SOLAR POWERED SMART ELECTRIC VEHICLE

Major Project Report submitted in partial fulfilment of the

requirements for the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
Submitted By
SOURAVHYA KUMAR SWAIN (2101320116)
SUBRAT DAS (2101320118)
SHUBHASHIS NAYAK (2101320119)
DEEPAK MAHARANA (2101320062)
PRANITA PRIYADARSHINI MISHRA (2221320013)

Under the supervision of

Er. Chinmayi Choudhary
Assistant Professor

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

For the Academic year 2021-2025

ARYAN INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

ARYABIHAR, BHUBANESWAR, ODISHA, PIN-752050
Affiliated to

BIJU PATNAIK UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY ROURKELA

ODISHA

APRIL-2025

1
 CERTIFICATE
This to certify that the work which is being presented in the project title “ Solar Powered
Smart Electric Vehicle” in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of
Bachelor of Technology in Electrical and Electronics Engineering and submitted in the
Department of Electrical Engineering, Aryan Institute of Engineering and Technology,
Bhubaneswar is an authentic record of work carried out by SOURAVHYA KUMAR SWAIN-
2101320116, SUBRAT DAS-2101320118, SHUBHASHIS NAYAK-2101320119, DEEPAK
MAHARANA-212132006, PRANITA PRIYADARSHINI MISHRA-2221320013 under the
supervision of
Er.CHINMAYI CHOUDHARY, Assistant Professor, Electrical Engineering Department.

The above statement made is true to the best of our knowledge and belief.

SOURAVHYA KUMAR SWAIN-2101320116

SUBRAT DAS-2101320118
SHUBHASHIS NAYAK-2101320119
DEEPAK MAHARANA-212132006
PRANITA PRIYADARSHINI MISHRA-2221320013
Date-
Place-

Project Guide Head of the Department External Examiner Principal

EE & EEE EE & EEE AIET,BBSR

2
 DECLARATION

We hereby declare that the project entitled “Solar Powered Smart Electric
Vehicle” carried out by us under the guidance of Asst. Prof. Er. Chinmayi
Choudhary is submitted to Biju Patnaik University of Technology, Rourkela,

Odisha, in the partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of
Bachelor of Technology in Electrical and Electronics Engineering.

The results embodied in this report have not been copied from any source. The
results embodied this report have not been submitted to any other University or
Institute for the award of any other degree.

SOURAVHYA KUMAR SWAIN-2101320116

SUBRAT DAS-2101320118
SHUBHASHIS NAYAK-2101320119
DEEPAK MAHARANA-212132006
PRANITA PRIYADARSHINI MISHRA-2221320013

3
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my gratitude to all the people behind the screen who helped
me to transform an idea into a real application.

I profoundly thank Prof. Dr. PRATAP CHANDRA NAYAK, Head of the Department
of Electrical Engineering who has been excellent guide and also a great source of
inspiration to my work. I would like to thank my internal guide Asst. Prof. Er.
CHINMAYI CHOUDHARY for his technical guidance, constant encouragement and
support in carrying out my project at college. The satisfaction and euphoria that
accompany the successful completion of the task would be great but incomplete
without the mention of the people who made it possible with their constant
guidance and encouragement crowns all the efforts with success.

In this context, I would like to thank all the other staff members, both teaching and
non-teaching, who have extended their timely help and eased my task.

SOURAVHYA KUMAR SWAIN-2101320116

SUBRAT DAS-2101320118
SHUBHASHIS NAYAK-2101320119
DEEPAK MAHARANA-212132006
PRANITA PRIYADARSHINI MISHRA-2221320013

4
 Vision of the Institution
To become a leading engineering institution of the state by impacting quality technical
education at affordable costs to create skilled and motivated engineers to serve the
technological requirements of society in different ways.

Mission of the Institution

M1: To impart contemporary technical education and skills to students of different socio-
economic background.
M2: To equip students with analytical learning and real-life problem solving.

M3: To make learning a continuous endeavor compatible with market needs.

M4: To promote the spirit of leadership, entrepreneurship, innovation and ethics

Vision of the Department

To be a leader in the field of electrical engineering education and training by creating graduates
who are globally competent, successful in their chosen fields of endeavor, engaged in innovative
research and entrepreneurship, and deeply committed to social advancement.

Mission of the Department

M1: To impart the fundamentals of electrical engineering so that students may develop new
products and solutions to solve issues in the real world.

M2: To enable students to pursue a prosperous career in the cognitive electrical engineering
professions and to become ethical technologists.
M3: Through continuous improvement of faculty and lab facilities, to strive for excellence in
academics and research work by developing rich electrical engineering-based research
Centre for industrial growth of the nation.

Program Educational Objectives (PEOs)

5
PEO1: Establish successful careers in Electrical Engineering and related fields by offering
creative and practical solutions

PEO2: Engage in continuous learning through cutting-edge technologies for solving

societal problems using logical and innovative approaches in decision-making

PEO3: Become an entrepreneur, work for a company that conducts research and
development.

Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs):

Engineering Graduates will be able to:

PSO1 Apply the fundamentals of science and technology to identify, formulate, design and
investigate complex engineering problems of electric circuits, control system, power
electronics, electric drives and power system.

PSO2 Ability to model, simulate and assess electrical systems and components using
software and hardware tools

PSO3 Empowering to socially acceptable technical solutions and relevant methodologies

for sustainable development to current electrical engineering difficulties.

Program Outcomes
PO1 Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
PO2 Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze
complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles

6
 of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
PO3 Design / development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering
problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs
with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural,
societal, and environmental considerations.
PO4 Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data,
and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
PO5 Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
PO6 The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent
responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
PO7 Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
PO8 Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities
and norms of the engineering practice.
PO9 Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
PO10 Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend
and write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and
give and receive clear instructions.
PO11 Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a
member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary
environments.
PO12 Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of
technological change.

ABSTRACT

A solar vehicle is an electric vehicle powered completely or

significantly by direct solar energy. Usually, photovoltaic (PV)
cells contained in solar panels convert the sun’s energy directly
into electric energy. The term solar vehicle usually implies that
solar energy is used to power all or part of a

7
vehicle’s propulsion. Solar power may be also used to provide
power for communications or controls or other auxiliary
functions.

Gestures have played a vital role in diminishing this abyss. In this

paper, a rigorous analysis of different techniques of “Human-
Machine Interaction” using gestures has been presented. Gestures
can be captured with the help of a Joystick, however with the
evolution of microcontroller makes its independent usage has
been rendered useless.

This paper analyses the motion technology to capture gestures

through a microcontroller with joystick and a Motor driver
module to control the kinetics of a vehicle.
Headlight Automation will be done by LDR installed on vehicle.

8
 CONTENT

SL CONTENT PAGE
NO NO

1 INTRODUCTION 10-11
2 LITERATURE SURVEY 12
2.1-previous history
2.2- need of a solar power vehicle
3 LAYOUT OF A SOLAR POWER VEHICLE 13
4 DIFFERENT COMPONENTSAND THEIR 14-45
SPECIFICATION USED FOR DESIGN
4.1- driver controls and mechanical systems
4.1.1- Parts of steering system
4.1.2- Breaks
4.1.3-Suspension System
4.1.4-Wheels
4.2- Electrical System
4.2.1-Batteries
4.2.2-Peak Power Trackers
4.2.3-Moter Controllers
4.3-Drive Train
4.4-Solar isolation
4.5-Solar Array
4.6- Frame & Body
4.6.1- Frame
4.6.2- Body & chassis

5 COCLUSION 46
6 COCLUSION & FUTURE SCOPE 46
7 LIMITIONS 47
8 REFERANCE 48

9
1. INTRODUCTION
Solar energy, radiant light and heat and heat from the sun, has
been harnessed by humans since ancient time using a range of
ever-evolving technologies. Solar radiations, along with
secondary solar-powered resources such as wind and wave power,
hydroelectricity and biomass, account for most of the available
renewable energy on earth.

Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive

solar or active solar depending on the way they capture, convert
and distribute solar energy. Active solar techniques include the
use of photovoltaic panels and solar thermal collectors to harness
the energy whereas passive solar techniques include orienting a
building to the Sun, selecting materials with favourable thermal
mass or light dispersing properties.

Solar powered vehicle works n the active solar techniques.

A solar vehicle is an electric vehicle powered by solar electricity.

This is obtained from solar panels on the surface (generally, the
top or window) of the vehicle or using a solar jacket in electric
bicycles. Photovoltaic (PV) cells convert the sun's energy directly
into electrical energy.

Solar power is the term for using the sun's energy to power a
device or an electrical system. Solar panels are made up of a grid
of solar cells. These cells collect the sun's energy and convert it
into electrical energy. Conversion of solar power to electrical
power. Photovoltaic cells are made of special materials called
semiconductors such as silicon, which is currently used most
commonly. Basically, when light strikes the cell, a certain portion
of it is absorbed within the semiconductor material. This means
that the energy of the absorbed light is transferred to the
semiconductor.

10
The energy knocks electrons loose, allowing them to flow freely.
PV cells also all have one or more electric field that acts to force
electrons freed by light absorption to flow in a certain direction.
This flow of electrons is a current, and by placing metal contacts
on the top and bottom of the PV cell, we can draw that current off
for external use. The electron flow provides the current and the
cell’s electric field cause the generation of voltage. With both
current and voltage we have power.

11
2. LITERATURE REVIEWS

2.1 PREVIOUS HISTORY

The first solar powered vehicle invented was a tiny 15-inch vehicle created by
William G. Cobb of General Motors. Called the Sun mobile, Cobb showcased the
first solar powered vehicle at the Chicago Powerama convention on August 31,
1955. The solar powered vehicle was made up 12 selenium photovoltaic cells and a
small Pooley electric motor turning a pulley which in turn rotated the rear wheel
shaft. In 1962 the first solar powered vehicle that a person could drive was
demonstrated to the public. The International Rectifier Company converted a
vintage model 1912 Baker electric car (pictured above) to run on photovoltaic
energy in 1958, but they didn't show it until 4 years later. Around 10,640 individual
solar cells were mounted to the rooftop of the Baker to help propel it. In 1977,
Alabama University professor Ed Passereni built the Bluebird solar powered
vehicle, which was a prototype full scale vehicle.

Nowadays also solar powered vehicles are not available commercially to buy this
because of the cost involved and they are low end compared to the conventional
gas cars. These cars are limited to certain groups like the researchers and students
in their projects. Previously these solar panels had a very high cost but due to the
advancement in the semiconductor industry the costs have gone down significantly.

2.2 NEED OF A SOLAR POWERED VEHICLE

The quest for alternative sources of power for automobiles explored the possibility
of solar power. The concept of driving a car with zero harmful emissions, one that
is very quiet and is very low maintenance, and does not need an expensive fuel
source has been the ideal of many inventors for a long time. This is the reason why
many researches were made to evolve the design of solar powered vehicle to make
it more practical and comfortable.
3. Layout Of a Solar Powered Vehicle

Fig.2 Layout of Solar Powered Vehicle

4. DIFFERENT COMPONENTS AND THEIR SPECIFICATION USED
FOR DESIGN

A solar powered vehicle is made up of many components that have been

integrated together so that they work as a single system. For the ease of explanation
it has been broken down into five primary systems:

 Driver Controls & Mechanical Systems

 Electrical System
 Drive Train
 Solar Array
 Body and Chassis

4.1 Driver Controls and Mechanical Systems

Solar powered vehicles do have some of the standard features found in

conventional cars, such as turn signals, fresh air ventilation, and usually cruise
control. Drivers and passengers can look forward to uncomfortable seats, cramped
positioning, and high cockpit temperatures as these cars have very few amenities
for the driver. High temperatures are obviously bad for the driver (and passenger),
but they are also bad for electrical and electronic components as high temperatures
will generally reduce the efficiency and shorten the life of solar cells, batteries,
motors, motor controllers and other electronic equipment.
Fig 3 The comfortable interior temperature and air flow rate as a function of
outside temperature.

Something like 10 kilograms of air would typically have to be provided every

minute to approach passenger car comfort levels. Obviously, that's seldom feasible
in a solar powered vehicle due to the drag that it might impose on the vehicle, if
such cooling flows are not also required by electrical, electronic and mechanical
components of the vehicle.Vehicle designers usually use the same airflow several
times over as it passes through the vehicle; for example cooling driver, electronics,
electrics and motor sequentially.

The mechanical systems of a solar powered vehicle are designed to minimize

friction and weight while maintaining the strength needed to handle the various
road conditions. Lightweight metals like titanium and composites are commonly
used to maximize the strength-to-weight ratio. It includes:
Goal

The steering system as a group needs to be lightweight, affordable, reliable, and

durable. The steering wheel needs to be easy to turn but out of the way so the
driver may get out of the car quickly in case of an emergency.

Types of Steering systems

The steering box is a method of steering cars at high speeds, where accuracy is of
paramount importance. It is a method of preventing the turning of the steering
wheel from having a direct effect on the direction of the wheels, allowing for a
more forgiving driving experience than direct access. A gear system is placed
between the shaft of the steering wheel and the wheel axle, refining the controls
and making driving safer.

 Worm and Sector

It comprises a steering wheel shaft with a "worm" screw on the end, and a section
gear that is moved up and down as the steering wheel turns. The movement of the
section gear causes a pitman arm (a rod of metal attached to the track rod) to lever
up and down, turning the wheels.

 Worm and Roller

It works on a similar principle to the worm and sector box, with section gear
replaced by a roller attached to a cross shaft. As the steering wheel turns, the worm
rotates and causes the roller to turn. This causes the cross shaft to twist, moving the
pitman arm and forcing the wheels to change direction.

 Cam and lever

To reduce wear and friction, the cam and lever design was introduced; it is very
similar to the worm and roller. As the worm turns on the steering shaft, the cam
moves up and down the worm, forcing the pitman arm to move up and down along
with it, causing the wheels to change direction. In this design, according to
carbibles.com, the cross shaft is turned 90 degrees to the normal, causing it to exit
through the side of the steering box instead of the bottom.
  Rack and pinion
A rack and pinion is a pair of gears which convert rotational motion into linear
motion. The circular pinion engages teeth on a flat bar - the rack. Rotational motion
applied to the pinion will cause the rack to move to the side, up to the limit of its
travel. A rack-and-pinion gear set is enclosed in a metal tube, with each end of the
rack protruding from the tube. A rod, called a tie rod, connects to each end of the
rack. The pinion gear is attached to the steering shaft. When you turn the steering
wheel, the gear spins, moving the rack. The tie rod at each of the steering wheel
turns, the worm rotates and causes end of the rack connects to the steering arm on
the spindle.

Working Principle of Rack and Pinion

The steering wheel turns the pinion gear; the pinion moves the rack, which is a
linear gear that meshes with the pinion, converting circular motion into linear
motion along the transverse axis of the car.

The rack-and-pinion gear-set does two things:

 It converts the rotational motion of the steering wheel into the

linear motion needed to turn the wheels.

 It provides a gear reduction, making it easier to turn the wheels. We

are going to use

rack and pinion arrangement.

We have used Rack and Pinion steering system because of its following
advantages:-

 The rack and pinion design has the advantages of a large degree of
feedback.
 Rack and pinion steering tends to be more precise because there are
fewer parts and pivot points. Because of this, the steering is more
responsive and easier to control.
 Reducing the number of parts in a system also reduces the weight.
 Repairing a rack and pinion steering system tends to be easier than a
traditional system. There are two reasons for this.
First, there are fewer moving parts so fewer to fail and need repairing. Second, it is
the most common system, so most mechanics should be familiar with it; you do not
need a specialist for repairs.

Fig 4: Rack and Pinion Steering system

Steering Ratio

Steering ratio refers to the ratio between the turn of the steering wheel (in degrees)
and the turn of the wheels (in degrees). The steering ratio is the amount of degrees
you have to turn the steering wheel, for the wheels to turn an amount of degrees. A
higher ratio means that we have to turn the steering wheel more to get the wheels to
turn a given distance. However, less effort is required because of the higher gear
ratio. Generally, lighter, sportier cars have lower steering ratios than larger cars and
trucks. The lower ratio gives the steering a quicker response -- you don't have to
turn the steering wheel as much to get the wheels to turn a given distance

Ackermann Steering System

It is a term used to define the steering geometry. It gives a relation between the
front inside wheel and front outside wheel during taking a turn. This concept is to
have the correct turning angle of the steering wheels to be generated during
negotiating a corner or to have the four wheels rolling around a common point
during a turn. During a turn the outer wheels have to cover a larger radius than the
inner ones so the steering angle of inner wheel will be more than that of outer
wheel. This allows the vehicle to travel around a curve without scrubbing the tires.

Fig 5: Ackermann steering system

Let,
Wheel base = b
Distance between king-pins = c Wheel track = a
Taking slip angle as 0 deg Using the formulae:
cot φ - cot θ = c/b
sin(α + θ) + sin(α - φ) = 2sinα
From these two equations we can get the turning angle for inner wheel (θ) &
turning angle for outer wheel(φ)
Ackermann angle = (θ + φ)/2
Turning Radius =[(-b/sin θ)^2 + (c^2) + (2*b*c/tan θ)+^(1/2) + *(a-c)/2] Lock to
lock angle = steering ratio*Ackerman angle

Parts of Steering System

1. Rack & Pinion, Centralized
2. Tie Rod
3. Rose Joint
4. Housing
5. Steering Column
6. Steering wheel
7. Tie Rod End
8. Knuckle Arm
9. Universal Joint
Inner lock angle was 10 degrees and outer lock angle was 12 degree for this
car.

Wheel Base:- This is the longitudinal distance between the centre lines of the
front and the rear axles.
Track Width:- This is the measure of the distance between the center of tire
contact patches at the front and rear of the vehicle.

Fig 6: Track width and Wheel base

4.1.2 Brakes:

One of the most important systems of any kind of vehicle is Braking system. As
name indicates, systems which allow moving body to stop. Every moving body at a
particular time needs to come into rest and so vehicle. Here we are discussing
BRAKE SYSTEM before power system , reason behind safety before running the
vehicle is prime importance , we can start the vehicle with the help of transmission
system but we can’t stop that’s why brake system need to be designed, fabricated
and assembled with very high accuracy, safety and reliability.
If vehicle will be equipped with proper braking system as per vehicle specified
configuration then driver will be able to control the vehicle speed easily and can
stop the vehicle in panic/accidental situation.
Solar powered vehicles are required to meet rigorous standards for brakes. Disc
brakes are the most commonly used due to their good braking ability and ability to
adjust. The brake pads or shoes are typically designed to retract to minimize brake
drag, on leading cars.
A shoe brake is used in front wheel whereas drum brake is used in rear wheel.

Fig 7: Shoe brake and Drum Brake

4.1.3 Suspension System :

The suspension must keep the tires on the ground at all times to ensure optimal
traction and grip as the vehicle transverses rough terrain. An additional purpose of
the suspension is to isolate the shocks associated with traveling over different
obstacles from the body of the vehicle, thus sparing the driver from the forces
caused by impact. Protecting the driver is an especially important goal for our
design, as the driver must be able to drive the car for extended periods of time
during the endurance race without being fatigued from constant vibrations. A four-
wheel independent suspension is the optimal arrangement, as it allows each wheel
to move independently. Independent movement of each wheel is ideal because each
wheel can experience different obstacles due to the varying terrain of the course.
Therefore, the primary purposes of the suspension are to provide the driver with as
smooth a ride as possible over varying terrains, and to provide optimum traction for
the vehicle.

Goals of the Suspension System are as follows

1. To protect the driver and frame from shock and impact

during the competition

2. To provide the driver with comfort while traversing rough

terrain

3. To provide maximum traction for the vehicle over course

obstacles
4.1.4 Wheels:

Wheels, however, are the least efficient part of a solar powered vehicle due to
rolling resistance. About one third of the energy used by a solar powered vehicle is
lost due to this factor. Due to this limitation, contact with the ground should be
minimized. For this reason two Luna tires are used as front wheel and two Yo- bike
tires are used as rear wheels. At each of the rear wheel 250 watt hub motors are
mounted which drives the wheel after using power from battery. Also sun planet
gears are mounted for transmission.

Specification
Front wheels = R 16in, 2.25 in (6 ply rating)
Rear wheels = R 14in, 2.25 in (4 Ply rating)

4.2.Electrical System :

The heart of a solar powered vehicle is the electrical system, which is made
up of
batteries and power electronics. Power electronics include the peak power trackers,
the
motor controller, and the data acquisition system. The primary function of the
power
electronics is to monitor and control the electricity within the system.
4.2.1 Batteries :

A solar powered vehicle uses the battery pack to store energy, which will be
used at a later time. The battery pack is made up of several individual modules
wired together to generate the required system voltage. The types of batteries used
include:

 Lead-Acid
 Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH)
 Nickel-Cadmium (NiCad)
 Lithium Ion

The NiCad, NiMH, and Lithium batteries offer improved power to weight ratio
over the more common Lead-Acid batteries, but are more costly to maintain.
4 batteries each of 12 volt and
40 Ampere-hour(on average) are used .

4.2.2 Peak Power Trackers :

The peak power trackers condition the electricity coming from the solar array to
maximize the power and deliver it either to the batteries for storage or to the motor
controller for propulsion. When the solar array is charging the batteries, the peak
power trackers help to protect the batteries from being damaged by overcharging.
Peak power trackers can be very lightweight and commonly reach efficiencies
above 95%. A maximum power point tracker (MPPT) is a DC-DC converter that
matches the output of a PV string to the battery voltage in a way that maximizes
the power generated by the PV string.

4.2.3 Motor Controllers:

This component performs the complex task of deciding how much current actually
reaches the motor at a given time. This determination of current by the motor
controller allows the car to accelerate, decelerate, or stay at a constant speed. The
better motor controllers are up to 90% efficient.
4.3. Drive Train:

The drive train will consist of the electric motor and the means by which the
motor's power is transmitted to the wheel causing the vehicle to move. In this
project we have used hub motor which eliminates the need for any external
transmission because the motor shaft is connected directly to the wheel hub. This
greatly increases the efficiency of the drive train and reduces the number of
moving parts necessary to drive the wheel. A hub motor uses low rpm to account
for the lack of gear reduction, which tends to drop their efficiency slightly, but they
still can achieve efficiencies in excess of 95%.

4.4. Solar Insolation:

The energy from the sun strikes the earth throughout the entire day. However, the
amount of energy changes due to the time of day, weather conditions and
geographic location. The amount of available solar energy is known as the solar
insolation or irradiance and is most commonly measured in watts per meter squared
or W / m 2.

Fig 8: Typical solar insolation for a sunny day.

 Solar irradiance is generally modeled as having three components:

1. direct beam irradiance,

2. diffuse irradiance, from the sky, and
3. reflected irradiance, from the ground.

The sum of these components is called global irradiance. The irradiance that will
fall on a surface depends on the many factors, including:

a. the day of the year

b. the position of the sun in the sky
c. the inclination of the surface
d. cloud cover.

These factors should be taken into account while designing the solar array.
4.5. Solar Array:

Solar cells or Photovoltaic’s collected the energy from the sun and converts it into
usable electrical energy. They are made from silicon by joining an n-type and a p-
type silicon semiconductor, creating an electron rich and an electron poor layer.
When sunlight strikes the cell, photons cause atoms of the semiconductor to free
electrons, leaving behind positive charges. The flow of electrons thus created
constitutes an electromotive force that drives the current to charge a battery or
power a motor. The cell's positive contact is on the bottom while the negative
contact, or bus bar, is located on the top of the cell. Each cell produces
approximately .5 volts and 3 amps of current. Connecting the cells in series, i.e.,
positive to negative, increases voltage. Parallel connections, i.e., negative to
negative and positive to positive, increase current. Therefore, connecting the cells
in various series and parallel configurations produces modules of different voltages
and currents.

Fig 9 : Schematic Diagram of a Solar

Three solar panels are used on the basis of power required by battery to get
charged, whose calculation is shown afterwards.
 Types of Solar Photovoltaic Cells
Solar panels convert energy from the sun into the electricity we use in our
homes, to power the lights on our streets, and the machinery in our industries.
They can be seen on an industrial scale in solar farms and more discretely on
the roofs of our own houses.

Solar Panels at a glance

 Most photo-voltaic solar panels are silicon based or a variation of.

 There are several different types of solar panel including tiles, film, and
lightweight.
 The main difference in solar panels is the purity or alignment of the
silicon. The more perfect the alignment of molecules of silicon the better it as
at converting sunlight into electricity.
Obviously, the more efficient panels are the more expensive, but this should
not be your primary reason for choosing one type over another.
Monocrystalline silicon solar panels

The most effective of the solar PV cells with 15% efficiency*,

monocrystalline silicon is therefore the more expensive option. They require
less space than other cells simply because they produce more energy and can
yield up to four times more power than thin-film solar panels. They also last
longer than other panels and perform better at low light.

The main disadvantage is the cost which often means that it’s not the first
choice for home owners. It can also be effected by dirt or shade, which can
break the circuit and the production process is often seen as wasteful because
the cells have to be cut into wafers.

Polycrystalline (or multi-crystalline) solar panels

With an efficiency of 13%, polycrystalline solar panels are often seen as a

better economic choice, particularly for home owners. They are made from a
number of smaller silicon crystals that are melted together and then
recrystallized. The process to create them is simpler and less wasteful than
with monocrystalline panels. They do suffer more at high heats that can
reduce their lifespan but overall perform just as well as their more expensive
counterpart.

The main disadvantage for polycrystalline solar panels is that you need more
of them because of the lower energy conversion efficiency.
Amorphous/thin film solar panels

At 7%, thin film solar panels are among the least efficient on the market but
they are the cheapest option. They work well in low light, even moonlight,
and are made from non-crystalline silicone that can be transferred in a thin
film onto another material such as glass. The main advantage is that it can be
mass produced at a much cheaper cost but is more suitable for situations
where space is not a big issue.
The main disadvantage for thin film solar panels are not generally used for
residential purposes and will degrade quicker than crystalline cells.

Hybrid silicon solar panels

With an efficiency of 18%, hybrid solar panels are made from a mix of
amorphous and monocrystalline cells to generate maximum efficiency. There
are a variety of types of hybrid cells and they are still very much at the
research and development stage which is why they are currently a more
expensive option.
Battery
Battery working principle:

In the modern era, electrical energy is normally converted from mechanical energy,
solar energy, and chemical energy etc. A battery is a device that converts chemical
energy to electrical energy. The first battery was developed by Alessandro Volta in
the year of 1800. In the year 1836, John Frederic Daniell, a British chemist
developed the Daniell cell as an improved version of the voltaic cell. From that
time until today, the battery has been the most popular source of electricity in
many daily life applications.In our daily life, we generally use two types of battery,
one of them is which can be used once before it gets totally discharged. Another
type of battery is rechargeable which means it can be used multiple times by
recharging it externally. The former is called primary battery and the later is called
secondary battery. Batteries can be found in different sizes. A battery may be as
small as a shirt button or may be so big in size that a whole room will be required
to install a battery bank. With this variation of sizes, the battery is used anywhere
from small wrist watches to a large ship.

We often see this symbol in many diagrams of electrical and electronics network.
This is the most popularly used symbol for battery. The bigger lines represent
positive terminal of the cells and smaller lines represent negative terminal of the
cells connected in the battery.
We are often confused about the terms battery cell and battery. We generally refer
a battery as a single electro-chemical cell. But literally, battery does not mean that.
Battery means a number of electro-chemical cells connected together to meet a
certain voltage and current level. Although there may be a single cell battery,
literally, battery and cell are different.

Working Principle of Battery

To understand the basic principle of battery properly, first, we should have some
basic concept of electrolytes and electrons affinity. Actually, when two dissimilar
metals or metallic compounds are immersed in an electrolyte, there will be a
potential difference produced between these metals or metallic compounds. It is
found that, when some specific compounds are added to water, they get dissolved
and produce negative and positive ions. This type of compound is called an
electrolyte. The popular examples of electrolytes are almost all kinds of salts,
acids, and bases etc. The energy released during accepting an electron by a neutral
atom is known as electron affinity. As the atomic structure for different materials
are different, the electron affinity of different materials will differ. If two different
kinds of metals or metallic compounds are immersed in the same electrolyte
solution, one of them will gain electrons and the other will release electrons. Which
metal (or metallic compound) will gain electrons and which will lose them depends
upon the electron affinities of these metals or metallic compounds. The metal with
low electron affinity will gain electrons from the negative ions of the electrolyte
solution. On the other hand, the metal with high electron affinity will release
electrons and these electrons come out into the electrolyte solution and are added to
the positive ions of the solution. In this way, one of these metals or compounds
gains electrons and another one loses electrons. As a result, there will be a
difference in electron concentration between these two metals. This difference of
electron concentration causes an electrical potential difference to develop between
the metals. This electrical potential difference or emf can be utilized as a source
of voltage in any electronics or electrical circuit. This is a general and
basic principle of battery.
All batteries cells are based only on this basic principle. Let’s discuss one by one.
As we said earlier, Alessandro Volta developed the first battery cell, and this cell is
popularly known as the simple voltaic cell. This type of simple cell can be created
very easily. Take one container and fill it with diluted sulfuric acid as the
electrolyte. Now immerse zinc and one copper rod in the solution and connect them
externally by an electric load. Now your simple voltaic cell is completed. Current
will start flowing through the external load. Zinc in diluted sulfuric acid gives up
electrons as below:

These Zn + + ions pass into the electrolyte, and their concentration is very high near
the zinc electrode. As a result of the above oxidation reaction, the zinc electrode is
left negatively charged and hence acts as cathode. The diluted sulfuric acid and
water disassociate into hydronium ions as given below:

Due to the high concentration of Zn + + ions near the cathode, the H3O+ ions are
repelled towards the copper electrode and get discharged by removing electrons
from the copper atoms. The following reaction takes place at the anode:

As a result of the reduction reaction taking place at copper electrode, copper is left
positively charged and hence it acts as the anode. Daniell Battery Cell: The
Daniell cell consists of a copper vessel containing copper sulfate solution. The
copper vessel itself acts as the positive electrode. A porous pot containing diluted
sulfuric acid is placed in the copper vessel. An amalgamated zinc rod dipping
inside the sulfuric acid acts as the negative electrode. When the circuit is
completed, diluted sulfuric acid in the porous pot reacts with zinc so as to liberate
hydrogen gas. The reaction takes place as below:

The formation of ZnSO4 in the porous pot does not affect the working of the cell,
until crystals of ZnSO4 are deposited. The hydrogen gas passes through the porous
pot and reacts with the CuSO4 solution as below:

Copper so formed gets deposited on the copper vessel.

Circuit connection diagram:

The diagram to the shows a simple setup with panels charging a battery (for
simplicity no controller is shown) with a blocking diode in series with the two
panels, which are also wired in series. When the sun shines, as long as the voltage
produced by the two panels is greater than that of the battery, charging will take
place.
However, in the dark, when no voltage is being produced by the panels, the voltage
of the battery would cause a current to flow in the opposite direction through the
panels, discharging the battery, if it was not for the blocking diode in the circuit.

Blocking diodes will be of benefit in any system using solar panels to charge a
battery. Blocking diodes are usually included in the construction of solar panels so
further blocking diodes are not required.
Advantages and Uses of Solar Energy:

As we know solar energy is one such energy that is abundantly available and is free
of cost, let’s have a look at some of its advantages.

 An energy that is totally free of cost and saves your money as the Sun is
always going to be there.
 It is an environment friendly energy and hence does not create pollution.
 Provides electricity that is helps in producing electricity with the help of
solar panels.
 A silent energy provider as the solar cells do not create sounds while
extracting heat from the sun and producing electricity.
 Solar energy helps in reducing the electricity bill.
 The solar energy system can work independently without any connection
and can be utilized and installed in remote areas too where there is no sign of
electricity.
 Solar energy helps in decreasing the harmful gasses and does not contribute
to acid rains, global warming, forest destruction and other natural disasters.
 No maintenance is required for solar energy and also it does not have any
specific life span
 Solar energy is used for ventilating homes i.e. ceiling fans need electricity
which is gained from solar energy
  Solar energy can be used to boil water instead of suing water heaters you can
make use of the solar energy. Though you need to spend initially you will
gain good benefits out of it in future.
 Solar energy can help in heating your homes and charging batteries.
 It can also be used for cooking purposes by using solar oven
 It can be used to heat swimming pools. Suppose you have a swimming pool
outside you house you can make use of solar blanket to heat water during
extreme cold seasons.
 You can use solar energy for indoor and outdoor lighting at night as it will
help you see the entry door and walkway clearly.

Apart from these, solar energy can be used for commercial and industrial purposes
too.

Disadvantages of Solar Energy:

 Solar energy can be used only during the daytime i.e. when the sun is
shining bright
 The solar collectors, panels and cells that are used to absorb heat from the
sun are very expensive
 In case of cloudy climate, there would be no signs of sun and solar energy
which is difficult.
 The solar batteries that are charged or needs to be charged are very heavy
and require large storage space. Replacing it is also difficult.
 Its low in efficiency and requires lots of land area

Applications of Solar Energy:

The applications of solar energy can be bifurcated into three types i.e. Power,
Domestic and Agriculture. Few popular applications that can be listed under these
are as follows:

 Solar Water heater

 Tank collector
 Portable solar still
 Solar Cooker
 Solar steam cooker
 Portable solar dryer
 Solar PV street light
These are some applications apart from these are many and are used on daily basis
for different purposes. Let’s have a look in architecture applications. Under these
applications we have the heating systems, cooling systems and the ventilation
systems.
4.6. Frame and Body:

4.6.1 Frame

A solar powered vehicle's frame is designed to be as minimal as possible, while

still able to protect the driver and support the rest of the car's components. To
verify the safety of the frame, it is simulated in various collision and rollover
situations using finite element analysis (FEA). In addition, the frame is welded to
ensure high quality construction.

4.6.2 Body and Chassis:

The body of a solar powered vehicle is designed with two primary goals:
providing a large top surface area for mounting solar cells, and being as
aerodynamic as possible. Solar powered vehicles often have a smooth, wing-like
shape and covered wheels, which helps reduce aerodynamic drag.

The chassis is the backbone of the vehicle; it must support all the car’s
subassemblies as well as protect the driver. The chassis design is crucial to the
success of the project because if the chassis fails, that puts the vehicle and the
driver at tremendous risk.
Joystick

A joystick is an input device consisting of a stick that pivots on a base and reports
its angle or direction to the device it is controlling. A joystick, also known as
the control column, is the principal control device in the cockpit of many civilian
and military aircraft, either as a centre stick or side-stick. It often has
supplementary switches to control various aspects of the aircraft's flight.

Joysticks are often used to control video games, and usually have one or more
push-buttons whose state can also be read by the computer. A popular variation of
the joystick used on modern video game consoles is the analog stick. Joysticks are
also used for controlling machines such as cranes, trucks, underwater unmanned
vehicles, wheelchairs, surveillance cameras, and zero turning radius lawn mowers.
Miniature finger-operated joysticks have been adopted as input devices for smaller
electronic equipment such as mobile phonesThis is a joystick very similar to the
‘analog’ joysticks on PS2 (PlayStation 2) controllers. It is a self-centering spring
loaded joystick, meaning when you release the joystick it will center itself. It also
contains a comfortable cup-type knob/cap which gives the feel of a thumb-stick.

The goal of the joystick is to communicate motion in 2D (2-axis) to an Arduino.

This is achieved by housing two independent 10K potentiometers (one per axis).
These potentiometers are used as dual adjustable voltage dividers, providing 2-
Axis analog input in a control stick form.

The potentiometers are the two blue boxes on the sides of the joystick. If you move
the joystick while watching the center shaft of each potentiometer, you’ll see that
each of the potentiometers pick up movement in only one direction. We will
discuss how they actually work, a little later.

This joystick also contains a switch which activates when you push down on the
cap. The switch is the small black box on the rear of the joystick. If you push down
on the cap, you can see a lever pushing down on the head of the switch. The lever
works no matter what position the joystick is in.

How PS2 2-axis thumb joystick module works?

The basic idea of a joystick is to translate the stick’s position on two axes —
the X-axis (left to right) and the Y-axis (up and down) into electronic information
an Arduino can process. This can be little tricky, but thanks to the design of the
joystick consisting of two potentiometers and a Gimbal Mechanism.
Gimbal Mechanism

When you rotate the joystick, the thumb handle moves a narrow rod that sits in two
rotatable slotted shafts (Gimbal). One of the shafts allows motion in the X-axis
(left and right) while the other allows motion in the Y-axis (up and down). Tilting
the stick forward and backward pivots the Y-axis shaft from side to side. Tilting it
left to right pivots the X-axis shaft. When you move the stick diagonally, it pivots
both shafts.

A potentiometer is connected to each joystick shaft that interprets the position of

the rod as analog readings. Moving the slotted shafts rotates the contact arm of the
potentiometer. In other words, if you push the stick all the way forward, it will turn
the potentiometer contact arm to one end of the track, and if you pull it back
toward you, it will turn the contact arm the other way.
Reading analog values from Joystick

In order to read the joystick’s physical position, we need to measure the change in
resistance of a potentiometer. This change can be read by an Arduino analog pin
using ADC.

As the Arduino board has an ADC resolution of 10 bits, the values on each analog
channel (axis) can vary from 0 to 1023. So, if the stick is moved on X axis from
one end to the other, the X values will change from 0 to 1023 and similar thing
happens when moved along the Y axis. When the joystick stays in its center
position the value is around 512.

LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTORS

LDRs or Light Dependent Resistors are very useful especially in light/dark sensor
circuits. Normally the resistance of an LDR is very high, sometimes as high as
1000 000 ohms, but when they are illuminated with light resistance drops
dramatically.
A photoresistor or light-dependent resistor (LDR) or photocell is a light-controlled
variable resistor. The resistance of a photoresistor decreases with increasing
incident light intensity; in other words, it exhibits photoconductivity. A
photoresistor can be applied in light-sensitive detector circuits, and light- and dark-
activated switching circuits.
There are many types of photoresistors, with different specifications and models.
Photoresistors can be coated with or packaged in different materials that vary the
resistance, depending on the use for each LDR.
Applications
 Inexpensive cadmium sulphide cells can be found in many consumer items
such as camera light meters, street lights, clock radios, alarm devices, night
lights, outdoor clocks, solar street lamps and solar road studs, etc.
 They are also used in some dynamic compressors together with a
small incandescent lamp or light-emitting diode to control gain reduction.
 The use of CdS and CdSe[3] photoresistors is severely restricted in Europe
due to the RoHS ban on cadmium.
 Lead sulphide (PbS) and indium antimonide (InSb) LDRs (light-dependent
resistor) are used for the mid-infrared spectral
region. Ge:Cu photoconductors are among the best far-infrared detectors
available, and are used for infrared astronomy and infrared spectroscopy.
RELAY

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the coil of the
relay creates a magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the switch
contacts. The coil current can be on or off so relays have two switch positions and
they are double throw (changeover) switches.

Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit which can be completely
separate from the first. For example a low voltage battery circuit can use a relay to
switch a 230V AC mains circuit. There is no electrical connection inside the relay
between the two circuits; the link is magnetic and mechanical.

The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current, typically 30mA for a 12V
relay, but it can be as much as 100mA for relays designed to operate from lower
voltages. Most ICs (chips) cannot provide this current and a transistor is usually
used to amplify the small IC current to the larger value required for the relay coil.
The maximum output current for the popular 555 timer IC is 200mA so these
devices can supply relay coils directly without amplification.

Relays are usually SPDT or DPDT but they can have many more sets of switch
contacts, for example relays with 4 sets of changeover contacts are readily
available. For further information about switch contacts and the terms used to
describe them please see the page on switches.

Most relays are designed for PCB mounting but you can solder wires directly to
the pins providing you take care to avoid melting the plastic case of the relay.
The supplier's catalogue should show you the relay's connections. The coil will be
obvious and it may be connected either way round. Relay coils produce brief high
voltage 'spikes' when they are switched off and this can destroy transistors and ICs
in the circuit. To prevent damage you must connect a protection diode across the
relay coil.

The animated picture shows a working relay with its coil and switch contacts. You
can see a lever on the left being attracted by magnetism when the coil is switched
on. This lever moves the switch contacts. There is one set of contacts (SPDT) in
the foreground and another behind them, making the relay DPDT.

The relay's switch connections are usually labeled COM, NC and NO:

 COM = Common, always connect to this, it is the moving part of the switch.
 NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is off.
 NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is on.
 Connect to COM and NO if you want the switched circuit to be on when the
relay coil is on.
 Connect to COM and NC if you want the switched circuit to be on when the
relay coil is off.
Protection diodes for relays

Transistors and ICs must be protected from the brief high voltage produced when a
relay coil is switched off. The diagram shows how a signal diode (e.g. 1N4148) is
connected 'backwards' across the relay coil to provide this protection.
Current flowing through a relay coil creates a magnetic field which collapses
suddenly when the current is switched off. The sudden collapse of the magnetic
field induces a brief high voltage across the relay coil which is very likely to
damage transistors and ICs. The protection diode allows the induced voltage to
drive a brief current through the coil (and diode) so the magnetic field dies away
quickly rather than instantly. This prevents the induced voltage becoming high

enough to

Relays and transistors compared

Like relays, transistors can be used as an electrically operated switch. For

switching small DC currents (< 1A) at low voltage they are usually a better choice
than a relay. However transistors cannot switch AC or high voltages (such as
mains electricity) and they are not usually a good choice for switching large
currents (> 5A). In these cases a relay will be needed, but note that a low power
transistor may still be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil! The main
advantages and disadvantages of relays are listed below:

Advantages of relays:

 Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC.
 Relays can switch high voltages, transistors cannot.
 Relays are a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A).
 Relays can switch many contacts at once.
 Disadvantages of relays:

 Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents.

 Relays cannot switch rapidly (except reed relays), transistors can switch
many times per second.
 Relays use more power due to the current flowing through their coil.
 Relays require more current than many ICs can provide, so a low power
transistor may be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil.
CONCLUSION

From the above calculation as we can see that using a solar powered vehicle is very
economic and cost effective compared to an electric car. Solar power is becoming
more important in recent years as society comes to understand the limited nature of
fossil fuels. Nowhere is this more important than in the automobile. The invention
of the solar car brought the possibility of efficient renewable power to the auto
industry and meant the potential to reduce pollution dramatically.

CONCLUSION & FUTURE SCOPE

One of the long-term benefits of driving a solar-powered car is the fuel. This is
probably the most obvious advantage. People driving solar cars no longer need to
purchase gasoline or any other type of fuel. The energy used to run these cars
comes directly from the sun, meaning the cars have no regular expense aside from
maintenance and repairs.

Solar cars have no emissions to threaten the environment, making solar power
preferable to just about anything else out there. The exhaust emissions from
vehicles burning fossil fuels are known to affect the environment negatively and
could potentially contribute greatly to global warming.
The use of solar cars as a combustion engine replacement could significantly
reduce greenhouse emissions from drivers and improve air quality around the
world.
LIMITATION

One of the disadvantages of solar cars is power and speed. It takes longer to reach
your destination when driving a solar car simply because of the far inferior amount
of power supplied by the solar energy or the electrical backup battery.
This so-called problem is a matter of patience. While the muscle of today's
combustion engines will allow drivers to drive at high rates of speed, the solar car
will slow the pace. This can be considered a downfall of the solar car, but it could
also make the roads safer if consumers reach a point where the average car on the
road is solar and moving at slower speeds.
There is a reason people like to drive SUVs despite their poor fuel economy. The
reason is safety. Big cars and trucks put a lot of steel between the passengers and
any object they might collide with. Solar cars do not have this luxury. Because of
the limited power of a solar car, it is not possible to make large, reinforced vehicles
that can withstand impact because the solar power simply will not pull it.
No solar car has been developed yet that is equal to even a full-size sedan. Instead,
these are very small cars that could be dangerous in an accident.

Solar cars need sunshine to power them. When it's dark outside or dark clouds fill
the skies for days on end, there may be a problem with getting where you need to
go. The weather can directly affect the performance of the car, making another
minor disadvantage for the solar-powered cars.
Apart from all these disadvantages, it does not have zero emission effect in true
sense. Because all the parts as solar panel and electrical systems are where
manufactured, emits pollutant in enough amounts. So solar powered vehicles are
not pollution free completely.
Reference:
1.[Android Developers Guide. Android Architecture.
[Online] 2013. URL:
http://.solar.com/about/versions/index.html.

2.Heidi Monson (1999) solar technology and implementations, John Wiley &
Sons.

3.Piyare, R. and Tazil, M. (2011) “renewable energy system using PV module”.

IEEE 15TH International symposium on consumer electronics (ISCE), 14-17
June 2011, Singapore.

4.Potts, J. and Sukittanon, S. (2012) “Exploiting PV devices for home security

application”, proceedings of southeastcan, 15-18 March 2012, Orlando, Florida,
USA.