Linear Algebra 1 - Notes for Lecture 1 1

Complex Numbers

Outcomes In today’s lecture we will learn how to:

• Perform basic complex arithmetic.

• Plot complex numbers in the Complex Plane.

• Convert between the polar and the Cartesian form of a complex number.

• Define regions in the complex plane from a variety of different types of inequalities.

Contents

• Complex numbers in terms of real and imaginary parts.

• Addition, subtraction and multiplication of complex numbers.

• Division of complex numbers, rationalization.

• The conjugate of a complex number and examples.

• The Complex Plane.

• The polar form of a complex number.

• The modulus of a complex number.

• The argument of a complex number.

• Identifying regions in the complex plane.

Exercises

1. Evaluate the following giving your final answer in Cartesian form.

(a) (2 + 4i) + (4 − 6i) (b) (3 − 2i) + (−5 − 14 i) (c) (−4 + i) − (2 − 3i)

(d) 6i − (3 − i) (e) 2i( 21 − 2i) (f) (6 − 3i)(1 + i) (g) (−2 + i)(3 − 4i)
5−i (1 + 2i)(3 − i)
(h) (i) (2 − 4i)−1 (j)
3 + 4i 2+i
2. Plot the complex numbers 2 + 3i, −1 − i, −1 + i, −2i and 3 on the Argand plane.

3. Express the following complex numbers in Cartesian form.

Linear Algebra 1 - Notes for Lecture 1 2

(a) 2cis (30◦ ) (b) 3cis (−45◦ ) (c) 5cis (23◦ ) (d) 1.4cis (−130◦ )

4. Express the following complex numbers in polar form.

√
(a) 3 + 3i (b) −1 + i (c) −1 − i 3 (d) 4i

5. Identify the following regions in the complex plane.

(a) |z − 4| > 3 (b) |z − 1 + 3i| ≤ 1 (c) Re(z) > 2 (d) 1 < |z − 2i| < 2

These exercises should take around 90 minutes to complete.

(Answers: 1.(a) 6 − 2i (b) −2 − 49 i (c) −6 + 4i (d) −3 + 7i (e) 4 + i (f) 9 + 3i

√
(g) −2 + 11i (h) 11
25
− 23
25
i (i) 1
10
+ 1
5
i (j) 3 + i 3.(a) 3 + i (b) √32 − √32 i (c) 4.6 + 1.95i
√ √
(d) −0.9 − 1.07i; 4.(a) 18cis (45◦ ) (b) 2cis (135◦ ) (c) 2cis (−120◦ ) (d) 4cis (90◦ )
Linear Algebra 1 - Notes for Lecture 1 3

Complex Numbers

The first point to note about complex numbers is that they are not given this name
because of any inherent difficulty. Also, even though we often refer to the imaginary part
of a complex number, complex numbers are not the figment of someone’s imagination,
but a routine tool used to solve many practical science and engineering problems.

A complex number is an expression of the form

x + iy

where x and y are real numbers and i is the (complex) number satisfying

i2 = −1

√
Note that it is bad practice to write i = −1, because it leads to the fallacy
√ √ q √
i2 = ii = −1 −1 = (−1)(−1) = 1 = 1

Most engineers use j instead of i.

For a complex number in the Cartesian form z = x + iy, x is called the real part of z and
y is called the imaginary part of z. We write x = Re(z) and y = Im(z).

Also, the set of all complex numbers is denoted by

C = {z | z = x + iy, x, y ∈ IR, i2 = −1}

It is usually referred to as the complex plane or the z-plane for reasons which will become
obvious once we look at the graphical representation of complex numbers. Note for now
that IR (i.e. the set of real numbers) is a subset of C , i.e. IR ⊂ C , since every real
number can be consider a complex number with zero imaginary part.

Arithmetic with Complex Numbers

We would like to be able to work with complex numbers just as easily as we do with real
numbers. Equality, addition, subtraction and multiplication are dealt with in an obvious
manner, while division takes a little bit more work.

Note that the zero element of complex numbers is simply 0 + 0i = 0, i.e. it simply
coincides with the usual zero element of real numbers.

Now let z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 be two complex numbers. Then we have
Linear Algebra 1 - Notes for Lecture 1 4

(i) z1 = z2 if and only if x1 = x2 and y1 = y2 .

e.g. if a − 3i = 12 + ib, then we must have a = 12 and b = −3.

(ii) z1 ± z2 = (x1 ± x2 ) + i(y1 ± y2 ),

e.g. (2 + 5i) + (8 − 3i) = (2 + 8) + i(5 − 3) = 10 + 2i.

(iii) cz1 = cx1 + i(cy1 ) for any c ∈ IR.

e.g. 15(−3 + 8i) = (15)(−3) + i(15)(8) = −45 + 120i.

(iv) z1 z2 = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 ) + i(x1 y2 + y1 x2 )

The latter rule comes about because multiplication works in an intuitive way:

z1 z2 = (x1 + iy1 )(x2 + iy2 )

i2 y1 y2
= x1 x2 + ix1 y2 + ix2 y1 + |{z}
=−1
= (x1 x2 − y1 y2 ) + i(x1 y2 + x2 y1 )

However, there’s little point in trying to memorize the right hand side of this rule.

e.g. (−2 + 3i)(1 + 5i) = −2 − 10i + 3i + 15i2 = −2 − 7i − 15 = −17 − 7i

Next, we introduce a concept unique to complex numbers. The conjugate of a complex

number z = x + iy, denoted by z, is given by

z = x − iy

In this context, z and z are often called a complex conjugate pair.

Given z = x + iy, the following properties hold for the conjugate:

(a) (z) = z

(b) z + z = 2Re(z), i.e. the sum of a complex conjugate pair gives a purely real number
and we can calculate Re(z) = z+2z .

(c) z − z = 2i Im(z), i.e. the conjugate subtracted from a complex number yields a
purely imaginary number and Im(z) = z− z.
2i

(d) If z is real, then z = z. If z is purely imaginary, then z = −z.

(e) zz = x2 + y 2 ≥ 0, which is also real.

(f) zz = 0 if and only if z = 0

Linear Algebra 1 - Notes for Lecture 1 5

e.g. 3 + 4i = 3 − 4i; 2 − 5i = 2 + (−5)i = 2 − (−5)i = 2 + 5i;

(more generally, x − iy = x + iy);

If z = −3 + 5i, then zz = (−3 + 5i)(−3 − 5i) = (−3)2 + (5)2 = 9 + 25 = 34 and

z+z
2
= Re(z) = −3;

Division of Complex Numbers

While the concept of taking the quotient of two complex numbers is simple and obvious,
the resulting expression usually has an imaginary term in the denominator, making it dif-
ficult to use in subsequent computations. In practice, one wants to rewrite the expression
so that the denominator no longer contains an imaginary part. The process of doing this
is called rationalization and it is a simple matter of multiplying both the numerator and
denominator of the quotient by the conjugate of the denominator.
Let z1 = x1 + iy1 , z2 = x2 + iy2 6= 0. Then

z1 z1 z 2 z1 z 2 (x1 + iy1 )(x2 − iy2 )

= = =
z2 z2 z 2 z2 z 2 x22 + y22

z1 (x1 x2 + y1 y2 ) + i(x2 y1 − x1 y2 )
=
z2 x22 + y22

Like the case for multiplication, it is easier to remember the process of rationalization
instead of the above formula.
3 + 2i
Ex: Rationalize .
2−i
Soln: The denominator is 2 − i and its conjugate is 2 + i. Then

3 + 2i (3 + 2i) (2 + i) 6 + 3i + 4i + 2i2 4 + 7i 4 7
= = = = + i
2−i (2 − i) (2 + i) (2)2 + (−1)2 5 5 5

Ex: Solve 5I + 10i I = 50 for I.

Soln: We have (5 + 10i)I = 50, so

50 50 (5 − 10i) 250 − 500i

I= = = = 2 − 4i.
5 + 10i (5 + 10i) (5 − 10i) (5)2 + (10)2
Linear Algebra 1 - Notes for Lecture 1 6

Note that following useful properties of the conjugate. Let z, z1 and z2 be arbitrary
complex numbers. Then

(a) z1 + z2 = z 1 + z 2

(b) z1 z2 = z 1 z 2
z1 z1
 
(c) = , assuming z2 6= 0.
z2 z2
(d) (z n ) = (z n )

(e) cz = c z for any c ∈ IR.

Each of these can be verified easily by just assuming a complex form for the numbers
involved. We’ll make use of some of these properties later when we get to the task of
finding complex roots of polynomial equations.

Cartesian Representation

We can get a much better understanding of complex numbers and related problems (such
as solving polynomial equations) by representing them graphically. Note that the real
and imaginary parts of a complex number z = a + ib can be considered to define a point
(a, b) in the Cartesian Plane as follows.

y 6
(Im)
b tz = a + ib

-
0 a x (Re)

In this sense, we refer to the Cartesian plane as the complex plane or the Argand plane.
Furthermore, the x axis is then called the real axis and the y axis is called the imaginary
axis.
Linear Algebra 1 - Notes for Lecture 1 7

Ex: Sketch −2 + i, 2 + i, 2i, 2 − i and 1 − 3i in the complex plane.

Soln:

Im 6
2
2 t
2i
−2 + i t t2 + i
1
-
−3 −2 −1 1 2t 3 Re
−1 2−i
−2
−3 t
1 − 3i

Note that for any z, z is simply the reflection of z in the real axis. Also, all points on the
vertical axis correspond to purely imaginary numbers while all point on the horizontal
axis correspond to purely real numbers.

Polar Representation

Describing the point (a, b) with polar coordinates, we arrive at the polar representation
of z = a + ib.

Im 6

t z = a + ib
b
}


r 
{z

 b

 θ
|

-
0 | {z }a
Re
a

Clearly, a = r cos θ and b = r sin θ. Hence,

z = a + ib
= r cos θ + i r sin θ
= r(cos θ + i sin θ)
= rcis (θ),
where cis (θ) = cos θ +√i sin θ is a shorthand notation. Also, using Pythagoras’ Theorem,
r2 = a2 + b2 , i.e. r = a2 + b2 .
Linear Algebra 1 - Notes for Lecture 1 8

We call

z = rcis (θ) = r(cos θ + i sin θ)

the polar representation of z.

Ex: Express each of the following complex numbers in Cartesian form:

(i) 2cis (0◦ ) (ii) 3cis (90◦ ) (iii) 5cis (60◦ )

Soln: (i) 2cis (0◦ ) = 2(cos(0◦ ) + i sin(0◦ )) = 2(1 + i(0)) = 2

(ii) 3cis (90◦ ) = 3(cos(90◦ ) + i sin(90◦ ) = 3((0) + i(1))
√
= 3i √
◦ ◦ ◦
(iii) 5cis (60 ) = 5(cos(60 ) + i sin(60 ) = 5(( 2 ) + i( 2 )) = 52 +
1 3 5 3
2
i

The problem of converting a complex

√ number z = a + i b from Cartesian form into polar
form requires us to calculate r = a2 + b2 and θ = tan−1 ( ab ). These quantities are given
special names.

The absolute value or modulus of a complex number z = a + i b is

√
|z| = a2 + b2

Note: Clearly |z| ≥ 0 and |z| = r. Furthermore,

(i) |z|2 = a2 + b2 = zz
(ii) |z| = |−z| = |z|
(iii) When z is a purely real number, the modulus coincides with our usual idea of the
absolute value of a real number.

We derive several identities associated with the modulus which will be used later. Let
z1 = a1 + i b1 and z2 = a2 + i b2 . Then
|z1 z2 | = |(a1 a2 − b1 b2 ) + i(a1 b2 + a2 b1 )|
q
= (a1 a2 − b1 b2 )2 + (a1 b2 + a2 b1 )2
q
= a21 a22 − 2a1 b1 a2 b2 + b21 b22 + a21 b22 + 2a1 b1 a2 b2 + a22 b21
q
= a21 (a22 + b22 ) + b21 (a22 + b22 )
q
= (a21 + b21 )(a22 + b22 )
q q
= a21 + b21 a22 + b22
= |z1 | |z2 |

i.e. |z1 z2 | = |z1 | |z2 |

Linear Algebra 1 - Notes for Lecture 1 9

Next, assuming z2 6= 0,

z1 z1 z 2 z1 z 2 |z1 z 2 | |z1 | |z 2 | |z1 | |z2 | |z1 |

= = 2 = 2 = 2 = 2 = ,
z2 z2 z 2 |z2 | |z2 | |z2 | |z2 | |z2 |

z1 |z1 |
i.e. =
z2 |z2 |

One can also establish that

|z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |

which is known as the triangle inequality for complex numbers.

b
Consider again the relationship z = a + i b = rcis (θ). To find θ, we use tan θ = . Hence
  a
−1 b
θ = tan a
.

θ is called an argument of z, denoted by

arg (z)

Note that arg (z) is not unique. If θ0 is an argument of z, then so is θ0 + 360◦ , θ0 + 720◦
etc. In fact, any θ0 + k × 360◦ , where k is an integer, is an argument of z.

The argument of a complex number z which lies in the interval (−180◦ , 180◦ ] is called the
principal argument (or principal value) of z, denoted by

Arg (z)

Unless otherwise stated, we shall use the principal argument

 when finding arg (z). Note
−1 b
that using your calculator to determine θ = tan a
will not work directly unless z =
a + i b resides in the first or the fourth quadrant of the complex plane (To preserve
invertibility of the tangent function, a calculator usually assumes θ ∈ (−90◦ , 90◦ )). The
way around the problem here which will always insure that we get the principal argument
is the following:

(i) If z is in the second quadrant, add 180◦ to the calculator answer.

(ii) If z is in the third quadrant, subtract 180◦ from the calculator answer.

√
Ex: Convert z = −1 + 3 i into polar form.
Linear Algebra 1 - Notes for Lecture 1 10
q √ √
Soln: r = |z| = (−1)2 + ( 3)2 = 4 = 2. z resides in the second quadrant of the
√
complex plane. The calculator yields tan−1 (− 13 ) = −60◦ . Hence, Arg (z) = −60◦ +
180◦ = 120◦ . Thus, z = rcis (θ) = 2cis (120◦ ).

Ex: Express z = −4 − 3 i in polar form.

q √
Soln: r = |z| = (−4)2 + (−3)2 = 25 = 5. z resides in the third quadrant of the
−3
complex plane. The calculator yields tan−1 ( −4 ) = 36.87◦ radians. Hence, Arg (z) =
36.87 − 180 = −143.13 radians. Thus, z = rcis (θ) = 5cis (−143.13◦ ).
◦ ◦ ◦

Describing Regions in the Complex Plane

Recall how inequalities for real numbers can describe intervals on the real number line.
For example, 0 ≤ x < 1 describes the interval [0, 1).

We can describe regions in the complex plane similarly by using inequalities.

Ex: Identify the region defined by the inequality Re(z) > 0.

Soln: We are talking about all complex numbers z which have their real part > 0. Clearly,
this describes all points in the complex plane which lie to the right of the imaginary axis,
i.e. the right half of the complex plane!
Similarly, the inequality Re(z) < 0 describes the left half of the complex plane, Im(z) > 0
describes the upper half of the complex plane and Im(z) < 0 describes the lower half of
the complex plane.

Next, since |z| measures the distance of z from the origin of the complex plane, the
equation |z| = ρ describes the set of all z on a circle of radius ρ, centered at the origin.

Ex: Identify the region defined by the inequality |z| < 5.

Soln: This is simply the set of all points whose distance from the origin is strictly less
than 5, i.e. the open disc of radius 5 centered at the origin.
q
Note that for z1 = x1 + i y1 , z2 = x2 + i y2 , |z1 − z2 | = (x1 − x2 )2 + (y1 − y2 )2 simply
describes the distance between the two points.

It follows that |z − z0 | = ρ describes the set of all points in the complex plane which are
ρ units away from z0 , i.e. a circle centered at z0 with radius ρ.

Ex: Sketch the set of points in the plane satisfying |z − i| ≤ 2.

Soln: Here, we are talking about the set of all z such that their distance from z0 = i is
less than or equal to 2, i.e. the solid disc of radius 2 centered at i (≡ (0, 1) in the plane).