Mughal State (1600-1750) : Changes & Crises By Dhurv

The Mughal Empire, a formidable power that once held sway over a vast expanse of the Indian
subcontinent, underwent a significant transformation between 1600 and 1750. This period
witnessed both the zenith of its territorial expansion and the insidious beginnings of its decline.
Examining this era reveals a complex interplay of internal changes and external crises that
ultimately led to the weakening of the Mughal state.
The Reign of Jahangir (1605-1627): Seeds of Change
The early part of the 17th century, under Emperor Jahangir, saw a continuation of the
administrative and cultural synthesis fostered by his father, Akbar. However, subtle shifts began
to occur that would have long-term implications.
● Growing Influence of the Nobility: While Akbar had meticulously cultivated a nobility
based on merit and personal loyalty, Jahangir's reign witnessed the increasing influence
of powerful cliques and factions within the court. This was partly due to Jahangir's own
temperament, which was less inclined towards rigorous administration and more towards
artistic pursuits and personal pleasures. Key figures like Nur Jahan, his wife, wielded
considerable power, leading to the rise of their relatives and supporters within the Mughal
hierarchy. This nascent trend of factionalism would intensify in subsequent reigns.
● Continuity of Administrative Structures: The efficient administrative machinery
established by Akbar largely continued under Jahangir. The mansabdari system, a unique
blend of military and civil administration, remained the backbone of the Mughal state.
Land revenue, the primary source of income, was still assessed and collected through
established mechanisms. However, the seeds of future problems lay in the potential for
abuse and corruption within this system, particularly as the central authority weakened.
● Religious Tensions: While Jahangir generally maintained Akbar's policy of religious
tolerance, instances of religious tension began to surface. The execution of the Sikh Guru
Arjan Dev in 1606 marked a significant departure from the earlier policy and sowed the
seeds of future conflict with the Sikh community. This indicated a potential shift away from
the inclusive policies that had been a hallmark of the Mughal Empire under Akbar.
● Economic Prosperity: The Mughal economy during Jahangir's reign remained robust.
Agriculture flourished, and trade, both internal and external, continued to expand. Indian
textiles, spices, and other goods were in high demand in international markets,
contributing to the empire's wealth. However, the increasing dependence on land revenue
and the potential for exploitation of the peasantry remained underlying vulnerabilities.
The Zenith Under Shah Jahan (1628-1658): Grandeur and Underlying Weaknesses
Shah Jahan's reign is often considered the golden age of the Mughal Empire, marked by
unparalleled architectural achievements, courtly splendor, and territorial consolidation in the
Deccan. However, beneath this veneer of grandeur, certain trends that would contribute to the
empire's later decline were becoming more pronounced.
● Increased Centralization and Expenditure: Shah Jahan's rule witnessed a further
centralization of power in the hands of the emperor and the imperial court. While this
initially brought stability, it also increased the empire's dependence on the competence
and effectiveness of the ruler. The lavish spending on monumental projects like the Taj
Mahal and the maintenance of an opulent court put a strain on the imperial treasury.
● Intensification of Factionalism: The competition for power and influence among the
Mughal nobility intensified during Shah Jahan's reign. Different factions, often based on
ethnic or religious affiliations, vied for imperial favor and lucrative appointments. This
internal rivalry weakened the unity of the ruling class and made the state more
susceptible to instability.
● Religious Policies: While Shah Jahan did not fundamentally alter the state's official policy of
religious tolerance, there were instances of discrimination and the promotion of
Islamic orthodoxy, reflecting a subtle shift from Akbar's more inclusive approach. This
created resentment among certain segments of the non-Muslim population.
● Deccan Campaigns and Their Costs: Shah Jahan's continued military campaigns in the
Deccan, aimed at consolidating Mughal control over the southern kingdoms, were costly
in terms of both human and financial resources. While these campaigns were largely
successful in the short term, they stretched the empire's military capabilities and drained
its treasury, contributing to long-term economic strain.
● Economic Stability with Regional Variations: The Mughal economy under Shah Jahan
remained largely prosperous, fueled by agricultural production and trade. However,
regional variations in economic conditions and the burden of taxation on the peasantry
continued to be potential sources of discontent. The jagirdari system, where nobles were
granted land revenue assignments in lieu of salary, also began to show signs of strain,
with increasing competition for fertile jagirs.
The Reign of Aurangzeb (1658-1707): The Turning Point
Aurangzeb's long and controversial reign is widely considered a major turning point in the
history of the Mughal Empire, marking the beginning of its significant decline. His policies and
actions exacerbated existing weaknesses and created new challenges that the empire could not
overcome.
● Religious Policies and Their Repercussions: Aurangzeb's staunch adherence to a
more orthodox interpretation of Islam and his policies aimed at establishing an Islamic
state had profound and far-reaching consequences. The reimposition of the jizya (poll tax
on non-Muslims), the destruction of temples, and the discriminatory treatment of Hindus in
appointments led to widespread resentment and rebellion. These policies alienated a
significant portion of the empire's population, undermining its social cohesion and stability.
● The Deccan Ulcer: Aurangzeb's prolonged and ultimately unsuccessful military
campaigns in the Deccan against the Marathas proved to be a major drain on the
empire's resources. The Deccan became a "bleeding ulcer," consuming vast amounts of
manpower and wealth without yielding decisive results. The Maratha under Shivaji and his
successors developed effective guerrilla warfare tactics that the Mughal army found
difficult to counter. This protracted conflict not only depleted the imperial treasury but also
diverted attention and resources from other pressing issues.
● Weakening of the Administrative System: The constant warfare and the expansion of
the empire under Aurangzeb put immense pressure on the administrative system.
Corruption and inefficiency within the mansabdari system increased as nobles sought to
maximize their gains in a climate of uncertainty. The transfer of jagirs became more
frequent, leading to instability and hindering long-term investment in land.
● Economic Strain: Aurangzeb's military campaigns and his policies led to a severe
economic strain on the empire. The heavy taxation to finance the wars impoverished the
peasantry and disrupted agricultural production. Trade also suffered due to the insecurity
and instability caused by rebellions and warfare. The imperial treasury was depleted, and
the empire faced increasing financial difficulties.
● Rise of Regional Powers: Aurangzeb's policies inadvertently contributed to the rise of
regional powers that challenged Mughal authority. The Rajput rebellions, the Sikh
uprisings in Punjab, and the consolidation of Maratha power in the Deccan were all partly
a response to Aurangzeb's policies. These regional powers gradually asserted their
autonomy and weakened the central control of the Mughal Empire.
● Succession Issues and Court Intrigues: Towards the end of Aurangzeb's reign and after his
death in 1707, the issue of succession became a major source of instability. The
lack of a clear law of primogeniture led to wars of succession among his sons, further
weakening the empire and providing opportunities for ambitious nobles to interfere in
politics.
The Period of Weak Successors (1707-1750): Accelerated Decline and the Weak Rulers
Following Aurangzeb's death in 1707, the Mughal Empire entered a period of rapid decline
under a series of weak and largely ineffective rulers. This era was marked by intense political
instability, the ascendancy of powerful nobles, the fragmentation of the empire, economic
collapse, military weakness, and devastating external invasions. Let's examine the key rulers of
this period and their impact:
● Bahadur Shah I (Shah Alam I) (1707-1712): A Brief Respite and Lingering Problems
○ Upon Aurangzeb's death, his eldest son, Mu'azzam, ascended the throne as
Bahadur Shah I at the age of 63 after defeating his brothers in a war of succession.
○ Bahadur Shah I was a relatively mild and conciliatory ruler. He attempted to
appease the Rajputs and the Marathas, releasing Shahu, Shivaji's grandson, from
Mughal captivity.
○ However, his efforts to forge peace were largely unsuccessful. The Marathas, under
Tarabai, continued their resistance. The Sikhs under Banda Bahadur also posed a
significant challenge in Punjab.
○ The seeds of factionalism among the nobles, which had been sown earlier, began
to sprout more visibly during his reign. Different groups vied for influence, hindering
effective governance.
○ While Bahadur Shah I was not a particularly strong ruler, his reign provided a brief
lull in the intense religious persecution of Aurangzeb's era. However, he could not
stem the tide of decentralization and the growing power of ambitious nobles.
● Jahandar Shah (1712-1713): The Reign of Pleasure and the Rise of Factions
○ After Bahadur Shah I's death, another war of succession ensued. Jahandar Shah,
supported by the powerful noble Zulfiqar Khan, emerged victorious.
○ Jahandar Shah's reign was short and marked by pleasure-seeking and the
dominance of his favorite concubine, Lal Kunwar. He showed little interest in the
affairs of the state, leaving the administration largely in the hands of Zulfiqar Khan.
○ Zulfiqar Khan attempted to implement some administrative reforms, including a
policy of conciliation towards the Rajputs and Marathas. He abolished the jizya.
However, his efforts were undermined by the emperor's indifference and the growing resentment
of other powerful nobles.
○ Jahandar Shah's weak leadership and the blatant display of favoritism further
alienated the nobility and weakened the prestige of the monarchy. His reign
highlighted the extent to which the emperor had become a figurehead.
● Farrukhsiyar (1713-1719): Puppet Emperor and the Power of the Sayyid Brothers
○ Farrukhsiyar, Jahandar Shah's nephew, with the support of the influential Sayyid
brothers, Syed Abdullah Khan and Syed Hussain Ali Khan, overthrew and executed
Jahandar Shah.
○ Farrukhsiyar's reign was characterized by his complete dependence on the Sayyid
brothers, who effectively controlled the reins of power. They appointed key officials,
formulated policies, and even led military campaigns.
○ While the Sayyid brothers were capable administrators and attempted to restore
some stability, their dominance bred resentment among other sections of the
nobility who saw them as usurpers of imperial authority.
○ Farrukhsiyar himself was an indecisive and suspicious ruler who eventually plotted
against the Sayyid brothers. This led to a power struggle that culminated in his
deposition and execution by the Sayyids.
○ The reign of Farrukhsiyar starkly illustrated the extent to which the Mughal emperor
had become a puppet in the hands of powerful nobles, signaling a critical
breakdown of central authority.
● Rafi-ul-Darajat (February-June 1719) and Rafi-ud-Daulah (June-September 1719):
Brief Interludes
○ After deposing Farrukhsiyar, the Sayyid brothers installed two young and weak
princes, Rafi-ul-Darajat and then Rafi-ud-Daulah, in quick succession.
○ Both these rulers were mere figureheads, completely controlled by the Sayyid
brothers. Their brief reigns were marked by continued political instability and the
consolidation of the Sayyids' power.
○ Their premature deaths further underscored the chaotic political situation and the
ease with which the Sayyid brothers could manipulate the imperial throne.
● Muhammad Shah (1719-1748): The Long and Troubled Reign
○ Following the deaths of Rafi-ul-Darajat and Rafi-ud-Daulah, the Sayyid brothers
placed Muhammad Shah on the throne. Initially, he was also under their influence.
○ However, Muhammad Shah, with the help of rival nobles, eventually managed to
orchestrate the downfall of the Sayyid brothers in 1720.
○ Despite regaining nominal control, Muhammad Shah proved to be a weak and
pleasure-loving ruler, often neglecting the affairs of the state. His long reign
witnessed the further disintegration of the empire.
○ Under Muhammad Shah, several provinces declared their virtual independence,
including Bengal under Murshid Quli Khan, Awadh under Saadat Khan, and
Hyderabad under Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah. The Marathas continued their
expansion, raiding Mughal territories and demanding chauth and sardeshmukhi.
○ The most devastating event of his reign was the invasion of Nadir Shah of Persia in
1739. Nadir Shah decisively defeated the Mughal army at the Battle of Karnal and
subsequently sacked Delhi, carrying away immense wealth, including the Peacock
Throne and the Koh-i-Noor diamond. This invasion exposed the utter weakness of
the Mughal Empire and shattered its remaining prestige.
○ Muhammad Shah's reign was a period of significant territorial loss, economic
decline, and increasing internal and external threats, highlighting the irreversible nature of the
Mughal decline.
● Ahmad Shah Bahadur (1748-1754): Continued Weakness and External Threats
○ Muhammad Shah's son, Ahmad Shah Bahadur, inherited a much-diminished and
weakened empire. He was an even weaker ruler than his father, more interested in
personal pleasures than in governance.
○ The administration was largely controlled by corrupt and self-serving nobles,
leading to further inefficiency and instability.
○ The empire continued to face threats from the Marathas, who extended their
influence further north, and from Ahmad Shah Abdali of Afghanistan, who launched
a series of invasions into India.
○ Ahmad Shah Bahadur was eventually deposed and imprisoned by his own wazir,
Ghazi-ud-Din Khan Imad-ul-Mulk.
● Alamgir II (1754-1759): Another Puppet Ruler
○ Alamgir II was placed on the throne by Ghazi-ud-Din Khan Imad-ul-Mulk. He was
another weak and powerless ruler, completely controlled by his wazir.
○ The empire continued to shrink, and the central authority remained non-existent.
The Marathas became increasingly dominant in North India.
○ Alamgir II was eventually murdered by his own wazir.
● Shah Jahan III (1759-1760): A Figurehead
○ Shah Jahan III was briefly placed on the throne by the Marathas after they occupied
Delhi. He held no real power.
● Shah Alam II (1759-1806): The Emperor in Exile and Under Foreign Influence
○ Shah Alam II ascended the throne in a period of great turmoil. He spent much of his
early reign in exile due to the control of Delhi by various factions, including the
Marathas and the Afghans.
○ He attempted to regain control of his empire with the help of the Marathas but was
defeated by the British East India Company at the Battle of Buxar in 1764.
○ After the Battle of Buxar, Shah Alam II became a pensioner of the British, marking a
significant step in the establishment of British dominance in India. While he
technically remained the Mughal emperor, his authority was severely curtailed, and
he was largely a figurehead under British protection.
Integration into the Broader Narrative of Decline:
The reigns of these weak successors were not isolated events but rather the culmination of the
trends that had begun earlier. The increasing power of the nobility, which started subtly under
Jahangir and intensified under Shah Jahan, reached its zenith during this period, with nobles
effectively making and unmaking emperors. The seeds of religious tension sown under
Aurangzeb continued to bear fruit in the form of rebellions and a lack of social cohesion. The
economic strain caused by Aurangzeb's long wars was exacerbated by the political instability
and the rise of independent states, leading to a collapse of the revenue system. The military
weaknesses, evident in the face of Maratha resistance in the Deccan, were starkly exposed by
the Persian and Afghan invasions.
The period of weak successors witnessed the irreversible fragmentation of the Mughal Empire.
The rise of autonomous regional powers like Bengal, Awadh, and Hyderabad deprived the
center of crucial resources and manpower. The Marathas emerged as a dominant force,
challenging Mughal authority across North India. The external invasions of Nadir Shah and
Ahmad Shah Abdali delivered crippling blows to the empire's economy, prestige, and territorial
integrity.
By 1750, the Mughal Empire was a pale shadow of its former glory. The central authority was
virtually non-existent, and the emperor was either a puppet in the hands of powerful nobles or
facing external threats and internal rebellions. The stage was set for the further consolidation of
regional powers and the increasing influence of the British East India Company, which would
eventually lead to the complete dismantling of the Mughal Empire in the mid-19th century.
In conclusion, the period between 1707 and 1750, marked by the reigns of a series of weak and
ineffective rulers – Bahadur Shah I, Jahandar Shah, Farrukhsiyar, Rafi-ul-Darajat,
Rafi-ud-Daulah, Muhammad Shah, Ahmad Shah Bahadur, and Alamgir II – was a crucial phase
in the Mughal decline. Their lack of strong leadership, coupled with the entrenched problems of
factionalism, economic weakness, military inadequacy, and external pressures, accelerated the
disintegration of the once mighty Mughal state, paving the way for a new political order in India.