CO 2.

II) OCEAN STORAGE:

Another proposed form of carbon storage is in the oceans. Several concepts have been proposed:
 'Dissolution' injects CO2 by ship or pipeline into the ocean water column at depths of 1000
– 3000 m, forming an upward-plume, and the CO2 subsequently dissolves in seawater.
 Through 'lake' deposits, by injecting CO2 directly into the sea at depths greater than 3000
m, where high-pressure liquefies CO2, making it denser than water, and forms a downward-
plume that may accumulate on the sea floor as a 'lake', and is expected to delay dissolution
of CO2 into the ocean and atmosphere, possibly for millennia.
 Use a chemical reaction to combine CO2 with a carbonate mineral (such as limestone) to
form bicarbonate(s), for example: CO2 + CaCO3 + H2O → Ca(HCO3)2(aq). However, the
aqueous bicarbonate solution must not be allowed to dry out, or else the reaction will
reverse.
 Store the CO2 in solid clathrate hydrates already existing on the ocean floor,[23][24] or
growing more solid clathrate.
The environmental effects of oceanic storage are generally negative, and poorly understood. Large
concentrations of CO2 could kill ocean organisms, but another problem is that dissolved CO 2
would eventually equilibrate with the atmosphere, so the storage would not be permanent. In
addition, as part of the CO2 reacts with the water to form carbonic acid, H2CO3, the acidity of the
ocean water increases.
The bicarbonate approach would reduce the pH effects and enhance the retention of CO2 in the
ocean, but this would also increase the costs and other environmental effects.

III) MINERAL STORAGE:

In this process, CO2 is exothermically reacted with available metal oxides, which in turn produces
stable carbonates. This process occurs naturally over many years and is responsible for a great
amount of surface limestone. The reaction rate can be made faster, for example by reacting at
higher temperatures and/or pressures, or by pre-treatment of the minerals, although this method
can require additional energy.
Carbon sequestration by reacting naturally occurring Mg and Ca containing minerals with CO 2 to
form carbonates has many unique advantages. Most notable is the fact that carbonates have a lower
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energy state than CO2, which is why mineral carbonation is thermodynamically favorable and
occurs naturally (e.g., the weathering of rock over geologic time periods). Secondly, the raw
materials such as magnesium based minerals are abundant. Finally, the produced carbonates are
unarguably stable and thus re-release of CO2 into the atmosphere is not an issue. However,
conventional carbonation pathways are slow under ambient temperatures and pressures. The
significant challenge being addressed by this effort is to identify an industrially and
environmentally viable carbonation route that will allow mineral sequestration to be implemented
with acceptable economics

4.5 POLLUTER PAYS PRINCIPLE

The polluter pays principle (PPP) is a basic economic idea that firms or consumers should pay for
the cost of the negative externality they create. The polluter pays principle usually refers to
environmental costs, but it could be extended to any external cost.

In a purely free market, you would only face your private costs. However, for goods with negative
externalities, there are additional external costs, e.g. damage to the environment. This means the
social cost of some goods are greater than the private cost.

The polluter pays principle is simply the idea that we should pay the total social cost including the
environmental costs. This requires some authority or government agency to calculate our external
costs and make sure that we pay the full social cost. A simple example, is a tax on petrol. When
consuming petrol, we create pollution. The tax means the price we pay more closely reflects the
social cost.

The polluter pays principle is a way of ‘internalizing the externality’. It makes the firm / consumer
pay the total social cost, rather than just the private cost. (Social cost = private cost+ external cost)

The polluter pays principle is an important basis of international law. In 1972, the OECD
(Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) wrote Guiding Principles concerning
International Economic Aspects of Environmental Policies, stating:

“ The polluter should bear the expenses of carrying out the above-mentioned measures decided by
public authorities to ensure that the environment is in an acceptable state.”

The polluter pays principle was incorporated into the 1992 Rio summit the declaration stated:

“National authorities should endeavor to promote the internalization of environmental costs and
the use of economic instruments, taking into account the approach that the polluter should, in
principle, bear the cost of pollution, with due regard to the public interest and without distorting
international trade and investment.”

Difficulties of implementing polluter pays principle

 It can be difficult to measure how much pollution is produced, e.g. firms may try to hide
the extent of their pollution.

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  It can be difficult to impose regulations or tax on firms from other countries. For example,
when we contribute to global warming, the problem effects everyone around the world, but
it can be difficult to create international agreements to impose penalties on those polluting.
 Pollution havens. These are countries which have weaker environmental legislation and
firms can escape taxes and regulations on pollution by shifting production to those
countries.
 Some costs are unexpected and occur after the event. e.g. in building nuclear power plant.
 Administration costs of collecting information and implementing tax. For example, a few
drunks late at night may make a lot of noise and disturb the neighbourhood, but it would
be impractical to impose a tax on those who make noise after a hard-days night.
Administration costs have prevented the extension of congestion charge to smaller cities
like Manchester – even though in principle it would make economic sense to have a charge
for those who cause the external cost of congestion.

4.6 GREEN BUILDING or GREEN CONSTRUCTION OR SUSTAINABLE BUILDING

"A green building is one which uses less water, optimizes energy efficiency, conserves
natural resources, generates less waste and provides healthier spaces for occupants, as
compared to a conventional building."

Green construction or sustainable building refers to a structure and using process that is
environmentally responsible and resource-efficient throughout a building's life-cycle: from siting
to design, construction, operation, maintenance, renovation, and demolition.

Objectives:
Efficiently using energy, water, and other resources
Protecting occupant health and improving employee productivity
Reducing waste, pollution and environmental degradation

Buildings can be rated for their environmentally sustainable construction. One such rating
system is the LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design).
This building rating system was developed by the U.S. Green Building Council (GBC)
The other rating systems are BREEAM (Building Research Establishment's Environmental
Assessment method -United Kingdom) and CASBEE (Comprehensive Assessment System for
Building Environmental Efficiency-Japan) help consumers determine a structure’s level of
environmental performance.

What is LEED?

Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) is a rating system devised by the United
States Green Building Council (USGBC) to evaluate the environmental performance of a building
and encourage market transformation towards sustainable design.

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The system is credit-based, allowing projects to earn points for environmentally friendly actions
taken during construction and use of a building.

What types of buildings can use LEED?

LEED certification is available for all building types including new construction and major
renovation; existing buildings; commercial interiors; core and shell; schools and homes. LEED
systems for neighborhood development, retail and healthcare are currently pilot testing. To date,
there is over 4.5 billion square feet of construction space involved with the LEED system.

How does LEED work?

LEED is a point based system where building projects earn LEED points for satisfying specific
green building criteria. Within each of the seven LEED credit categories, projects must satisfy
particular prerequisites and earn points.

The rating system addresses six major areas:

1. Sustainable sites;
2.Water efficiency;
3. Energy and atmosphere;
4. Materials and resources;
5. Indoor environmental quality; and
6. Innovation and design process.

LEED certification levels:

four progressive levels according to the following scale:
Certified 40–49 points
Silver 50–59 points
Gold 60–79 points
Platinum 80 points and above

Characteristics of High Performance Green Buildings

72% of electricity consumption
•39% of energy use
•38% of all carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions
•40% of raw material use
•30% of waste output
•136 million tons of waste from construction and demolition
•12% of potable water supplies

In 2004, the European Commission initiated the Green Building Program (GBP). This program
aims at improving the energy efficiency and expanding the integration of renewable energies in
non-residential buildings in Europe on a voluntary basis.

Green building materials offer specific benefits to the building owner and building occupants:
 Reduced maintenance/replacement costs over the life of the building.
 Energy conservation.

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  Improved occupant health and productivity.
 Lower costs associated with changing space configurations.
 Greater design flexibility.

Green building material/product selection criteria

1. Resource efficiency
2. Indoor air quality
3. Energy efficiency
4. Water conservation
5. Affordability
1. Resource Efficiency can be accomplished by utilizing materials that meet the following criteria:
 Recycled Content: Products with identifiable recycled content, including postindustrial
content with a preference for postconsumer content.
 Natural, plentiful or renewable: Materials harvested from sustainably managed sources
and preferably have an independent certification (e.g., certified wood) and are certified by
an independent third party.
 Resource efficient manufacturing process: Products manufactured with resource-
efficient processes including reducing energy consumption, minimizing waste (recycled,
recyclable and or source reduced product packaging), and reducing greenhouse gases.
 Locally available: Building materials, components, and systems found locally or
regionally saving energy and resources in transportation to the project site.
 Reusable or recyclable: Select materials that can be easily dismantled and reused or
recycled at the end of their useful life.
 Recycled or recyclable product packaging: Products enclosed in recycled content or
recyclable packaging.
 Durable: Materials that are longer lasting or are comparable to conventional products with
long life expectancies.

2. Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) is enhanced by utilizing materials that meet the following criteria:

 Low or non-toxic: Materials that emit few or no carcinogens, reproductive toxicants, or

irritants as demonstrated by the manufacturer through appropriate testing.
 Minimal chemical emissions: Products that have minimal emissions of Volatile Organic
Compounds (VOCs). Products that also maximize resource and energy efficiency while
reducing chemical emissions.
 Low-VOC assembly: Materials installed with minimal VOC-producing compounds, or
no-VOC mechanical attachment methods and minimal hazards.
 Moisture resistant: Products and systems that resist moisture or inhibit the growth of
biological contaminants in buildings.
 Healthfully maintained: Materials, components, and systems that require only simple,
non-toxic, or low-VOC methods of cleaning.
 Systems or equipment: Products that promote healthy IAQ by identifying indoor air
pollutants or enhancing the air quality.

3. Energy Efficiency can be maximized by utilizing materials and systems that meet the following
criteria:
 Materials, components, and systems that help reduce energy consumption in buildings and
facilities.

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4. Water Conservation can be obtained by utilizing materials and systems that meet the following
criteria:
 Products and systems that help reduce water consumption in buildings and conserve water
in landscaped areas.

5. Affordability can be considered when building product life-cycle costs are comparable to
conventional materials or as a whole, are within a project-defined percentage of the overall budget.

BENEFITS OF GREEN BUILDING

Buildings have an enormous impact on the environment, human health, and the economy. The
successful adoption of green building strategies can maximize both the economic and
environmental performance of buildings.

1. Environmental benefits 2. Economic benefits 3. Social benefits

1. Environmental benefits:

 Enhance and protect biodiversity and ecosystems

 Improve air and water quality
 Reduce waste streams
 Conserve and restore natural resources

2. Economic benefits:
 Reduce operating costs
 Create, expand, and shape markets for green product and services
 Improve occupant productivity
 Optimize life-cycle economic performance

3. Social benefits:
 Enhance occupant comfort and health
 Heighten aesthetic qualities
 Minimize strain on local infrastructure
 Improve overall quality of life

4.7 GREEN COMPUTING OR GREEN IT OR ICT SUSTAINABILITY

Definition :"the study and practice of designing, manufacturing, using, and disposing of
computers, servers, and associated subsystems—such as monitors, printers, storage devices, and
networking and communications systems — efficiently and effectively with minimal or no impact
on the environment”

Introduction:
The primary objective of such a program is to account for the triple bottom line (or "People, Planet,
Profit").
The term "green computing" was probably coined shortly after the Energy Star program began.

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The goals are similar to green chemistry namely to reduce the use of hazardous materials;
maximize energy efficiency during the product's lifetime; and promote recyclability or
biodegradability of defunct products and factory waste.
The Green Electronics Council offers the Electronic Products Environmental Assessment Tool
(EPEAT) to assist in the purchase of "green" computing systems.
Climate Savers Computing Initiative (CSCI) is an effort to reduce the electric power
consumption of PCs in active and inactive states. The name stems from the World Wildlife Fund's
Climate Savers program, which was launched in 1999. The WWF is also a member of the
Computing Initiative.

In 1992, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency launched Energy Star, a voluntary labeling
program that is designed to promote and recognize energy-efficiency in monitors, climate control
equipment, and other technologies. This resulted in the widespread adoption of sleep mode among
consumer electronics. Concurrently, the Swedish organization TCO Development launched the
TCO Certification program to promote low magnetic and electrical emissions from CRT-based
computer displays; this program was later expanded to include criteria on energy consumption,
ergonomics, and the use of hazardous materials in construction

So why should a company promote green, or energy efficient computing?

 Climate Change: First and foremost, conclusive research shows that CO2 and other
emissions are causing global climate and environmental damage
 Savings: Green computing can lead to serious cost savings over time.
 Reliability of Power: Energy efficient systems helps ensure healthy power systems. Also,
more companies are generating more of their own electricity, which further motivates them
to keep power consumption low.
 Computing Power Consumption has Reached a Critical Point: Data centers have run out of
usable power and cooling due to high densities.
Here are some steps that can be taken:
 Power-down the CPU and all peripherals during extended periods of inactivity.
 Try to do computer-related tasks during contiguous, intensive blocks of time, leaving
hardware off at other times.
 Power-up and power-down energy-intensive peripherals such as laser printers according to
need.
 Use liquid-crystal-display (LCD) monitors rather than cathode-ray-tube (CRT) monitors.
 Use notebook computers rather than desktop computers whenever possible.
 Use the power-management features to turn off hard drives and displays after several
minutes of inactivity.
 Minimize the use of paper and properly recycle waste paper.
 Dispose of e-waste according to federal, state and local regulations.
 Employ alternative energy sources for computing workstations, servers, networks and data
centers.

Approaches to green computing

1. Virtualization
Computer virtualization is the process of running two or more logical computer systems on one
set of physical hardware. The concept originated with the mainframe operating systems of the

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1960s, but was commercialized for x86-compatible computers only in the 1990s. With
virtualization, a system administrator could combine several physical systems into virtual
machines on one single, powerful system, thereby unplugging the original hardware and reducing
power and cooling consumption.

Eg: Intel Corporation and AMD

2. Power management
The Advanced Configuration and Power Interface (ACPI), an open industry standard, allows an
operating system to directly control the power saving aspects of its underlying hardware. This
allows a system to automatically turn off components such as monitors and hard drives after set
periods of inactivity. In addition, a system may hibernate, where most components (including the
CPU and the system RAM) are turned off. ACPI is a successor to an earlier Intel-Microsoft
standard called Advanced Power Management, which allows a computer's BIOS to control power
management functions.
Some programs allow the user to manually adjust the voltages supplied to the CPU, which reduces
both the amount of heat produced and electricity consumed. This process is called under volting.
Some CPUs can automatically under volt the processor depending on the workload.

3. Low performance computers

As of 2007, several personal computer vendors (e.g., Everex, Linutop, Systemax, Zonbu and
OLPC) ship dedicated low-power PCs. These systems provide minimal hardware peripherals and
low performance processors, which makes them impractical for applications that require a lot of
processing power such as computer gaming and video production. A low power PCs is usually
much smaller than traditional desktop. The limited capacity for upgrades, low performance and
proprietary may lead to shorter life spans and greater difficulty in repair. Older laptops may
provide similar performance with low power consumption. Reusing second-hand laptops may be
an even more energy and material efficient alternative to such systems.

Routers, such as those compatible with the Linksys WRT54G, may be adapted for use in low
power applications using replacement firmware.

4. More efficient components

4.1: Power supply: Desktop computer power supplies (PSUs) are generally 70–75% efficient,
dissipating the remaining energy as heat.
4.2: Storage: Smaller form factor (e.g. 2.5 inch) hard disk drives often consume less power
than physically larger drives.
4.3: Display : LCD monitors typically use a cold-cathode fluorescent bulb to provide light for
the display. Some newer displays use an array of light-emitting diodes (LEDs)
in place of the fluorescent bulb, which reduces the amount of electricity used
by the display.

5. Materials recycling

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Recycling computing equipment can keep harmful materials such as lead, mercury, and hexavalent
chromium out of landfills, but often computers gathered through recycling drives are shipped to
developing countries where environmental standards are less strict.
Eg: printer cartridges, paper, and batteries

4.8 NANOTECHNOLOGY

Definition
The systematic manipulation of matter on the length scale 1-100 nm to produce useful new
engineered structures, materials, or devices.
Nanotechnology (NT) can be defined as the creation and use of materials, devices and
systems in a size range of molecular and atomic scale (Nano-scale1).
As it deals with the manipulation of molecules it is also termed as molecular manufacturing.
The prefix, “Nano” of Nanotechnology describes a scale nanometer.

Nanometre
A nanometre is thousand millionth of a metre (1 nm = 10-9 m). Some practical examples for
knowing the nanometre scale are as follows:
It is comparable to
 1/80.000 of the diameter of a human hair (Institute of Nanotechnology, 2002) or
 1/10.000 times the size of a bacteria (Drexler, 1986, p.11) or
 1000 times smaller than the present micro-metre devices or
 10 times the diameter of a hydrogen atom.
An early promoter of the industrial applications of NT, Albert Franks, defined it as 'that
area of science and technology where dimensions and tolerances in the range of 0.1nm
to 100 nm play a critical role'

Challenging Environmental Issues

• Legacy Pollutants
– Chlorinated Solvents
– PCBs, PAHs, Chlorinated Pesticides (e.g.DDT)
– Lead, cadmium, chromium
• Emerging Contaminants
– Pharmaceuticals & Personal Care Products
– Newer pesticides
– Engineered Nanoparticles & their byproducts?
• Common water constituents
– Salinity, hardnes

Potential Applications of Nanotechnology

Most environmental applications of nanotechnology fall into three categories:
(i) Remediation and Mitigation
(ii) Pollution Prevention

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(iii) Sensors for environmental agents
(iv) Green nanotech
Possible applications of Nano Materials
1. As reactants eg: Nano Zero Valent Iron, Nano Silver
2. As catalysts eg: Nano TiO2, Nano CeO2
3. As adsorbents eg: Carbon Nano tubes (CNTs), Mag-PCMAs
4. As sensors eg: CNTs (Carbon nano tubes)

Remediation and Mitigation:

Contamination of subsurface soil and groundwater by organic and inorganic contaminants is an

extensive and vexing environmental problem that stands to benefit from nanotechnology.
Nanotechnology offers the ability to effectively enable contaminant treatment in situ and ex-situ.
The process begins with the injection of nanoparticles into a contaminated aquifer via an injection
well. The nanoparticles are then transported to the source of contamination by the groundwater
flow where they then degrade the contaminant. Nanoparticles can sequester (via adsorption or
complexation), immobilizing them, or they can degrade the contaminants to less harmful
compounds. Contaminant transformations are typically redox reactions. When the nanoparticle is
the oxidant or reductant, it is considered reactive.

Generating less pollution during the manufacture of materials. One example of this is how
researchers have demonstrated that the use of silver nanoclusters as catalysts can significantly
reduce the polluting byproducts generated in the process used to manufacture propylene oxide.
Propylene oxide is used to produce common materials such as plastics, paint, detergents and brake
fluid.

Producing solar cells that generate electricity at a competitive cost. Researchers have
demonstrated that an array of silicon nanowires embedded in a polymer results in low cost but
high efficiency solar cells. This, or other efforts using nanotechnology to improve solar cells, may
result in solar cells that generate electricity as cost effectively as coal or oil.

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Increasing the electricity generated by windmills. Epoxy containing carbon nanotubes is being
used to make windmill blades. The resulting blades are stronger and lower weight and therefore
the amount of electricity generated by each windmill is greater.

Cleaning up of organic chemicals polluting groundwater. Researchers have shown that iron
nano particles can be effective in cleaning up organic solvents that are polluting groundwater. The
nano particles disperse throughout the body of water and decompose the organic solvent in place
this method can be more effective and cost significantly less than treatment methods that require
the water to be pumped out of the ground.
Capturing carbon-dioxide in power plant exhaust. Researchers are developing nanostructers
membrane designed to capture carbondioxide in the exhaust stacks of power plants instead of
releasing it into the air.
Clearing volatile organic compounds (VOC) from air. Researchers have demonstrated a
catalyst that breaks down VOCs at room temperatue. The catalyst is composed of porous
manganese oxide in which gold nano particles can be embedded.
Reducing the cost of fuel cells: changing the space of platinum atoms used in a fuel cell increases
the catalytic ability of the platinum. This allows the fuel cell to function with about 80%, less
platinum significantly reducing the cost of fuel cell.
Storing hydrogen for fuel cell powered cars: Using grapheme layers to increase the binding
energy of hydrogen to the graphene surface in a fuel tank results in higher amount of hydrogen
storage and a lighter weight fuel tank. This could help in the development of practical hydrogen
fueled cars.

4.9 ISO 14000

The ISO is a specialized international organization whose members are the national standards
bodies of 111 countries.
• All standards developed by ISO are voluntary
• ISO 14000 is a series of international standards on environmental management.
• "ISO 14000" is the first international attempt to standardize environmental management
practices around the world.
• ISO 14000 will help integrate the environmental management systems of companies that trade
with each other in all corners of the world.

Scope and Status of ISO 14000

Organization Standards that can be used to implement and evaluate the environmental
management system (EMS) within an organization. Included are:
– the ISO 14000 series of EMS standards;
– the ISO 14010 series of environmental auditing standards; and
– the ISO 14030 series of standards for environmental performance evaluation.
Product Standards that can be used to evaluate environmental impacts from products and
processes. Included in this subgroup are:
– the ISO 14020 series of environmental labeling standards;

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 – the ISO 14040 series of life-cycle analysis standards; and
– the ISO 14060 series of product standards.

Environmental Labeling
– Type I programs are referred to as "practitioner “programs which are product or product
category based, similar to the Environmental Choice Program or Germany's BlueAngel Program.
– Type II programs are based on common terms and definitions which can be used for self-
declared claims.
– Type III programs are based on a "report card“concept, much like existing nutrition labels.

4.10 ROLE OF IT IN THE ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN HEALTH

Technology has played a key role in the development of human society. Modern technologies such
as information technology have changed the human lifestyle. Development of sophisticated
instruments like computers, satellites, telecommunication instruments etc have resulted in total
revolution in almost all spheres of life.

The important role of information technology in environment and human health are as follows:
1.Remote sensing : Remote Sensing according to Campbell (1987) is the science of deriving
information about the earth’s land water areas form images acquired at a distance. It relies upon
measurement of electromagnetic energy reflected or emitted form the features of interest.
Regardless of the orientation of the various definitions of Remote Sensing, the acquisition of
images of earth surface features, using sensors, through the electromagnetic spectrum, the synoptic
view advantage and Remote Sensing’s ability to provide data for scientific technological and
sustainable management and monitoring of the environment offer a convergence.
The Electro-magnetic spectrum (EMS) is the physical basis for Remote Sensing. It is an abstract
idea and diagram of forms of electromagnetic energy for illuminating earth surface features. The
source of energy is divided according to wavelengths.

Steps:
Briefly stated, the process of Remote Sensing involves
1) making observation using sensors (camera, scanners, radiometers, radar, and lasers) mounted
on platforms (ground, aircraft, satellites, balloons) which may be at considerable height from the
earth surface.
2)Then, recording the observations on a suitable medium (photographic films and magnetic tapes)
or transmitting/down linking the data to a ground receiving station where the data are corrected
for geometric and radiometric distortions.
3) Output products can be provided in computer compatible tapes (CC T) for users that made
requests for the data. Remote sensing serves as a tool for environmental resources (biotic, abiotic
and cultural) assessment and monitoring. Remote sensing has some fundamental advantages that
make it a veritable tool in environmental monitoring and management and impact studies.

2. GIS (GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM)

GIS and Environmental Impacts Assessment:

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Tomlin (199O) defines a GIS as ‘a configuration of computer hardware and software specially
designed for the acquisition, maintenance and use of cartographic data’.
GIS as a powerful set of tools for collecting, storing and retrieving at will, transforming and
displaying spatial data from the real world.
The point of note is that a GIS is a computer-assisted system for the acquisition, storage, analysis
and display of geographically are spatially referenced data. GIS is indeed a new application-based
field that has lend itself to varieties of human endeavors ranging from business, facility
management to environmental management and resource application areas. Eedy (1995) has
described GIS as a veritable tool in environmental assessment because it:
• Stores large multidisciplinary datasets.
• Identify complex interrelationship between environmental characteristics.
• Evaluate changes over time.
• Can be systematically updated and used for more than one project.
• Serve as a dataset for a variety of mathematical models.
• Store and mampulate3D in addition to 2D files.
• Serve the interests of the general public as well as technical analyst.

Capabilities of GIS:
GIS also have the capability for site impact prediction (SIP), wider area prediction (WAP),
cumulative effect analysis (CEA), and environmental audits and for generating trend analysis
within an environment.
Rodriquez -Bachiller (1995) commenting on its application in ETA studies submits that it is a
veritable tool for generating terrain maps for slope and drainage analysis, land resources
information system for land management, soil information system, geo scientific modeling of
geological formations, disaster planning related to geographically localized catastrophe
monitoring development, contamination and pollution monitoring, flood studies, linking of
environmental database and constructing global database for environmental modeling.

Erickson (1994) suggested 4 four ways of using GIS for EIA. These are:
• Overlay method: This involves overlaying of different layers of interest of the study area
to achieve the needed result.
• Checklist method: This is the listing of environmental components, attributes and
processes categorized under different groups.
• Matrix method: This is the relating of specific project activities to specific types of
impacts.
• Network method: This defines a network of possible impacts that may be triggered by
project activities. It involves project actions, direct and indirect impacts.

Use of GIS in EIA

1 .In Project definition: During project identification and definition, the project proponent
conducts feasibility studies and defines the usefulness of the study. GIS can be very well used for
defining the project by showing the location of the project and its need can be established
with respect to other geographical identities like source of raw material, market for selling, source
of labourer, climatic conditions favorable for the project etc.
2. In evaluating environmental and visual impacts:
Using GIS various types of visual impacts can be evaluated like, how a road will look like? How
much portion of the road will be visible from a particular point? By using DEM we can calculate

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and visualize the impact on ground levels either in filling or cutting and area of quarries etc
(Oterholm, 1999).
3 .In scoping system: GIS can serve as a basis for scoping of environmental effects. Once the
basic databases are available, a GIS based system may provide better-targeted guidelines for EIS.
A centralized institutional scoping structure, where by EIS guidelines are issued by a single entity,
is found to be important for the operation of such a system as it can enjoy the
economies of scale and scope involved in setting up and operating a GIS system for scoping
purpose (Haklay et al., 1998).
4. In impact significance determination: A spatial impact assessment methodology based on the
assumption that the importance of environmental impact is dependent, among other things, on the
spatial distribution of the effects and of the affected environment. For each environmental
component like- air, water, biological resources etc., impact indices are calculated based on the
spatial distribution of impacts (Antunes et al., 2001). The fact that GIS is not used in practice to
the extent that it could be used in principle may also be the due to a number of limitations of GIS
like:
Ø Availability of digital data
Ø Cost of start up
Ø System maintenance
Ø Database construction
Ø Availability of hardware and software

3. National management Information system(NIMS)- database for research and development

4.Environmental Information system (ENVIS): It was been created by MoEF in India for
generating network of database for pollution control, clean technologies etc.
Database: Database is the collection of inter-related data on various subjects in computerized form
which can be retrieved whenever required. Now the data regarding birth and death rates,
immunization and sanitation programs can be maintained more accurately than before in
computers at health centers. Database is also available about the diseases like malaria, fluorosis,
AIDS etc. The Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India has taken up the task
of compiling a database on various environmental issues like wildlife, forests cover, wasteland etc.

3. Human health: Information technology also plays a key role in human health. It helps the
doctors to monitor the health of people of that area. The information regarding outbreak of
epidemic diseases from remote areas can be sent more quickly to the district administration to take
corrective measures. Now, patients can seek help of a super specialist doctor placed at far off
distance. Many hospitals now, take on-line help of experts to provide better treatment and services
to their patients. This has become possible only because of advancement of IT in the recenttimes.

UNIT-V
ENVIRONMENTAL EHICS, ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESMENT
AND ROLE OF NGOs

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 5.1ENVIRONMENTAL EHICS

Excessive rise in population, rampant industrialization and rapid growth in industrial sectors has
led to a great deterioration of Indian environment. However, Environmental management is now
accepted as a major guiding factor for National Development in India. Over the last few decades
there has been a progressive & strengthening of official involvement in environmental
management with increased scientific technical, administrative and legislative back up at the
central and state levels.
ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS
Following is a list of major Environmental Acts and Rules applicable in India.
• The Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act 1974 (as amended upto 1998).
• The Water (Prevention &control of Pollution) cess Act, 1977 (as amended by Amendment Act
1991).
• The Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act 1981 as amended by Amendment Act 1986
• Environment (Protection) Act 1986.
• Hazardous Waste (Management & Handling) Rules 1989.
• The Public Liability Insurance Act 1991.
• Environment Protection Amendment Rule 1983.
• Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemicals (Amendment) Rules 1984.
• The Factories Act 1984.
• The Forest Conservation Act 1980.
• The Notification on Environment Impact Assessment 1994.
Besides this there are a large number of RULES and AMENDEMENTS and a plethora of STATE
LAWS. Only Major acts are briefly discussed here.

5.1.1 THE ENVIRONMENT (PROTECTION) ACT (EPA)

An Act to provide for the protection and improvement of environment and for matters connected
there with:
whereas the decisions were taken at the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment
held at Stockholm in June, 1972, in which India participated, to take appropriate steps for the
protection and improvement of human environment
The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 not only has important constitutionals implications but
also an international background.
This Act may be called the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. It extends to the whole of India.

Powers and Functions of the Boards

(i) co-ordination of actions by the State Governments, officers and other authorities--
(a) under this Act, or the rules made there under, or
(b) under any other law for the time being in force which is relatable to the objects of this
Act;
(ii) planning and execution of a nation-wide programme for the prevention, control and
abatement of environmental pollution;
(iii) laying down standards for the quality of environment in its various aspects;
(iv) laying down standards for emission or discharge of environmental pollutants from various
sources whatsoever:

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Provided that different standards for emission or discharge may be laid down under this clause
from different sources having regard to the quality or composition of the emission or discharge of
environmental pollutants from such sources;
(v) restriction of areas in which any industries, operations or processes or class of industries,
operations or processes shall not be carried out or shall be carried out subject to certain
safeguards;
(vi) laying down procedures and safeguards for the prevention of accidents which may cause
environmental pollution and remedial measures for such accidents;
(vii) laying down procedures and safeguards for the handling of hazardous substances;
(viii) examination of such manufacturing processes, materials and substances as are likely to
cause environmental pollution;
(ix) carrying out and sponsoring investigations and research relating to problems of
environmental pollution;
(x) inspection of any premises, plant, equipment, machinery, manufacturing or other processes,
materials or substances and giving, by order, of such directions to such authorities, officers
or persons as it may consider necessary to take steps for the prevention, control and
abatement of environmental pollution;
(xi) establishment or recognition of environmental laboratories and institutes to carry out the
functions entrusted to such environmental laboratories and institutes under this Act;
(xii) collection and dissemination of information in respect of matters relating to environmental
pollution;
(xiii) preparation of manuals, codes or guides relating to the prevention, control and abatement
of environmental pollution;
(xiv) such other matters as the Central Government deems necessary or expedient for the
purpose of securing the effective implementation of the provisions of this Act.
Appointment of officers and their Powers and Functions
Without prejudice to the provisions , the Central Government may appoint officers with such
designation as it thinks fit for the purposes of this Act and may entrust to them such of the powers
and functions under this Act as it may deem fit.

Power to give directions

Notwithstanding anything contained in any other law but subject to the provisions of this Act, the
Central Government may, in the exercise of its powers and performance of its functions under this
Act, issue directions in writing to any person, officer or any authority and such person, officer or
authority shall be bound to comply with such directions. 3
Explanation--For the avoidance of doubts, it is hereby declared that the power to issue directions
under this section includes the power to direct--
(a) the closure, prohibition or regulation of any industry, operation or process; or
(b) stoppage or regulation of the supply of electricity or water or any other service.
RULES TO REGULATE ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
(1) The Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, make rules in respect of
all or any of the matters referred
(2) In particular, and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing power, such rules may
provide for all or any of the following matters, namely:--
(a) the standards of quality of air, water or soil for various areas and purposes;
(b) the maximum allowable limits of concentration of various environmental pollutants
(including noise) for different areas;

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 (c) the procedures and safeguards for the handling of hazardous substances;
(d) the prohibition and restrictions on the handling of hazardous substances in different
areas;
(e) the prohibition and restriction on the location of industries and the carrying on
process and operations in different areas;
(f) the procedures and safeguards for the prevention of accidents which may cause
environmental pollution and for providing for remedial measures for such accidents.

Prevention, Control and Abatement of Environmental Pollution

Persons carrying on industry operation, etc., not to allow emission or discharge of environmental
pollutants in excess of the standards
Persons handling hazardous substances to comply with procedural safeguards
Furnishing of information to authorities and agencies in certain cases.
Environmental Laboratories
(1) The Central Government 15 may, by notification in the Official Gazette,--
(a) establish one or more environmental laboratories;
(b) recognize one or more laboratories or institutes as environmental laboratories to carry
out the functions entrusted to an environmental laboratory under this Act.
(2) The Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, make rules specifying--
(a) the functions of the environmental laboratory;
(b) the procedure for the submission to the said laboratory of samples of air, water, soil
or other substance for analysis or tests, the form of the laboratory report thereon
and the fees payable for such report;
(c) such other matters as may be necessary or expedient to enable that laboratory to
carry out its functions.

Penalty for Contravention of the Provisions of the Act and the Rules, orders and directions

(1) Whoever fails to comply with or contravenes any of the provisions of this Act, or the rules
made or orders or directions issued there under, shall, in respect of each such failure or
contravention, be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to five years with
fine which may extend to one lakh rupees, or with both, and in case the failure or contravention
continues, with additional fine which may extend to five thousand rupees for every day during
which such failure or contravention continues after the conviction for the first such failure or
contravention.

(2) If the failure or contravention continues beyond a period of one year after the date of conviction,
the offender shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to seven years.

5.1.2 THE AIR (PREVENTION & CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT

It is also a comprehensive legislation with more than fifty sections. It makes provisions, inter alia,
for Central and State Boards, power to declare pollution control areas, restrictions on certain

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industrial units, authority of the Boards to limit emission of air pollutants, power of entry,
inspection, taking samples and analysis, penalties, offences by companies and Government and
cognizance of offences etc.

The Act specifically empowers State Government to designate air pollution areas and to prescribe
the type of fuel to be used in these designated areas. According to this Act, no person can operate
certain types of industries including the asbestos, cement, fertilizer and petroleum industries
without consent of the State Board. The Board can predicate its consent upon the fulfillment of
certain conditions. The Air Act apparently adopts an industry wide “best available technology”
requirement. As in the Water Act, courts may hear complaints under the Act only at the instigation
of, or with the sanction of, the State Board.
The Government passed this Act in 1981 to clean up our air by controlling pollution. It states that
sources of air pollution such as industry, vehicles, power plants, etc., are not permitted to release
particulate matter, lead, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) or other toxic substances beyond a prescribed level. To ensure this, Pollution
Control Boards (PCBs) have been set up by Government to measure pollution levels in the
atmosphere and at certain sources by testing the air. This is measured in parts per million or in
milligrams or micrograms per cubic meter. The particulate matter and gases that are released by
industry and by cars, buses and two wheelers is measured by using air-sampling equipment.
However, the most important aspect is for people themselves to appreciate the dangers of air
pollution and reduce their own potential as polluters by seeing that their own vehicles or the
industry they work in reduces levels of emissions. This Act is created to take appropriate steps for
the preservation of the natural resources of the Earth which among other things includes the
preservation of high quality air and ensures controlling the level of air pollution.
The main objectives of the Act are as follows:
(a) To provide for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution.
(b) To provide for the establishment of central and State Boards with a view to implement the Act.
(C) To confer on the Boards the powers to implement the provisions of the Act and assign to the
Boards functions relating to pollution
Air pollution is more acute in heavily industrialized and urbanized areas, which are also densely
populated. The presence of pollution beyond certain Limits due to various pollutants discharged
through industrial emission is monitored by the PCBs set up in every state.

Powers and Functions of the Boards

Central Pollution Board: The main function of the Central Board is to implement legislation
created to improve the quality of air and to prevent and control air pollution in the country. The
Board advises the Central Government on matters concerning the improvement of air quality and
also coordinates activities, provides technical assistance and guidance to State Boards and lays
down standards for the quality of air. It collects and disseminates information in respect of matters
relating to air pollution and performs functions as prescribed in the Act.

State Pollution Control Boards: The State Boards have the power to advise the State Government
on any matter concerning the prevention and control of air pollution. They have the right to inspect
at all reasonable times any control equipment, industrial plant, or manufacturing process and give
orders to take the necessary steps to control pollution.

They are expected to inspect air pollution control areas at intervals or whenever necessary. They
are empowered to provide standards for emissions to be laid down for different industrial plants

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with regard to quantity and composition of emission of air pollutants into the atmosphere. A State
Board may establish or recognize a laboratory to perform this function. The State Governments
have been given powers to declare air pollution control areas after consulting with the State Board
and also give instructions to ensure standards of emission from automobiles and restriction on use
of certain industrial plants.

Penalties: The persons managing industry are to be penalized if they produce emissions
of air pollutants in excess of the standards laid down by the State Board. The Board also
makes applications to the court for restraining persons causing air pollution. Whoever contravenes
any of the provision of the Act or any order or direction issued is punishable
with imprisonment for a term which may extend to three months or with a fine of Rs 10,000 or
with both, and in case of continuing offence with an additional fine which may extend to Rs 5,000
for every day during which such contravention continues after conviction for the first
contravention.

5.1.3 THE WATER (PREVENTION & CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT

The government formulated this act in 1974 to prevent the pollution of water by industrial,
agricultural and household wastewater that can contaminate our water sources.

Wastewaters with high levels of pollutants that enter wetlands, rivers, lakes, wells as well
as the sea are serious health hazards. Controlling the point sources by monitoring the
levels of different pollutants is one way to prevent pollution, by punishing the polluter.
Individuals can also do several things to reduce water pollution such as using biodegradable
chemicals for household use, reducing the use of pesticides in gardens, and identifying polluting
sources at work places and in industrial units where oil are or other petroleum products and heavy
metals are used. Excessive organic matter, sediments and infecting organism from hospital wastes
can also pollute our water. Citizen needs to develop a watchdog force to inform authorities to
appropriate actions against different types of water pollution. However, preventing pollution is
better than trying to cure the problems it has created, or punishing offenders.

The main objectives of the Water Act are to provide for prevention, control and abatement of water
pollution and the maintenance or restoration n of the wholesomeness of water. It is designed to
assess pollution levels and punish polluters. The Central Government and State Government have
set up PCBs to monitor water pollution.

The Water Act 1974 with certain amendments in 1978 is an extensive legislation with more than
sixty sections for the prevention and control of water pollution. Among other things, the Act
provides for constitution of central and State Boards for preventing water pollution, power to take
water samples and their analysis, discharge of sewage or trade effluents, appeals, revision,
minimum and maximum penalties, publication of names of offenders, offences by companies and
Government departments, cognizance of offences, water laboratories, analysis etc. Prevention and
control of water pollution is achieved through a permit or ‘consent administration’ procedure.
Discharge of effluents is permitted by obtaining the consent of the State Water Board, subject to
any condition they specify. Any person who fails to comply with a directive of the State cannot,
however, entertain in suit under this Act unless the suit is brought by, or with the sanction of the
State Board.

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 WATER POLLUTION CESS ACT 1977
According to this Act, anyone consuming water has to pay certain amount of cess depending on 1.
Whether the industry is using water for industrial cooling, spraying in mine pits or boilers feed,
2. For domestic purposes,
3. in processing, whereby water gets polluted and pollutants are easily biodegradable, and
4. in processing whereby water gets polluted and the pollutants are not easily bio-degradable and
are toxic. Those industries that had installed a suitable treatment plant for the treatment of
industrial effluents can get a rebate of 70 per cent on the cess payable.

5.1.4 WILD LIFE PROTECTION ACT

The Act is adopted by all states in India except J&K, which has its own Act
The act is aimed to protect and preserve wild life. Wild life refers to all animals and plants that are
not domesticated. India has rich wild life heritage; it has 350 species of mammals, 1200 species of
birds and about 20,000 known species of insects. Some of them are listed as ‘endangered species’
in the Wild life (Protection) Act. The Act envisages national parks and wild life sanctuaries as
protected areas to conserve wild life. Wild life populations are regularly monitored and
management strategies formulated to protect them.
The Act covers the rights and non-rights of forest dwellers too,- it provides restricted grazing in
sanctuaries but prohibits in national parks. It also prohibits the collection of non-timber forest
produce which might not harm the system. The rights of forest dwellers recognized by the Forest
policy of 1988 are taken away by the Amended Wild life Act of 1991.
The act, a landmark in the history of wildlife legislation in our country by which wildlife was
transferred from State list to concurrent list in 1976, thus giving power to the Central Government
to enact the legislation. In India, nearly 134 animal species have been regarded as threatened. A
National Wildlife action plan has been prepared whose objective is to establish a network of
scientifically managed areas such as national parks, sanctuaries and biosphere reserves, to cover
representative and viable samples of all significant bio-geographic subdivisions within the country.

The major activities and provisions in the act can be summed up as follows:
1. It defines the wildlife related terminology.
2. It provides for the appointment of wildlife advisory board, wildlife warden, their powers,
duties etc
3. Under the Act, comprehensive listing of endangered wildlife species was done for the first
time and prohibition of hunting of the endangered species was mentioned
4. Protection to some endangered plants like Beddome cycad, Blue Vanda, Ladies Sliper Orchid,
Pitcher plant etc. is also provided under the Act.
5. The act provides for setting up of National Parks, Wild life Sanctuaries etc.
6. The Act provides for the constitution of Central Zoo Authority.
7. There is provision for trade and commerce in some wildlife species with license for sale,
possession, transfer etc.
8. The Act imposes a ban on the trade or commerce in scheduled animals.
9. It provides for legal powers to officers and punishment of offenders.
10. It provides for captive breeding programme for endangered species. Several conservation
projects for individual endangered species like lion (1972), tiger (1973), crocodile (1974),
and brown antlered deer (1981) were started under this Act.

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5.1.5 FOREST CONSERVATION ACT

The Indian Forest Act of 1927 consolidated all the previous laws regarding forests that were passed
before the 1920s. The Act gave the Government and Forest Department the power to create
Reserved Forests, and the right to use Reserved Forests for Government use alone.
It also created Protected Forests, in which the use of resources by local people was controlled.
Some forests were to be controlled by the village community, and these were called village Forests.
The Act remained in force till the 1980s when it was realized that protecting forests for timber
production alone was not acceptable. The other values of protecting the services that forests
provide and its valuable assets such as biodiversity began to overshadow the importance of their
revenue earnings from timber.
This led to the Forest Conservation Act of 1980 and its amendment 1988. India’s first Forest Policy
was enunciated in 1952. Between 1952 and 1988, the extent of deforestation was so great that it
became essential to formulate a new policy on forests and their utilization. The earlier forest
policies had focused only on revenue generation. In the 1980’s it became clear that forests must
be protected for their other functions such as the maintenance of soil and water regimes centered
around ecological concerns. It also provided for the use of goods and services of the forest for its
local inhabitants.
The new policy framework made conversion of forests into other uses much less possible.
Conservation of the forests as a natural heritage finds a place in the new policy, which includes
the preservation of its biological diversity and genetic resources. It also values meeting the needs
of local people for food, fuel wood, fodder and Non Timber Forest Produce or NTFPs. It gives
priority to maintaining environmental stability and ecological balances. It expressly states that the
network of Protected Areas should be strengthened and extended.

The Forest Conservation Act of 1980 was enacted to control deforestation, It ensured that
forestlands could not be de-reserved without prior approval of the Central Government, This was
created as some states had begun to dereserve the Reserved Forests for non-forest use. These states
had regularized encroachments and resettled ‘project Affected people’ from development projects
such as dams in these de-reserved areas. The need for a new legislation became urgent. The Act
made it possible to retain a greater control over the frightening level of deforestation in the country
and specified penalties for offenders.
Penalties for offences in Reserved Forests:
• No person is allowed to make clearing or ser fire to a reserved forest. Cattle are not permitted to
trespass into the reserved forest, cutting, collecting of timber, bark or leaves, quarrying or
collecting any forest products is punishable with imprisonment for a term of six months or with a
fine which may extended to Rs 500 or both.
Penalties for offences in protected Forests:
• A person who commits any of the following offences like cutting of trees, stripping the bark or
leaves of trees, set fire to such forests or permits cattle to damage any tree, shall be punishable
with imprisonment for a term which may extended to six months or with a fine which any extended
to Rs 500 or both.
• Any forest officer even without an order from the magistrate or a warrant can arrest any person
against whom a reasonable suspicion exists.

5.1.6 ISSUES INVOLVED IN THE ENFORCEMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL

LEGISLATION-PUBLIC AWARENESS

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It is necessary to create awareness about the norms and projected environmental restrictions
under which organization may have environmental regulations and legislations rests with a
number of different agencies. Central government is responsible for enforcement of various
environmental legislation for less polluting small scale industries. There is an urgent need to use
a range of measures to complement regulations.

It should be a must for all potential polluters to apply permission to operate, discharge or emit
any pollutants. In addition there should be a greater monitoring. The technique of environmental
assessment is applied to ensure that the significance of potential environmental impacts of
proposed projects are critically examined during the planning process. Another way of increasing
awareness on environmental protection is the introduction of voluntary scheme under which
companies which would meet certain standard of environmental property of their products.

The various expectations in different types of pollution are as follows:

1. Water Pollution:

Under the water resource act of the country it should be criminal offence to cause or knowingly
permit the entry in to controlled water of any poisonous, noxious or polluting matter or any other
solid matter, trade or sewage effluent without the consent. Accidental spillage or discharge of
such materials should be treated as an offence.

2. Air Pollution:

The legal responsibility about air pollution may be found in terms of the environmental
protection act, covering two complementary systems of air pollution (1) the most potentially
polluting activities. The major sources of air pollution are (a) Emission from industrial sources
(b) Emission from motors vehicles, (c) Emission from other sources.

Thus, to prevent air pollution, rules and regulations are required to be framed.

3. Wastes Disposal:

They may be regulatory bodies for waste disposal, waste collection. These should also be
directives relating to waste on the disposal of waste oil, the disposal of polychlorinated biphenyl,
and polychlorinated phenyls.

After the united Nation's Conference on Human Environment in 1972 the Environmental
legislation got a fresh impieties Indian first systematic approach in dealing with the
environmental issues started from water Act of 1974. This Act was amended in 1988 and a new
section 33 A was introduced which empowers state boards to issue directives to any person to
close any industry and to stop or regulate supply of water and electricity. Because of the
continuing environmental degradation and the Bhopal gas tragedy in 1974 the central
government enacted fresh legislation for adopting more strict environmental policies.

Environmental Protection Act 1986 is one of the most significant legislation to protect the
environment. Under Article 48A, the addition was made to the directive principles of state policy
as the state shall endeavors to protect and improve the environment and safeguard the forests and

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wildlife of the country. Article 51A (g| imposes high responsibility on every citizen to protect the
environment and improve natural resources, including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife.

Every citizen has a choice of few records to mitigate pollution. These are (1) a common law and
action (2) a writ petition for completing the agency to enforce the law and (3) a citizen suit.

An upcoming industry must submit No Objection Certificate in respect of pollution before it

starts the implementation process. In case of a large project, it should submit Environmental
Impact Assessment (EIA) and Environmental Management Plan (EMP) to the Govt. of India for
final clearance of the project.

Recently Supreme Court of India emphasized on the need to strengthen some institutional
machinery to enforce antipollution law across the state. Supreme Court has further suggested that
Government should set up special courts exclusively to deal with cases relating to violation of
environmental laws. Supreme Court has also suggested that chemical industries should be treated
separately. In 1996, Supreme Court has ordered Union Government and local authorities to keep
clean the historical places on a regular basis.

AWARENES:

It is evident that the growing number of poor people, in developing countries due to the rapid
population growth complex with economic constraints contributes to the degradation of
environment and the renewable to the degradation of environment and the renewable sources like
water, forests, and extinction of various species on which the man depends.

For these, greater awareness is needed. Due care is necessary to harness the natural resources, so
that the quality of the environment does not deteriorate. It is unfortunate to note that degradation
of environment continues inspire of environmental legislations and standardization. One of the
reasons for this is improper implementation of the various environmental laws and standards.
The most important reason may lack of awareness and understanding the implicate
environmental degradation.

5.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

Definition of Impact: An impact can be defined as any change in physical, chemical, biological,
cultural or socio-economic environmental system as a result of activities relating to a project or
adverse effects caused by industrial, infrastructural projects or by the release of a substance into
the environment.

Definition of Impact Assessment: Impact assessment is the process of identifying the future
consequences (bad results) of a proposed project. Impact Assessment ensures that projects,
programs and policies are economically viable, socially equitable and environmentally sustainable.

Definition of Environmental Impact Assessment: The United Nations of Environmental

Programme (UNEP ) defined that EIA is a tool used to identify the environmental and economic
impacts of a project prior to decision making regarding the project planning, design, adverse
impacts, etc.. For all proposed and development projects, whether Government or Private, the

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Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) requires an Environmental impact assessment report
related to the following parameters:
The report must define what impact it would have on water; soil and air including flora and fauna.
Affect on the lives of local people.
To ensure that no way harm the environment on a short term or long term basis.

Why is EIA important?

By identifying potential alternatives and adverse impacts, Nations can better achieve goals for
sustainable development; avoid adverse environmental; social and cultural impacts; reduces cost,
provides better plan for infrastructure etc...

CLASSIFICATION OF IMPACTS:
Environment impacts arising from any development projects fall into three categories:
(i) Direct impacts
(ii) Indirect impacts and
(iii) Cumulative impacts.
According to their nature, these three groups reveal:
Positive and negative impacts
Reversible and irreversible impacts
Light, moderate and severe impacts
Local and widespread impacts
Short – term and long – term impacts
For eg to construct a major project:
Direct impacts are related to:
(a) Aesthetics in the area (understanding of beautiful things);
(b) Traffic at nearby junctions,
(c) Removal of natural vegetation;
(d) Interference with natural water ways;
(e) Additional housing or commercial shops to support employees.

SIGNIFICANCE OF EFFECTS:
Significant effects are likely to occur where valuable resources are subject to impacts of severity.
EIA is recognized by adopting the five levels of significance as described in the draft to good
practice and procedures. These five levels of significances are::
Severe: Sites of national importance and unique resources ( to exist in only one place ) if lost,
cannot be replaced or relocated.
Major: These effects are to be important considerations at a regional or district scale during
the decision making process..
Moderate: These effects at a local scale are likely to be key decision making issues.
Minor: These effects may be raised as local issues but are unimportant in the decision making
process.
Neutral: No effect, not significant.

5.2.1 BASELINE DATA ACQUISITION

Baseline information is important reference point for conducting EIA. The term "baseline" refers
to the collection of background information on the biophysical, social and economic settings
proposed project area. An Environmental Baseline Study (EBS) is an investigation conducted to

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establish the level of contaminants in the project areas and to assess the extent of contamination.
The information needed to conduct an EBS can be acquired from the available sources:

Baseline data are collected for two main purposes:

 To provide a description of the status and trends of environmental factors (e.g., air pollutant
concentrations) against which predicted changes can be compared and evaluated in terms
of importance, and
 To provide a means of detecting actual change by monitoring once a project has been
initiated
Land features include topography; climatology ( temperature, rainfall )
Geology & Hydrogeology (Lithology of rock formations, drainage pattern, ground water table)
Air environment (study of SPM, SOx; NOx )
Noise environment
Water Environment (PH; TDS; F; dissolved Oxygen; BOD etc..)
Soil quality Soil analysis reflect the presence of nutrients like N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn and Al
Flora and Fauna of the proposed area
Socio economic study include Population density; Literacy rate; Category of workers viz.,
cultivators, agriculture laborers, etc); Medical facilities; Main sources of availability of water
viz., rivers, canals, hand pumps, taps etc..

5.2.2 Environmental Impact Assessment Process

Following are the steps involved in a systematic EIA of a highway project:

1. Project definition: The importance and need of the project is defined here and its relation with
regional and national developmental activity is mentioned in this section.

2. Screening: Screening is done as per the statutory notification. Screening criteria are based
upon:
Ø Scales of investment;
Ø Type of development; and
Ø Location of development

3. Scoping: Scoping is a process of detailing the terms of reference of EIA. It is done by the
consultant in consultation with the project proponent and guidance, if needed, from Impact
Assessment Agency. Quantifiable impacts will be assessed based on magnitude, prevalence,
frequency and duration and non-quantifiable impacts (such as aesthetic or recreational value).
Significance is commonly determined through the socioeconomic criteria. After that the areas,
where the project could have significant impact are identified and the baseline status of these will
be monitored and then the likely changes in these on account of the construction and operation of
the proposed project will be predicted.

4. Baseline information: Baseline data describes the existing environmental status of the
identified study area. The site-specific primary data is monitored for the identified parameters and
supplemented by secondary data if available.

5. Impact prediction: Impact prediction is a way of mapping the environmental consequences of

the significant aspects of the project and its alternative. Environmental impact can never be
predicted with absolute certainty and this is all the more reason to consider all possible factors and
take all possible precautions for reducing the degree of uncertainty.
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6. Evaluation of impacts and alternative criteria: For the project possible alternatives are
identified and environmental attributes are compared. These alternatives cover both project
location and process technologies. Alternatives consider .no project. also. Alternatives are
then ranked for selection of the best environmental option for optimum economic benefits to the
community at large.

7. Management plan: This section of the EIA will describe about the mitigation measures to
reduce the harmful effects of the proposed project. Particularly, it will also contain the provision
for rehabilitation of the people affected and displaced by the project.

8. Public participation: Law requires that the public must be informed and consulted on a
proposed development after the completion of EIA report. Public participation can be assured by:
i. Consulting the public directly affected by the proposed project and the voluntary groups like
NGOs or pressure groups having a concern with a specific aspect of the environment.
ii. Conducting direct interviews with the sample from public or by sending questionnaire to the
people from public.
iii. Publishing the summary of EIA report for objections and suggestions from people.

9. Decision making: Decision making process involves the consultation between the project
proponent (assisted by a consultant) and the assessment authority (assisted by an expert group if
necessary). The final decision on acceptance, rejection or clearance is arrived at through a
number of steps including evaluation of EIA and environmental management plan.

10. Monitoring Plan: Monitoring should be done both during construction and operation phases
of a project. Monitoring will enable the regulatory agency to review the validity of predictions and
the conditions of implementation of the Environmental Management Plan.

5.2.3 METHODS FOR IMPACT IDENTIFICATION

INTRODUCTION:
A logical and systematic approach needs to be taken to impact identification. The aim is to take
account of all of the important environmental/project impacts and interactions, making sure that
indirect and cumulative effects, which may be potentially significant, are not inadvertently
omitted.

PROCESS:
This process begins during screening and continues through scoping, which identifies the key
issues and classifies them into impact categories for further study. In the next phase, the likely
impacts are analyzed in greater detail in accordance with terms of reference specifically established
for this purpose. Over time, a number of EIA methodologies and tools have been developed for
use in impact identification.

METHODS:
The most common formal methods used for impact identification are:
• Checklists; • matrices; • networks;
• Overlays and geographic information systems (GIS);

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A) Checklists
Checklists annotate the environmental features or factors that need to be addressed when
identifying the impacts of projects and activities. They can vary in complexity and purpose, from
a simple checklist to a structured methodology or system that also assigns significance by scaling
and weighting the impacts (such as the Battelle Environmental Evaluation System). Both simple
and descriptive checklists can be improved and adapted to suit local conditions as experience with
their use is gained.
Checklists provide a systematized means of identifying impacts. They also have been developed
for application to particular types of projects and categories of impacts (such as dams or road
building). Sectoral checklists often are useful when proponents specialize in one particular area of
development.

B) Matrices
A matrix is a grid-like table that is used to identify the interaction between project activities, which
are displayed along one axis, and environmental characteristics, which are displayed along the
other axis. Using the table, environment-activity interactions can be noted in the appropriate cells
or intersecting points in the grid. ‘Entries’ are made in the cells to highlight
impact severity or other features related to the nature of the impact, for instance:
• ticks or symbols can identify impact type (such as direct, indirect, cumulative) pictorially;
• numbers or a range of dot sizes can indicate scale; or
• descriptive comments can be made.

C) Networks
Networks illustrate the cause-effect relationship of project activities and environmental
characteristics. They are, therefore, particularly useful in identifying and depicting secondary
impacts (indirect, cumulative, etc).
Simplified networks, used in conjunction with other methods, help to ensure that important second-
order impacts are not omitted from the investigation.
More detailed networks are visually complicated, time-consuming and difficult to produce unless
a computer programme is used for the task.
However, they can be a useful aid for establishing ‘impact hypotheses’ and other structured
science-based approaches to EIA.

D) Overlays and geographic information systems

Overlays can be used to map impacts spatially and display them pictorially. The original overlay
technique, popularized by McHarg, is an environmental suitability analysis in which data on
topographic features, ecological values and resource constraints are mapped onto individual
transparencies and then aggregated into a composite representation of potential impacts. This
approach is useful for comparing site and planning alternatives, for routing linear developments to
avoid environmentally sensitive areas and for landscape and habitat zoning at the regional level.
Disadvantages: lack of precision in differentiating the likelihood and magnitude of impacts and
relating them to project actions.
A modern version of the overlay method is the computer-based geographical information system
(GIS). In simple terms, a GIS stores, retrieves, manipulates and displays environmental data in a
spatial format. A set of maps or overlays of a given area provide different types of information and
scales of resolution.

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The use of GIS for EIA purposes is not as widespread as commonly imagined.
The main drawbacks are the lack of appropriate data and the expense of creating a usable system.
However, the potential application of GIS to EIA is widely acknowledged and its use is expected
to increase in the future, particularly to address cumulative effects.

5.2.4 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PLAN (EMP)

Preparation of environmental management plan is required for formulation, implementation and

monitoring of environmental protection measures during and after commissioning of projects. The
plans should indicate the details as to how various measures have been or are proposed to be taken
including cost components as may be required. Cost of measures for environmental safeguards
should be treated as an integral component of the project cost and environmental aspects should
be taken into account at various stages of the projects:

 Conceptualization: preliminary environmental assessment

 Planning: detailed studies of environmental impacts and design of safeguards
 Execution: implementation of environmental safety measures
 Operation: monitoring of effectiveness of built-in safeguards

The management plans should be necessarily based on considerations of resource conservation

and pollution abatement, some of which are:

 Liquid Effluents
 Air Pollution
 Solid Wastes
 Noise and Vibration
 Occupational Safety and Health
 Prevention, maintenance and operation of Environment Control Systems

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 House-Keeping
 Human Settlements
 Transport Systems
 Recovery - reuse of waste products
 Vegetal Cover
 Disaster Planning
 Environment Management Cell

1. Liquid Effluents
o Effluents from the industrial plants should be treated well to the standards as
prescribed by the Central/State Water Pollution Control Boards.
o Soil permeability studies should be made prior to effluents being discharged into
holding tanks or impoundments and steps taken to prevent percolation and ground
water contamination.
o Special precautions should be taken regarding flight patterns of birds in the area.
Effluents containing toxic compounds, oil and grease have been known to cause
extensive death of migratory birds. Location of plants should be prohibited in such
type of sensitive areas.
o Deep well burial of toxic effluents should not be resorted to as it can result in re-
surfacing and ground water contamination. Re-surfacing has been known to cause
extensive damage to crop and livestocks.
o In all cases, efforts should be made for re-use of water and its conservation.
2. Air Pollution
o The emission levels of pollutants from the different stacks, should conform to the
pollution control standards prescribed by Central or State Boards.
o Adequate control equipment should be installed for minimising the emission of
pollutants from the various stacks.
o In-plant control measures should be taken to contain the fugitive emissions.
o Infrastructural facilities should be provided for monitoring the stack emissions and
measuring the ambient air quality including micro-meteorological data(wherever
required) in the area.
o Proper stack height as prescribed by the Central/State Pollution Control Boards
should be provided for better dispersion of pollutants over a wider area to minimise
the effect of pollution.
o Community buildings and townships should be built up-wind of plant with one-half
to one kilometer greenbelt in addition to physiographical barrier.
3. Solid Wastes
o The site for waste disposal should be checked to verify permeability so that no
contaminants percolate into the ground water or river/lake.
o Waste disposal areas should be planned down-wind of villages and townships.
o Reactive materials should be disposed of by immobilising the reactive materials
with suitable additives.
o The pattern of filling disposal site should be planned to create better landscape and
be approved by appropriate agency and the appropriately pretreated solid wastes
should be disposed according to the approved plan.
o Intensive programs of tree plantation on disposal areas should be undertaken.
4. Noise and Vibration
Adequate measures should be taken for control of noise and vibrations in the industry.

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5. Occupational Safety and Health
Proper precautionary measures for adopting occupational safety and health standards
should be taken.
6. Prevention, maintenance and operation of Environment Control Systems
o Adequate safety precautions should be taken during preventive maintenance and
shut down of the control systems.
o A system of inter-locking with the production equipment should be implemented
where highly toxic compounds are involved.
7. House - Keeping
Proper house-keeping and cleanliness should be maintained both inside and outside of the
industry.
8. Human Settlements
o Residential colonies should be located away from the solid and liquid waste
dumping areas. Meteorological and environmental conditions should be studied
properly before selecting the site for residential areas in order to avoid air pollution
problems.
o Persons, who are displaced or have lost agricultural lands as a result of locating the
industries in the area, should be properly rehabilitated.
9. Transport Systems
o Proper parking places should be provided for the trucks and other vehicles by the
industries to avoid any congestion or blocking of roads.
o Siting of industries on the highways should be avoided as it may add to more road
accidents because of substantial increase in the movements of heavy vehicles and
unauthorized shops and settlements coming up around the industrial complex.
o Spillage of chemicals/substances on roads inside the plant may lead to accidents.
Proper road safety signs both inside and outside the plant should be displayed for
avoiding road accidents.
10. Recovery - reuse of waste products
Efforts should be made to recycle or recover the waste materials to the extent possible.
The treated liquid effluents can be conveniently and safely used for irrigation of lands,
plants and fields for growing non-edible crops.
11. Vegetal Cover
Industries should plant trees and ensure vegetal cover in their premises. This is
particularly advisable for those industries having more than 10 acres of land.
12. Disaster Planning
Proper disaster planning should be done to meet any emergency situation arising due to
fire, explosion, sudden leakage of gas etc. Fire fighting equipment and other safety
appliances should be kept ready for use during disaster/emergency situation including
natural calamities like earthquake/flood.
13. Environment Management Cell
Each industry should identify within its setup a Department/Section/Cell with trained
personnel to take up the model responsibility of environmental management as required
for planning and implementation of the projects

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 5.2.5 ROLE OF NGOs IN THE PROTECTION OF ENVIRONMENT

The protection of environment is a pressing issue. Every person, organisation and

institution has an obligation and duty to protect it. Environmental protection encompasses
not only pollution but also sustainable development and conservation of natural resources
and the ecosystem. Today, the necessity of environmental awareness and enforcement is
more demanding and urgent than ever before.

NGOs are simply agencies or groups, which are different from government bodies. However,
NGOs are distinctive in containing a voluntary component and also because they do not operate
for profit. Over the past quarter of a century and especially during the past few decades there has
been a rapid growth in the numbers of NGOs involved in the development, in the number of
people working for NGOs and in the amount of money that flows into these voluntary agencies
working in the activities such as –Disaster management and relief, development, public health,
rehabilitation, environment protection etc. However, this paper focuses on the role played by
NGOs particularly in the protection of environment
The emergence of NGOs represents an organized response by civil society especially in those
areas in which the state has either failed to reach or done so in adequately. The importance of
public awareness and NGOs involvement in environmental protection is acknowledged
worldwide. NGO’s have been taking a number of steps to promote discussion and debate about
environmental issues, outside the broad spheres of popular media and the educational system.

NGOs can make the following Contributions:

 Conducting education and citizen awareness programmes in the field of environment
 Fact – finding and analysis
 Filing public interest litigations
 Innovation and experimenting in areas which are difficult for government agencies to
make changes in
 Providing expertise and policy analysis
 Providing factual and reliable information with a network of professional expert staff
 Remaining independent while passing relevant information to the public and
governmental bodies
 Solidarity and support to environmental defenders
 Working in collaboration with the government for capacity building and promotion of
community participation in environmental awareness and protection and
 Working out at the grass root level and reaching far – flung areas with or without the
government invitation.

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 Achievements of environmental NGOs with special reference to

WWF (India), Teri and Clean- India

1. WWF (India) is engaged in a multitude of activities for protection and conservation of the
environment in the Indian context. Climate change and energy conservation are among the chief
areas of concern for the organisation. The forest and biodiversity conservation division strives to
promote and enhance conservation of forest ecosystems in the country through a participatory
approach involving key stakeholders. Through its environment education programme, it aims at
strengthening individual and institutional capacity in nature conservation and environmental
protection through widespread education and awareness.
Intimately involved in the conservation of tigers in India since the late 1960s, WWF’s significant
efforts culminated in the launch of Project Tiger in 1973. It seeks to conserve and protect the
biodiversity of maritime life and resources by sensitising the people at large.
The pollution of the river waters and the imminent threat to aquatic life is a cause of great concern.
WWF (India) has stepped in on a number of occasions to launch campaigns for securing their
habitat, like ‘Save the River Dolphin’ project. WWF believes that if you secure an animal’s habitat,
you secure its right to live

2. CLEAN-INDIA
Deeply concerned with the deteriorating environmental situation in the country, Development
Alternatives initiated the CLEAN-India (Community Led Environment Action Network)
programme with five schools in the national capital in 1996. Today, CLEAN Delhi has about forty
schools regularly involved in monitoring water and air quality in over 150 locations spread across
Delhi. Over 2000 children have been directly trained on environmental assessment and
improvement activities. They keep vigil, assess environmental quality, plead, cajole and lead the
community in monitoring environment. Action programmes like solid waste management,
plantation drives, energy conservation, paper recycling, etc. to improve local environmental
conditions have also been initiated by schools, resident welfare associations, business and
industrial associations as well as individual households.
Campaigns against the use of polybags, firecrackers during Diwali and toxic (chemicalbased)
colours during Holi and for saving the city’s ‘Green Treasure’ are also carried out.
The experience in Delhi indicates that when environment assessment is community based,
it mobilises the community to review the local environmental conditions and take requisite
measures, without waiting for undue external support.
Encouraged by the Delhi experience, NGOs from different towns have operationalised the
CLEAN-India programme. The present CLEAN-India Centers are:
Delhi, Shillong, Faizabad, Ladakh, Bangalore, Berinag (Kumaon Hills), Jhansi, Sagar, Bilaspur,
Lalitpur, Madurai and Thiruvananthapuram. Almost 100 NGOs from across the country have
expressed their interest to initiate the programme in their respective towns.

3. TERI (INDIA)
Tata Energy Research Institute (TERI) was formally established in 1974 with the purpose of
tackling and dealing with the immense and acute problems that mankind is likely to be faced
with in the years ahead:

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On account of the gradual depletion of the earth’s finite energy resources which are largely non-
renewable and
On account of the existing methods of their use which are polluting
TERI has launched a major project, the first phase of which is completing near completion. This
project called growth with resource enhancement of Environment and nature (GREEN INDIA-
2047)” has vigorously estimated the reduction in India’s key natural resources during the period
1947- 97, and has completed economic values of consequent loses, which in some cases are
alarmingly high. On the basis of past experience and a careful analysis of the cost behind the
degradation that has taken place in the past strategies for the future have been developed,
Where by a fresh and creative approach can be taken in the next 50 years.
The global presence and reach attained by TERI are not only substantiated by its presence in
different parts of the world, but also in terms of wide geographical relevance of its activities.
Symbolic of this fact is the annual Delhi Sustainable Development Summit (DSDS), a major event
focusing on sustainable

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