1.

Develop a program to create histograms for all numerical features and analyze the
distribution of each feature. Generate box plots for all numerical features and identify any
outliers. Use California Housing dataset.

import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
import seaborn as sns
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
from sklearn.datasets import fetch_california_housing
data = fetch_california_housing(as_frame=True)
housing_df = data.frame
numerical_features = housing_df.select_dtypes(include=[np.number]).columns
plt.figure(figsize=(15, 10))
for i, feature in enumerate(numerical_features):
plt.subplot(3, 3, i + 1)
sns.histplot(housing_df[feature], kde=True, bins=30, color='blue')
plt.title(f'Distribution of {feature}')
plt.tight_layout()
plt.show()
plt.figure(figsize=(15, 10))
for i, feature in enumerate(numerical_features):
plt.subplot(3, 3, i + 1)
sns.boxplot(x=housing_df[feature], color='orange')
plt.title(f'Box Plot of {feature}')
plt.tight_layout()
plt.show()
print("Outliers Detection:")
outliers_summary = {}
for feature in numerical_features:
Q1 = housing_df[feature].quantile(0.25)
Q3 = housing_df[feature].quantile(0.75)
IQR = Q3 - Q1
lower_bound = Q1 - 1.5 * IQR
upper_bound = Q3 + 1.5 * IQR
outliers = housing_df[(housing_df[feature] < lower_bound) | (housing_df[feature] > upper_bound)]
outliers_summary[feature] = len(outliers)
print(f"{feature}: {len(outliers)} outliers")# Optional: Print a summary of the dataset
print("\nDataset Summary:")
print(housing_df.describe())
2. Develop a program to Compute the correlation matrix to understand the relationships
between pairs of features. Visualize the correlation matrix using a heatmap to know which
variables have strong positive/negative correlations. Create a pair plot to visualize pairwise
relationships between features. Use California Housing dataset.

import pandas as pd
import seaborn as sns
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
from sklearn.datasets import fetch_california_housing
california_data = fetch_california_housing(as_frame=True)
data = california_data.frame
correlation_matrix = data.corr()
plt.figure(figsize=(10, 8))
sns.heatmap(correlation_matrix, annot=True, cmap='coolwarm', fmt='.2f', linewidths=0.5)
plt.title('Correlation Matrix of California Housing Features')
plt.show()
sns.pairplot(data, diag_kind='kde', plot_kws={'alpha': 0.5})
plt.suptitle('Pair Plot of California Housing Features', y=1.02)
plt.show()

3. Develop a program to implement Principal Component Analysis (PCA) for reducing the
dimensionality of the Iris dataset from 4 features to 2.

import numpy as np
import pandas as pd
from sklearn.datasets import load_iris
from sklearn.decomposition import PCA
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
iris = load_iris()
data = iris.data
labels = iris.target
label_names = iris.target_names
iris_df = pd.DataFrame(data, columns=iris.feature_names)
pca = PCA(n_components=2)
data_reduced = pca.fit_transform(data)
reduced_df = pd.DataFrame(data_reduced, columns=['Principal Component 1', 'Principal
Component 2'])
reduced_df['Label'] = labels
plt.figure(figsize=(8, 6))
colors = ['r', 'g', 'b']
for i, label in enumerate(np.unique(labels)):
plt.scatter(
 reduced_df[reduced_df['Label'] == label]['Principal Component 1'],
reduced_df[reduced_df['Label'] == label]['Principal Component 2'],
label=label_names[label],
color=colors[i]
)
plt.title('PCA on Iris Dataset')
plt.xlabel('Principal Component 1')
plt.ylabel('Principal Component 2')
plt.legend()
plt.grid()
plt.show()

4. For a given set of training data examples stored in a .CSV file, implement and demonstrate
the Find-S algorithm to output a description of the set of all hypotheses consistent with the
training examples.

import pandas as pd
def find_s_algorithm(file_path):
data = pd.read_csv(file_path)
print("Training data:")
print(data)
attributes = data.columns[:-1]
class_label = data.columns[-1]
hypothesis = ['?' for _ in attributes]
for index, row in data.iterrows():
if row[class_label] == 'Yes':
for i, value in enumerate(row[attributes]):
if hypothesis[i] == '?' or hypothesis[i] == value:
hypothesis[i] = value
else:
hypothesis[i] = '?'
return hypothesis
file_path = 'training_data.csv'
hypothesis = find_s_algorithm(file_path)
print("\nThe final hypothesis is:", hypothesis)

5. Develop a program to implement k-Nearest Neighbour algorithm to classify the randomly

generated 100 values of x in the range of [0,1]. Perform the following based on dataset
generated.
a) Label the first 50 points {x1,……,x50} as follows: if (xi ≤ 0.5), then xi ∊ Class1, else xi ∊
Class1
b) Classify the remaining points, x51,……,x100 using KNN. Perform this for k=1,2,3,4,5,20,30
import numpy as np
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
from collections import Counter
data = np.random.rand(100)
labels = ["Class1" if x <= 0.5 else "Class2" for x in data[:50]]
def euclidean_distance(x1, x2):
return abs(x1 - x2)
def knn_classifier(train_data, train_labels, test_point, k):
distances = [(euclidean_distance(test_point, train_data[i]), train_labels[i]) for i in
range(len(train_data))]
distances.sort(key=lambda x: x[0])
k_nearest_neighbors = distances[:k]
k_nearest_labels = [label for _, label in k_nearest_neighbors]
return Counter(k_nearest_labels).most_common(1)[0][0]
train_data = data[:50]
train_labels = labels
test_data = data[50:]
k_values = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 20, 30]
print("--- k-Nearest Neighbors Classification ---")
print("Training dataset: First 50 points labeled based on the rule (x <= 0.5 -> Class1, x > 0.5 ->
Class2)")
print("Testing dataset: Remaining 50 points to be classified\n")
results = {}
for k in k_values:
print(f"Results for k = {k}:")
classified_labels = [knn_classifier(train_data, train_labels, test_point, k) for test_point in
test_data]
results[k] = classified_labels
for i, label in enumerate(classified_labels, start=51):
print(f"Point x{i} (value: {test_data[i - 51]:.4f}) is classified as {label}")
print("\n")
print("Classification complete.\n")
for k in k_values:
classified_labels = results[k]
class1_points = [test_data[i] for i in range(len(test_data)) if classified_labels[i] == "Class1"]
class2_points = [test_data[i] for i in range(len(test_data)) if classified_labels[i] == "Class2"]
plt.figure(figsize=(10, 6))
plt.scatter(train_data, [0] * len(train_data), c=["blue" if label == "Class1" else "red" for
label in train_labels],
label="Training Data", marker="o")
plt.scatter(class1_points, [1] * len(class1_points), c="blue", label="Class1 (Test)",
marker="x")
plt.scatter(class2_points, [1] * len(class2_points), c="red", label="Class2 (Test)",
marker="x")
 plt.title(f"k-NN Classification Results for k = {k}")
plt.xlabel("Data Points")
plt.ylabel("Classification Level")
plt.legend()
plt.grid(True)
plt.show()

6. Implement the non-parametric Locally Weighted Regression algorithm in order to fit data
points. Select appropriate data set for your experiment and draw graphs.

import numpy as np
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
def gaussian_kernel(x, xi, tau):
return np.exp(-np.sum((x - xi) ** 2) / (2 * tau ** 2))
def locally_weighted_regression(x, X, y, tau):
m = X.shape[0]
weights = np.array([gaussian_kernel(x, X[i], tau) for i in range(m)])
W = np.diag(weights)
X_transpose_W = X.T @ W
theta = np.linalg.inv(X_transpose_W @ X) @ X_transpose_W @ y
return x @ theta
np.random.seed(42)
X = np.linspace(0, 2 * np.pi, 100)
y = np.sin(X) + 0.1 * np.random.randn(100)
X_bias = np.c_[np.ones(X.shape), X]
x_test = np.linspace(0, 2 * np.pi, 200)
x_test_bias = np.c_[np.ones(x_test.shape), x_test]
tau = 0.5
y_pred = np.array([locally_weighted_regression(xi, X_bias, y, tau) for xi in x_test_bias])
plt.figure(figsize=(10, 6))
plt.scatter(X, y, color='red', label='Training Data', alpha=0.7)
plt.plot(x_test, y_pred, color='blue', label=f'LWR Fit (tau={tau})', linewidth=2)
plt.xlabel('X', fontsize=12)
plt.ylabel('y', fontsize=12)
plt.title('Locally Weighted Regression', fontsize=14)
plt.legend(fontsize=10)
plt.grid(alpha=0.3)
plt.show()

7. Develop a program to demonstrate the working of Linear Regression and Polynomial

Regression. Use Boston Housing Dataset for Linear Regression and Auto MPG Dataset (for
vehicle fuel efficiency prediction) for Polynomial Regression.
import numpy as np
import pandas as pd
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
from sklearn.datasets import fetch_california_housing
from sklearn.model_selection import train_test_split
from sklearn.linear_model import LinearRegression
from sklearn.preprocessing import PolynomialFeatures, StandardScaler
from sklearn.pipeline import make_pipeline
from sklearn.metrics import mean_squared_error, r2_score
def linear_regression_california():
housing = fetch_california_housing(as_frame=True)
X = housing.data[["AveRooms"]]
y = housing.target
X_train, X_test, y_train, y_test = train_test_split(X, y, test_size=0.2, random_state=42)
model = LinearRegression()
model.fit(X_train, y_train)
y_pred = model.predict(X_test)
plt.scatter(X_test, y_test, color="blue", label="Actual")
plt.plot(X_test, y_pred, color="red", label="Predicted")
plt.xlabel("Average number of rooms (AveRooms)")
plt.ylabel("Median value of homes ($100,000)")
plt.title("Linear Regression - California Housing Dataset")
plt.legend()
plt.show()
print("Linear Regression - California Housing Dataset")
print("Mean Squared Error:", mean_squared_error(y_test, y_pred))
print("R^2 Score:", r2_score(y_test, y_pred))
def polynomial_regression_auto_mpg():
url = "https://archive.ics.uci.edu/ml/machine-learning-databases/auto-mpg/auto-
mpg.data"
column_names = ["mpg", "cylinders", "displacement", "horsepower", "weight",
"acceleration", "model_year", "origin"]
data = pd.read_csv(url, sep='\s+', names=column_names, na_values="?")
data = data.dropna()
X = data["displacement"].values.reshape(-1, 1)
y = data["mpg"].values
X_train, X_test, y_train, y_test = train_test_split(X, y, test_size=0.2, random_state=42)
poly_model = make_pipeline(PolynomialFeatures(degree=2), StandardScaler(),
LinearRegression())
poly_model.fit(X_train, y_train)
y_pred = poly_model.predict(X_test)
plt.scatter(X_test, y_test, color="blue", label="Actual")
plt.scatter(X_test, y_pred, color="red", label="Predicted")
plt.xlabel("Displacement")
plt.ylabel("Miles per gallon (mpg)")
plt.title("Polynomial Regression - Auto MPG Dataset")
 plt.legend()
plt.show()
print("Polynomial Regression - Auto MPG Dataset")
print("Mean Squared Error:", mean_squared_error(y_test, y_pred))
print("R^2 Score:", r2_score(y_test, y_pred))
if __name__ == "__main__":
print("Demonstrating Linear Regression and Polynomial Regression\n")
linear_regression_california()
polynomial_regression_auto_mpg()

8. Develop a program to demonstrate the working of the decision tree algorithm. Use Breast
Cancer Data set for building the decision tree and apply this knowledge to classify a new
sample.

# Importing necessary libraries

import numpy as np
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
from sklearn.datasets import load_breast_cancer
from sklearn.model_selection import train_test_split
from sklearn.tree import DecisionTreeClassifier
from sklearn.metrics import accuracy_score
from sklearn import tree
data = load_breast_cancer()
X = data.data
y = data.target
X_train, X_test, y_train, y_test = train_test_split(X, y, test_size=0.2, random_state=42)
clf = DecisionTreeClassifier(random_state=42)
clf.fit(X_train, y_train)
y_pred = clf.predict(X_test)
accuracy = accuracy_score(y_test, y_pred)
print(f"Model Accuracy: {accuracy * 100:.2f}%")
new_sample = np.array([X_test[0]])
prediction = clf.predict(new_sample)
prediction_class = "Benign" if prediction == 1 else "Malignant"
print(f"Predicted Class for the new sample: {prediction_class}")
plt.figure(figsize=(12,8))
tree.plot_tree(clf, filled=True, feature_names=data.feature_names,
class_names=data.target_names)
plt.title("Decision Tree - Breast Cancer Dataset")
plt.show()
9. Develop a program to implement the Naive Bayesian classifier considering Olivetti Face Data
set for training. Compute the accuracy of the classifier, considering a few test data sets.

import numpy as np
from sklearn.datasets import fetch_olivetti_faces
from sklearn.model_selection import train_test_split, cross_val_score
from sklearn.naive_bayes import GaussianNB
from sklearn.metrics import accuracy_score, classification_report, confusion_matrix
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
data = fetch_olivetti_faces(shuffle=True, random_state=42)
X = data.data
y = data.target
X_train, X_test, y_train, y_test = train_test_split(X, y, test_size=0.3, random_state=42)
gnb = GaussianNB()
gnb.fit(X_train, y_train)
y_pred = gnb.predict(X_test)
accuracy = accuracy_score(y_test, y_pred)
print(f'Accuracy: {accuracy * 100:.2f}%')
print("\nClassification Report:")
print(classification_report(y_test, y_pred, zero_division=1))
print("\nConfusion Matrix:")
print(confusion_matrix(y_test, y_pred))
cross_val_accuracy = cross_val_score(gnb, X, y, cv=5, scoring='accuracy')
print(f'\nCross-validation accuracy: {cross_val_accuracy.mean() * 100:.2f}%')
fig, axes = plt.subplots(3, 5, figsize=(12, 8))
for ax, image, label, prediction in zip(axes.ravel(), X_test, y_test, y_pred):
ax.imshow(image.reshape(64, 64), cmap=plt.cm.gray)
ax.set_title(f"True: {label}, Pred: {prediction}")
ax.axis('off')
plt.show()

10. Develop a program to implement k-means clustering using Wisconsin Breast Cancer data set
and visualize the clustering result.

import numpy as np
import pandas as pd
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import seaborn as sns
from sklearn.datasets import load_breast_cancer
from sklearn.cluster import KMeans
from sklearn.preprocessing import StandardScaler
from sklearn.decomposition import PCA
from sklearn.metrics import confusion_matrix, classification_report
data = load_breast_cancer()
X = data.data
y = data.target
scaler = StandardScaler()
X_scaled = scaler.fit_transform(X)
kmeans = KMeans(n_clusters=2, random_state=42)
y_kmeans = kmeans.fit_predict(X_scaled)
print("Confusion Matrix:")
print(confusion_matrix(y, y_kmeans))
print("\nClassification Report:")
print(classification_report(y, y_kmeans))
pca = PCA(n_components=2)
X_pca = pca.fit_transform(X_scaled)
df = pd.DataFrame(X_pca, columns=['PC1', 'PC2'])
df['Cluster'] = y_kmeans
df['True Label'] = y
plt.figure(figsize=(8, 6))
sns.scatterplot(data=df, x='PC1', y='PC2', hue='Cluster', palette='Set1', s=100,
edgecolor='black', alpha=0.7)
plt.title('K-Means Clustering of Breast Cancer Dataset')
plt.xlabel('Principal Component 1')
plt.ylabel('Principal Component 2')
plt.legend(title="Cluster")
plt.show()
plt.figure(figsize=(8, 6))
sns.scatterplot(data=df, x='PC1', y='PC2', hue='True Label', palette='coolwarm', s=100,
edgecolor='black', alpha=0.7)
plt.title('True Labels of Breast Cancer Dataset')
plt.xlabel('Principal Component 1')
plt.ylabel('Principal Component 2')
plt.legend(title="True Label")
plt.show()
plt.figure(figsize=(8, 6))
sns.scatterplot(data=df, x='PC1', y='PC2', hue='Cluster', palette='Set1', s=100,
edgecolor='black', alpha=0.7)
centers = pca.transform(kmeans.cluster_centers_)
plt.scatter(centers[:, 0], centers[:, 1], s=200, c='red', marker='X', label='Centroids')
plt.title('K-Means Clustering with Centroids')
plt.xlabel('Principal Component 1')
plt.ylabel('Principal Component 2')
plt.legend(title="Cluster")
plt.show()