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The computer is fast becoming the universal machine of the twenty-first century. Early
computers were large in size and too expensive to be owned by individuals. Thus they were
confined to the laboratories and few research institutes. They could only be programmed by
computer engineers. The basic applications were confined to undertaking complex calculations
in science and engineering. Today, the computer is no longer confined to the laboratory.
Computers, and indeed, computing have become embedded in almost every item we use.
Computing is fast becoming ubiquitous. Its application in engineering, communication, space
science, aviation, financial institutions, social sciences, humanities, the military, transportation,
manufacturing, the extractive industries to mention but a few.

What is Computer?
Computer is an electronic device that takes raw data as input from the user and processes
these data under the control of set of instructions (called program) and produce useful result
(output) and saves output for the future use.

https://www.webopedia.com/TERM/C/CPU.html
Functions:

Input Accepts data

Processing Processes data
Output Produces output
Storage Stores results

Its principal characteristics are:

o It responds to a specific set of instructions in a well-defined manner.

o It can execute a prerecorded list of instructions (a program).
o It can quickly store and retrieve large amounts of data.

Therefore computers can perform complex and repetitive procedures quickly, precisely and
reliably. Modern computers are electronic and digital.
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DATA vs INFORMATION

DATA: raw data

INFORMATION: meaningful collection of data
BIT
o is the smallest storage unit in the computer.
o A bit can store just 0 or 1, which is called binary, and therefore can be stored by
physical devices or systems that has two separate states.
BYTES
o are made of 8 bits.

Other storage units:

http://slideplayer.com/slide/6267636/

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER ACCORDING TO TYPE:

1. Analog Computers:
o This class of computer are special purpose machines that surfaced in the late
forties (1948).
o They are used solving scientific and mathematical equations or problems. An
example is t he thermal analyzer.
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2. Digital Computers:

o They are machines made up of combinations of chips, flip-flops, buttons and

other electronic devices to make them function at a very fast speed.
o A digital computer has its numbers, data letters or other symbols represented in
digital format.
3. Hybrid computer:
o A computer that combines the features of a digital and analog computer
o This type of computer is mainly used in hospital, research large organizations, or
other vital signs.
o These measurements are then converted into numbers and supplied to a digital
component that monitor the patient’s vital sign and signals.

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO PURPOSE:

1. General purpose computer:

o can run any number of software applications.
o The computer which are used for general purpose such as preparing text or
multimedia applications, learning, playing games, watching movies etc.
o These computers are not expensive and almost general public.
o Generally, microcomputers are used in general purpose. These computers are
used in home, office, school, college, as well as hospital and airlines.

2. Specific purpose computer:

o Primarily for one particular function.
o These computers have special purpose such as scientific research, storing large
volume of data, controlling and monitoring other computers etc.
o These computers are not affordable for general public and expensive also.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER ACCORDING TO SIZE:

1. Super Computers
o A super computer is the most powerful computer available at any given time. These
machines are built to process huge amounts of information and do so very quickly.
o are built specifically for researchers or scientists working on projects that demand
very huge amounts of data variables; an example is in nuclear research, where
scientists want to know exactly what will happen during every millisecond of a
nuclear chain reaction. (To demonstrate the capability of super computers, for an air
pollution control project that involves more than 500,000 variables, it will take a mini
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9 computer about 45 hours to complete the simulation process while it will take a
super computer 30 minutes only).
o They are big in size, generate a lot of heat and are very expensive. (Super
computers are made by CRAY Company).

“The IBM Sequoia, one of the fastest conventional supercomputers, has less computing
power than the brain and consumes 7.9 megawatts.” Nonetheless, Sequoia, installed at
the U.S. Department of Energy’s Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, is doing
important work. It’s tapped to quantify uncertainties “in numerical simulations of nuclear
weapons performance” and perform “advanced weapons science calculations,” says
the Computation website. Speed: 17.1 petaflops.

https://www.networkworld.com/article/3218098/data-center/top-10-supercomputers-of-
2017.html

Top 10 supercomputers of 2017

These 10 supercomputers are the world’s fastest.

James A. Martin | Aug 23, 2017 1:47 PM

2. Mainframe Computers
o They are designed to handle tremendous amounts of input, output and storage.
o Other users access mainframe computers through terminals.
o Terminals consist of a type of keyboard and a video display i.e. monitors. The
mainframe is usually in the computer room (Mainframe computers are made by
IBM, Boroughs & Univac).

https://www.differencebtw.com/difference-between-mainframe-computer-and-supercomputer/

 Supercomputer and mainframe computers are the most powerful computers.

 But they can be distinguished by the tasks they perform.
 On the one hand where supercomputer focuses on a fast computation of complex
mathematical operations.
 On the other hand, the mainframe computer acts as a server and support large
database, vast I/O devices, and multiprogramming.

Comparison Chart

BASIS FOR
SUPERCOMPUTER MAINFRAME COMPUTER
COMPARISON

Basic Supercomputers fastly perform large Mainframe computers act as a server,

and complex mathematical stores large database and serve a large
computations. number of users simultaneously.
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BASIS FOR
SUPERCOMPUTER MAINFRAME COMPUTER
COMPARISON

Invention IBM invented the first successful

The first successful Supercomputer was mainframe computer and is still a
invented by Seymour Cray in the year dominant company for producing the
1976 Cray 1. mainframe computers.

The supercomputer can execute billions Mainframe computers can execute

Speed of floating point operations in a second. millions of instruction simultaneously.

Size Supercomputers are the largest Mainframe computers are also large
computers in the world. computers but somewhat smaller than
supercomputer.

Expense Supercomputers are the most Mainframe computers are also expensive
expensive computers of the worlds. but less than supercomputers.

Operating system The modern supercomputers have Mainframe computer has the ability to
Linux operating system and derivative run multiple operating system.
variants of Linux operating system. simultaneously.

Minicomputer
o These are physically small compared to mainframes and are generally used for special
purposes or small-scale general purposes.
o The best way to explain the capabilities of mini computers is to say they lie between
mainframes and personal computers. Like mainframes, they can handle a great deal
more input and output than personal computers.
o Although some minicomputers are designed for a single user, many can handle dozens
or even hundreds of terminals.
o Advances in circuitry means modern mini computers can out-perform older mainframes
of the 60s. (Examples are Digital Equipment Company‟s PDP II and VAX)

PDP-8 Minicomputer

The PDP-8 was used for industrial control, controlling

experiments, running businesses, word processing,
and many other uses

3. Microcomputers:
o Workstations and Personal Computers (PC)
Workstations
o A workstation looks like a personal computer and is typically used by one person,
although it is still more powerful than the average personal computer.
o They significantly differ from micro computers in two ways: the 10 central processing
unit (CPU) of workstations are designed differently to enable faster processing of
instructions and most of the micro computers can run any of the four major operating
systems.
o Workstation is a computer designed for technical or scientific applications.
o Workstations are more powerful and higher in performance than desktop computers,
especially with respect to CPU and Graphics, memory capacity and multitasking
capability.
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Micro Computers/Personal Computers

o The term microcomputers and personal computers are used interchangeably to mean
the small free- standing computers that are commonly found in offices, homes and
classrooms.
o Many micro computers are built specially to be used in watches, clocks, and cameras.

TYPES OF PERSONAL COMPUTERS (PC) or MICROCOMPUTERS

1. Desktop
o This is the first type of PCs and the most common.
o Most desktops are small enough to fit on a desk, but are a little too big to carry
around.
2. Mobile Computers:
a. THE LAPTOP:
o They weigh about 10pounds (4.5kg).
o They are battery – operated computers with built–in screens.
o They are designed to be carried and used in locations without electricity.
o Laptops typically have an almost full –sized keyboard.
b. THE NOTEBOOK:
o They are similar to laptops and PCs, but smaller.
o They weigh about 6 to7 pounds (2.7 – 3.2kg).
o As the name implies, they are approximately the size of a notebook and can
easily fit inside a brief case.
o Notebooks allow most features that a normal desktop offers.
o Notebooks also offer features like Bluetooth and Wi-Fisupport.
o It usually comes with built-in multiple USB ports and contains a CD
drive (including DVD and Blu-Ray disk read/write capability).
c. Netbook
o Netbooks were designed to offer the basic computing functionalities in a
smaller, lightweight, more portable device.
o generally weigh around 1-2kgs and have smaller screens, which vary from 7
inches to 12 inches diagonally.
o Since netbooks are smaller in size, they do not come with any in-built CD
drive.
o They also have limited processing powers and are not suitable for rendering
high-end graphics.
o They usually support low screen resolutions and are only suitable for general
office work.
o are cheaper as they have limited capabilities.
o are also used for internet browsing although the experience is less smooth as
compared to browsing on a notebook.
d. Ultrabook
Recently, a new series of laptops known as Ultrabooks has been released.
o The term was first defined by Intel.
o An Ultrabook is a thin, lightweight and portable device with the processing
power of a notebook.
o They are designed to provide benefits of both notebooks and netbooks at the
cost of a higher price.
o Ultrabooks feature Solid State Drives (SSDs) for faster disk operations, Tablet
PC
e. Tablet PCs PALMTOP (HANDHELD PC) COMPUTERS
o come in two types: The folding form factor like normal foldable laptops, and
the slate form factor like the iPad, ePad, etc.
 Tablet PCs having the folding form factor usually have rotating screens
which can be fully flipped over around a central axis. These tablets come
with a full size physical keyboard and usually support Desktop OSs
like Windows (eg. HP tx tablet series).
 The slate form factor tablet PCs (sometimes referred to as “Pads“) usually
don’t have a physical keypad and rather rely on an entirely touch based
interface (virtual keyboard). These Pads usually run on Mobile Operating
Systems (like iOS, Android) and include in-built peripherals like GPS, G-
Sensor, etc.
o Tablet PCs have the additional feature of processing touch inputs. The
screens are sensitive to touch and users can interact with either bare hands
or a pen-shaped stylus.
o Many of the modern touchscreens are also capable of processing multi-touch
gestures. Tablet PCs enhance the way users interact with the computer.
o Tablet PCs are generally provided with powerful processors to let the users
have a smooth and hassle-free interactive experience.
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Difference between Laptop, Notebook, Netbook, Tablet PC and Ultrabook , by david

https://7labs.io/technology-news/difference-between-laptop-notebook-netbook-tablet-pc-and-ultrabook.html

Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs)

Palmtop

Graphics Calculator, Mobile phones, Smartphones

Portable Media Players

f. Wearable Computers

COMPUTER SYSTEM:

1. The hardware is the physical components of a computer system.

2. The software is a set of instructions that tells the hardware what to do. You can‟t see or
touch the software, although you can see packages that contain the software. It is
typically distributed on CD-ROM disc and is installed on the computer hard drive.
3. PEOPLEWARE
HARDWARE COMPONENTS
The major hardware components of the personal computer consist of the following:
Input Devices:

o Input devices are the computer hardware that accepts data and instructions from a user.
 The Keyboard:
Layout:
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http://slideplayer.com/slide/6202271/

QWERTY
o Pronounced kwer-tee, refers to the arrangement of keys on a standard
English computer keyboard.
o The term comes from the fact that the first 6 letters of the top row of keys are
Q,W,E,R,T and Y.
o Patented by Christopher Sholes in 1874
DVORAK
o Common letters are positioned in the middle row
o Designed by August Dvorak in 1930s and William Dealy
o DIRECT ENTRY:
1. POINTING DEVICES and AUDIO/VIDEO
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2. SCANNING DEVICE

Barcode Reader

QR code (abbreviated from Quick Response Code)

is the trademark for a type of matrix barcode (or
two-dimensional barcode)
Fax Machine

Image Scanner

Mark and Character Recognition Devices

MICR (Magnetic-Ink Character
Recognition

OMR (Optical Mark Recognition)

OCR (Optical Character

Recognition)

Magnetic-Strip Card

Smart Card
Electronic Card Reader

Biometrics authenticate a person’s identity by veryfying a personal characteristics such

as: Fingerprint, Face Recognition, Hand Geometry System, Voice Verification system,
Signature Verification System and Retinal Scanner.
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https://www.slideshare.net/jagmohanharman/input-14643289

3. Dance Pad

4. Sensors

Processing Devices:
Basically two components handle processing in a computer: the central processing unit (CPU)
and the memory.
a. The Central Processing Unit (CPU):
o The central processing unit (CPU) is a tiny electronic chip known as the microprocessor
located in the system unit.
o It is installed on the main circuit board of the computer, the motherboard.

o The CPU as the name implies is where information is processed within the computer. In
this regard, you might think of the CPU (processor) as the “brain” or “heart” of the
computer.
o Every CPU has at least two basic parts. The control unit and the Arithmetic Logic Unit
(ALU).
 The control unit coordinates all the computer activities and contains the CPUs
instruction to carry out commands.
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 The ALU is responsible for carrying out arithmetic and logic functions. In other words,
when the control unit encounters an instruction that involves arithmetic and logic it
refers it to the ALU.

Parts of the MOTHERBOARD

https://www.laptopmd.com/2010/08/20/troubleshooting-laptop-motherboard-cpu-problems/

CPU SPEED IS MEASURED IN:

 Megahertz (MHz): millions of CPU cycles per second
 Gigahertz (GHz): Billions of CPU cycles per second

Internal Memory (Primary Memory):

1. Random Access Memory (RAM)

o Volatile Memory. Data are lost when power is off
2. Read Only Memory (ROM)
o Non-Volatile Memory

External Memory:
Magnetic Storage Device:
a. The Floppy Disk: The floppy disk is a circular flat piece of plastic made of a flexible (or floppy)
magnetic material on which data are recorded. Floppy disk drives store data on both sides of
the disks. Earlier computers stored data on only a single side of the floppy disk.
b. The Hard Disk: The hard disk is generally not visible because hard disks are usually enclosed
within the system unit. The hard disk is a stack of metal platters that spin on one spindle like a
stack of rigid floppy disks. Unlike floppy disks where the disk and drive are separate, the hard-
disk drive, or hard drive is the whole unit. Generally you cannot remove the hard disk from its
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drive; however some manufacturers make removable hard disks that plug into a separate drive
unit.
c. Tape Drives: A tape drive is a device that reads and writes data to the surface of a magnetic
tape, generally used for backing up or restoring the data of an entire hard disk.
d. The Zip Drive: Zip drives are an alternative to tape backup units or tape drives. A zip drive
can be internal or external. Zip drives have 16 removable cartridges or disk. A zip drive holds
about 100MB to 250 MB of Data.
Optical:
e. The CD-ROM: CD-ROM disks are hard, plastic, silver – a colored disk. CD-ROM is an
acronym for Compact Disc Read – Only Memory. This implies that the disk can only be read.
You cannot change or overwrite the contents of a CD-ROM disk.

f. Flash Memory Devices: Solid State Drive and Memory Cards

Flash Drive: Thumb drive, USB Stick, Memory Stick
Solid State Drive (SSD)- A Solid State Drive uses flash memory in order to store data.
Solid State Drives can be used as internal and external storage devices. The data
transfer rate is faster than hard disk drives and the access time is around 0.1ms, which
is almost 80 times faster than HDDs. Since, SSDs consume less energy and generate
less heat they are considered as best among the storage media. But the failure rate of
hard drives is much better, when compared to Solid State drives.
Output Devices:
Output devices return processed data, that is, information back to the user. In other words,
output devices allow the computer “talk‟ to us. The most common output devices are the
monitor and the printer. Others include modems, and Sound Cards

LCD and LED Printer Line Printer: very fast but produce low
quality print

Thermal Printer
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Communication of Hardware

http://roongrote.crru.ac.th/GEN1102.files/GE-01%20Introduction%20to%20Computer%20and%20Information%20Technology.pdf
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SOFTWARE COMPONENTS

Software

o is a set of instructions that operate a computer, manipulate the data and execute particular
functions or tasks.
o In other words, it is a programs, routines, and symbolic languages that control the function of
the hardware.
o For software (the instructions) to perform various functions, it must be programmed.
o That is, the instructions need to be written in a programming language that the computer can
understand. Without a program, a computer is useless.
 Computer program is a sequence of instructions that can be executed by a computer to
carry out a process.

There are TWO KINDS OF SOFTWARE: systems software and applications software.
[1]Applications Software:
o Applications software includes programs that user access to carry out work.
 Word processing is the most common applications software. The great advantage of
word processing over using a typewriter is that you can make changes without retyping
the entire document. Word processors make it easy to manipulate and format
documents. Example of word processing software is Microsoft Office Word, Microsoft
Works Word, Open Office Word, etc.
 Spreadsheets are computer programs that let people electronically create and
manipulate spreadsheets (tables of values arranged in rows and columns with
predefined relationships to each other). Spreadsheets are used for mathematical
calculations such as accounts, budgets, statistics and so on. Example; Microsoft Excel,
Lotus 1, 2, 3, and SPSS.
 Database management applications are computer programs that let people create and
manipulate data in a database. A database is a collection of related information that
can be manipulated and used to sort information, conduct statistical analyses or
generate reports. Example is Microsoft Access, Microsoft SQL, MySQL and Oracle
database.
 Presentation packages and graphics are computer programs that enable users to
create highly stylized images for slide presentations and reports. They can also be
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used to produce various types of charts and graphs. Many software applications
include graphics components including: paint programs, desktop publishing
applications and so on. Example is Microsoft PowerPoint.
 Graphic Software: displays results of data manipulation for easier analysis and
presentation. Examples: Macromedia Flash, 3D Studio Max, Adobe Photoshop
 Communications applications typically include software to enable people to send faxes
and emails and dial into other computers.
[2]Systems Software:

o includes the operating system and all the utilities that enable the computer to function.

 The most important program that runs on a computer is the operating system. This
includes controlling functions such as the coordination of the hardware and applications
software, allocating storage facilities, controlling the input and output devices and
managing time sharing for linked or networked computers.
o Utility software helps to manage, maintain and control computer resources.
 Examples of utility programs are antivirus software, backup software and disk tools.
 A device driver is a computer program that controls a particular device that is connected
to your computer. Device drivers act as a translator between the operating system of
the computer and the device connected to it.
For many types of devices, the necessary drivers are built into the operating system.
When you plug in a device, the operating system starts looking for the right driver,
installs it and you are ready to start using the device. This is referred to as plug-and-
play and is much preferred over having to manually install the correct drivers.

FUNCTIONS OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM

o Booting of Computer: This is the first process which takes place the moment the computer's
electrical switch is put on. During this process all the peripherals connected to the computer are
checked and validated; at the end of the validation process, the OS signals the user to begin
working on the computer.
o Providing User Interface: The OS provides an interface for the user, either as a command line
interface or as a graphical user interface. This enables the user to communicate with the
computer.
o Managing the Hardware: OS controls and manages hardware resources. For example, OS
manages the selection and operation of devices used for input, output and storage. In other words
the OS serves as the intermediary between programs and hardware.
o Managing the File System: The operating system groups‟ data together into -logical compartments
for storage on disk. These groups of data are called files. The computer stores information in files.
Files may contain program instructions or data created or used by a program. The OS maintains
the list of files on a disk.
o Supporting Programs: Another major function of an OS is to provide services to other programs.
Often these services are similar to those that the OS provides directly to users. For example when
you want your word- processing program to retrieve a document, the word processor will list the
files in the directory that you specify.
o Some of the other services that an OS provides to programs are:
saving files to disk reading them from disk into memory
checking available disk or memory space
allocating memory to hold data for a program
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TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

https://www.slideshare.net/sherylcabutotan/understanding-the-computer-system

1. DOS (Disk Operating System): MS-DOS used to be the most common and most popular of all the
PC operating systems. The reason for its popularity then is because of the overwhelming volume of
available software and large installation of Intel-based PCs. DOS runs on any of the Intel
microprocessor. DOS functions through the command–line interface i.e. DOS functions by
commands.
2. Microsoft Windows: Microsoft Windows is a version of DOS. It was released in 1987. Microsoft
Windows can run standard DOS programs either in a window within the Graphic Use Interface
(GUI) or on a full-screen. To take full advantage of the Microsoft environment you need programs
written for Microsoft Windows.
3. Operating Systems 2 (OS/2): 1BM and Microsoft teamed up to develop the Operating System
2(OS/2) to take full advantage of the multitasking capabilities of the newly introduced Intel 80286
microprocessor. OS/2 like DOS has a character–based command-line mode, but unlike DOS, the
command interpreter is a separate program from the OS kernel and is only involved when you click
on the OS/2. OS/2 runs only on Intel 80286 and later Intel processors.
4. The Macintosh OS: The Macintosh OS is a purely graphic machine. In fact there is no equipment of
a command-line interface available for it. Its tight integration of OS, GUI and desktop make it
desirable for people who do not want to deal with a command-line interface. The Macintosh OS
only runs on Macintosh machine. The Macintosh OS has an additional network protocol built into it
and is ideal for desktop publishing. Installing and configuring a Macintosh with new hardware
device is simple.
5. UNIX: UNIX is the first OS that runs on many different types of computers. It runs on Cray
supercomputers, PCs, and everything in between including mainframes and minicomputers. UNIX
is older than all the other PC operating systems and in many ways served as a model for them.
UNIX is based on a simple idea-small is better.
6. Microsoft Windows NT: Microsoft Windows NT is a new OS designed from scratch for the most
modern and capable machines available. Microsoft Windows NT offers built-in features that no
other PC OS has – with the possible exception of UNIX. In addition to the traditional UNIX features
of strict system security, built-in networking, built-in communications and electronic mail services
development and system administration tools, and a GUI. Microsoft Windows NT can run Microsoft
Windows applications and many UNIX applications, directly. Like OS/2 it is a 32-bit OS that can use
386, 486 and Pentium processors Microsoft Windows NT is multitasking and purely graphical OS
with network software to make a network client or server. It is single- user and allows access to
command line interface of the DOS unlike the Macintosh

Translator: Interpreter and Compiler (High-Level Language), and Assembler (Low-Level Language)
 17

COMPUTER ETHICS
Computer Ethics simply refers:
to the guiding precepts and norms that are adopted and applied to regulate and control the
use of computers and its applications.

Ten Commandments for Computer Ethics

1. Thou shalt not use a computer to harm other people
2. Thou shalt not interfere with other people’s computer work
3. Thou shalt not snoop around in other people’s files
4. Thou shalt not use a computer to steal
5. Thou shalt not use a computer to bear false witness
6. Thou shalt not use or copy a software for which you have not paid
7. Thou shalt not use other people’s computer resources without authorization
8. Thou shalt not appropriate other people’s intellectual output
9. Thou shalt think about the social consequences of the program you write
10. Thou shalt use a computer in ways that show consideration and respect

Internet
Connects millions of computers together globally, forming a network in which any computer
can communicate with any other computer as long as they are both connected to the internet.

World Wide Web

o WWW, Web, W3
o A way of exchanging information between computers on the internet
o Is the network of pages of images, text, and sounds on the internet which can be viewed using
a browser.

WEB BROWSER
o is a software application for retrieving, presenting, and traversing information resources on the
world wide web (WWW).
o Its primary purpose is to bring information resources to the user
o The following are the Web Browsers:
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WEB SERVER

o A Web server is a program that uses HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) to serve the files that
form Web pages to users, in response to their requests, which are forwarded by their
computers' HTTP clients. Dedicated computers and appliances may be referred to as Web
servers as well.

o Leading Web servers include

 Apache (the most widely-installed Web server)

 Microsoft's Internet Information Server (IIS) and

 nginx (pronounced engine X) from NGNIX.

 Other Web servers include Novell's NetWare server, Google Web Server (GWS) and
IBM's family of Domino servers.

o Considerations in choosing a Web server include how well it works with the operating system
and other servers, its ability to handle server-side programming, security characteristics, and
the particular publishing, search engine and site building tools that come with it.

https://danielmiessler.com/study/url-uri/

URL = Uniform Resource Locator; URN = Uniform Resource Name;URI = Uniform Resource Identifier

https://stackoverflow.com/questions/4913343/what-is-the-difference-between-uri-url-and-urn
 19

http://visionlaunch.com/domain-url-structure-best-practices-seo-tips/

https://doepud.co.uk/blog/anatomy-of-a-url

https://www.instantssl.com/ssl-certificate-products/https.html

o Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS) is the secure version of HTTP, the protocol over
which data is sent between your browser and the website that you are connected to.

o The 'S' at the end of HTTPS stands for 'Secure'. It means all communications between your
browser and the website are encrypted.

o HTTPS is often used to protect highly confidential online transactions like online banking and
online shopping order forms.

o Web browsers such as Internet Explorer, Firefox and Chrome also display a padlock icon in the
address bar to visually indicate that a HTTPS connection is in effect.
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WEB PAGES
Generally sets of text files coded with special notation called Hypertext Markup Language
(HTML) that is interpreted by a web browser program reading the file.

A. HYPERTEXT AND HYPERMEDIA -- Hypertext is text that contains electronic links to other
text. In other words, if you click on hypertext it will take you to other related material. In
addition, most WWW documents contain more than just text. They may include pictures,
sounds, animations, and movies. Documents with links that contain more than just text are
called hypermedia.
B. HTML (HYPERTEXT MARKUP LANGUAGE) -- HTML is a set of commands used to
create world wide web documents. The commands allow the document creator to define the
parts of the document. For example, you may have text marked as headings, paragraphs,
bulleted text, footers, etc. There are also commands that let you import images, sounds,
animations, and movies as well as commands that let you specify links to other documents.

We have seen how a Web client - server interaction happens. We can summarize these steps
as follows −

1. A user enters a URL into a browser (for example, Google.com. This request is passed to a
domain name server.

2. The domain name server returns an IP address for the server that hosts the Website (for
example, 68.178.157.132).

3. The browser requests the page from the Web server using the IP address specified by the
domain name server.

4. The Web server returns the page to the IP address specified by the browser requesting the
page. The page may also contain links to other files on the same server, such as images,
which the browser will also request.
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5. The browser collects all the information and displays to your computer in the form of Web
page.

Google website can be reached by typing

http://www.google.com
IP address: 45.124.58.24

ADDRESS BAR

 Also known as a location bar. It refers to the text field in a web browser that identifies the
user's location on the web and allows the to access different websites.

HYPERLINKS

 A word or phrase on a website that is blue or underlined in blue.

 Hyperlinks or links are used to navigate the Web. When you click a link, it will usually take you
to a different webpage.
 You may also notice that your cursor changes into a hand icon whenever you hover over a
link.

NAVIGATION BUTTONS

 The Back and Forward buttons allow you to move through websites you've recently viewed.
You can also click and hold either button to see your recent history.

 The Refresh button will reload the current page. If a website stops working, try using the
Refresh button.

TABBED BROWSING

 Many browsers allow you to open links in a new tab. You can open as many links as you want,
and they'll stay in the same browser window instead of cluttering your screen with multiple
windows.
 22

 To open a link in a new tab, right-click the link and select Open link in new tab (may vary
from browser to browser).

 To close a tab, click the icon.

 To create a new blank tab, click the button to the right of any open tabs.

BOOKMARKS

 Bookmarks, also known as favorites, are a great way to save and organize specific websites
so you can revisit them again and again.

 Select the Star icon to bookmark the current website.

HISTORY

 Your browser also keep a history of every site you visit.

 To view your history, open your browser settings—usually by clicking the icon in the upper-
right corner—and select History.
 23

SAVING IMAGES

 You may save an image from a website to your computer. To do this, right-click the image and
select Save image as (or Save picture as).

Email Etiquette
When using email there are several rules which you should follow to gain the respect of other email
users.
1. Do not type using all capital letters – this is read as shouting.
2. Do not leave the subject line blank (give reader an idea about the content).
3. Do not use coloured text and backgrounds. These can be hard to read.
4. When sending to a number of users at the same time use bcc rather than cc as it helps protect
their email addresses being passed on and reduces the chances of them getting junk mail.
5. Do not forward chain letters and other types of junk email as these will soon use up valuable
inbox space.
6. Do not give out any personal information such as phone numbers, passwords, bank account
details etc in emails.
7. Keep email communications private. It is illegal to post the content of a private email in a public
place (like online).
8. Compress (zip) email attachments before sending them. This allows larger documents to be
sent quickly and take up less inbox space
 24

Different Types Of Social Media

1. Social Networking Sites- connect with people (e.g. Facebook, LinkedIn, Twitter, Google+)

2. Collaborative projects (e.g. Wikipedia)

3. Social publishing platforms – publish content online– Blogs and micro-blogs (e.g. Wordpress,
Medium, Tumblr, Blogger)
4. Bookmarking sites – discover, save, and share new content (e.g. Pinterest, Flipboard)
5. Content communities/media sharing networks (e.g. Instagram, Flickr, Snapchat, YouTube,
Vimeo, Periscope)

6. Virtual & augmented game worlds (e.g. World of Warcraft, )

7. E-Commerce Sites/Social Shopping network (e.g. ,Lazada,Etsy, Fancy, Polyvore)
8. Review Sites/Consumer review network (e.g. TripAdvisor, Yelp, Zomato)
9. Media sharing networks – share photos, videos and other media
10. Discussion forums – share news and ideas (Quora, Digg, reddit)

NETIQUETTE: (These rules come from Virginia Shea’s book) To

1. Remember you are texting or writing to people. When we communicate electronically, we see
only a screen. No facial gestures, expressions and vocal inflections would guide us. Thus, we
run the risk of misinterpreting someone else’s comment.
2. Follow the same standards of behavior online that you would follow in real life. In short, in both
your real and virtual lives, you should have the same behavior. Because the chance of getting
caught on the Internet is slim, some people use this as a license to violate the standard of
ethics.

3. Respect other people’s time and bandwidth. We must make sure that the time people spend
reading our text messages or e-mail is not time wasted. The Greek philosopher Heraclitus said
that you never stand in the same river twice. Time has elapsed the moment one second has
ticked
4. Make yourself look good. You will be judged by the quality of your writing. This means being
concise, sensible and correct in both spelling and grammar. Avoid long words and, therefore,
avoid reading a thesaurus. And Anglo-Saxon words are still the best, because they are crisp,
short, and to the point. Moreover, you must be polite and pleasant. This will also shield you
from being flame-bait, or the subject of abuse on the Internet. Moreover, avoid using ALL
CAPS, which is the equivalent of shouting and yelling just to gain attention.
5. Be Positive: share your expert knowledge. Virginia Shea is right on the dot when she writes:
“The strength of cyberspace is its numbers. The reason asking questions online works is that a
lot of knowledgeable people are reading the questions. And if even a few of them offer
intelligent answers, the sum total of world knowledge also increases. The Internet itself was
founded and grew because scientists wanted to share information. Gradually, the rest of us got
in on the act.”
6. Help keep flame wars under control. “Flaming” is the term used when people express strong
opinions without holding back on their emotions. A flame is like a mail bomb. Flaming has a
place on the Internet, which, after all, is a democratic space. But Netiquette frowns on the
perpetuation of flame wars — two or three people venting their ire on each other, making the
other people in the e-group bored or uncomfortable. It is also a waste of bandwidth
7. Respect other people’s privacy. Do not forward cell-phone numbers and e-mail addresses
without asking the owner. The same goes the same, of course, for text messages and e-mail.
8. Do not abuse your power. The keepers of the keys in cyberspace are the system
administrators, experts in every office, and the wizards on MUDs (multi-use dungeons) of
every system. Private e-mail is sacred, and should never be read by those with access to it.
 25

9. Forgive other people’s mistakes. Mistakes are like noses: everybody has them. So we must
forgive the network newbie, or sender of the e-mail sent by mistake. Whether it is a spelling or
grammatical error, a hare-brained question or opinion, or an overly long answer — have the
patience of Job. If it’s a small error, let it slip, like water down the back of a duck. If you feel you
must respond, please do so with tact and good manners. You may send the correction by
private e-mail rather than in public. And never be self-righteous or arrogant, even if you are
right.
10. Know the recipient of your text message or e-mail. You may send a fragmented text message,
with words and spelling broken down, if the recipient is a young person or somebody used to
receiving it. If the person sends you a text message with complete words and iron-clad
grammar, then by all means, you must respond in the same vein. Otherwise, they might think
you do not know your manners and manners — as we all know — make the man, or the
woman.

http://www.inhousecommunity.com/article/cyber-bullying-philippines/

HACKERS
Any one who breaks into a computer system (individual or network) unlawfully.

o White-hat hackers

o Break into systems just for the challenge of it

o Black-hat hackers
o Use their knowledge to destroy information or for illegal gain

MALWARE
o designed “to wreak personal computers and networks”
o attaches to programs (“hosts”) and spreads from one program or storage device to another
o ranges from silly pranks to data destruction/ theft
o Virus
 attaches to various files and executes (infects the computer) when the host programs
are run (or an email attachment is opened or a particular web page is visited)
 Logic Bomb: lies dormant until triggered by a certain event
o Worm: propagates without user intervention via email, web sites, or network-based software,
clogs the system via numerous reproductions
o Trojan Horse: unsuspicious delivery program of malware

SPYWARE & KEY LOGGER

o Spyware (also called sneakware or stealthware) - software that comes hidden in free
downloadable software
 tracks your online movements
 mines the information stored on your computer
 uses your computer’s CPU and storage, slows it down
o Key logger, or key trapper, software, -a program, when installed on a computer, records
every keystroke and mouse click.
 Record keystrokes and steal private information for advertisers, hackers, and
cyberthieves
 Cookie - a small record deposited on your hard disk by a Web site containing
information about you and your Web activities.
 Adware - software to generate ads that installs itself on your computer when you
download some other (usually free ) program from the Web.
 26

IT SECURITY TIPS
1. Perform basic computer maintenance
o Firewall, data encryption, regular update of security patches
o Regularly run anti-virus and anti-spyware software
2. Don't open files from strangers/ unreliable sites
o E-mail and IM
o Verify first
3. Help fight spam and online scams
o use filters
o be wary of phishing
o check for secure pages (lock icon), server authentication, and message integrity
o review the privacy policies of websites before entering information
4. Learn how to protect yourself from adware/spyware
o Regularly run anti-spyware software
o Read license agreements of freeware against attached spyware
5. Take precautions when you go wireless
o convenient but with security risks
6. Back-up your work
7. Password-protect your computer—and lock it
o as first line of defense

PRIVACY

o E-mail is completely insecure.

 Each e-mail you send results in at least 3 or 4 copies being stored on different computers.

 You can take measures to protect your e-mail.

Such acts done behind the cloak of a social media platform may have legal implications under
Philippine Laws.
The Anti-Bullying Act of 2013 (RA 10627)

This law finds applicability in school-related bullying, student-student bullying in particular,

which covers those uttered in social media. “Bullying”, as defined, refers to any severe or
repeated use by one or more students of a written, verbal or electronic expression, or a
physical act or gesture, or any combination thereof, directed at another student that has the
effect of actually causing or placing the latter in reasonable fear of physical or emotional harm
or damage to his property; creating a hostile environment at school; infringing on the rights of
another; or materially or substantially disrupting the education process. (Sec. 2, RA 10627)
These acts are collectively called “cyber bullying” when committed online. (Sec. 2-D, RA
10627) This covers social bullying aiming to belittle another individual or group or gender-
 27

based bullying that humiliates another on the basis of perceived or actual sexual orientation
and gender identity. (Sec. 3, B-1, RA 10627, Implementing Rules).

The Revised Penal Code and the Cybercrime Prevention Act

One who publicly or maliciously imputes to another a crime, vice, defect, real or imaginary, or
any act, omission, condition, status or circumstance tending to cause the dishonor, discredit or
contempt of a natural or juridical person, or blacken the memory of one who is dead may be
liable for libel under this Code. (Art. 353, RPC) These acts are more severely punished when
done online in addition to the civil action for damages which may be brought by the offended
party. (Sec. 4(c-4), RA 10175) Cyberlibel holds liable only the original author of the post (Sec.
5(3), Implementing Rules of RA 10175). Likers or sharers of a post cannot be held liable under
this law.
Slander may also be applicable to one who, in heat of anger, utters statements that are highly
defamatory in character. (Art. 358, RPC) Intriguing Against Honour may also find applicability
when the principal purpose is to blemish the honour or reputation of a person. (Art. 364, RPC)
However, the requirement is that the post be directed to a specific person. Hence, a blind item
is not as actionable as a named-post in social media.

The Civil Code on Damages

One who is aggrieved by a defamatory post in social media may find refuge in the provisions of
the Civil Code on Damages. (Art. 2176, Civil Code) One who posts in social media, causing
damage to the reputation of another may be liable to the subject for damages and this can be a
valid cause of action under the law. Such posts must tend to pry to the privacy and peace of
mind of another, meddle or disturb the private life or family relations of another, intrigue to
cause another to be alienated from his friends or vex or humiliate another on account of his
religious beliefs, lowly station in life, place of birth, physical defect or other personal condition.
(Art. 26, Civil Code)

The Labour Code on Just Causes for Termination

An employee who spreads rumors or intrigues against a co-worker or his superior or vice
versa, or who does any act similar to cyberlibel, slander, intriguing against honour or even
prying into the privacy of another may be a just cause for termination if embodied in the
company policy in addition to all other causes of action available to him under the laws
mentioned. (Sec. 5.2(g), D.O 147-15)
However, all these will only be a valid cause of action to one who is the subject of the post and
who is aware of the post directed to him.
Freedom of speech must not be infringed but this right is not without any limitations. In the end,
it is always best to devote the stroke of our fingers and the clicks of our mouse to intellectual
discourse that matter rather than risk being held liable under the law. After all, the power of our
minds should be mightier than any sword there is.

https://nobullying.com/bullying-philippines/

Online bullying encompasses a wide range of harmful activities ranging from ridicule to cyber
stalking and identity theft. By reviewing a basic Internet Safety course, young people can become
more familiar with the different types of online bullying they can fall prey to if they’re not careful.
These include:
 Gossip
 Slander
 Exclusion
 Impersonation/Identity theft
 Harassment
 Cyberstalking
 Flaming (Online fights)
 Trickery (deceiving someone to reveal secrets and exposing these online)
 Cyberthreats

Cyber Safety
Being online exposes us to cyber criminals and others who commit identity theft, fraud, and
harassment. Every time we connect to the Internet—at home, at school, at work, or on our mobile
devices—we make decisions that affect our cybersecurity. Emerging cyber threats require
engagement from the entire American community to create a safer cyber environment—from
government and law enforcement to the private sector and, most importantly, members of the public.
 28

What can you do to protect yourself?

If you practice good security habits, you may reduce the risk that your computer will be compromised:
 Use and maintain anti-virus software - Anti-virus software recognizes and protects your
computer against most known viruses, so you may be able to detect and remove the virus before
it can do any damage (see Understanding Anti-Virus Software for more information). Because
attackers are continually writing new viruses, it is important to keep your definitions up to date.
Some anti-virus vendors also offer anti-rootkit software.
 Install a firewall - Firewalls may be able to prevent some types of infection by blocking
malicious traffic before it can enter your computer and limiting the traffic you send
(see Understanding Firewalls for more information). Some operating systems actually include a
firewall, but you need to make sure it is enabled.
 Use good passwords - Select passwords that will be difficult for attackers to guess, and use
different passwords for different programs and devices (see Choosing and Protecting
Passwords for more information). Do not choose options that allow your computer to remember
your passwords.
 Keep software up to date - Install software patches so that attackers can't take advantage of
known problems or vulnerabilities (see Understanding Patchesfor more information). Many
operating systems offer automatic updates. If this option is available, you should enable it.
 Follow good security practices - Take appropriate precautions when using email and web
browsers to reduce the risk that your actions will trigger an infection
 https://www.us-cert.gov/ncas/tips/ST06-001

Let’s examine eight of the most common cyber attacks that your business could face and ways to
avoid them.

1. Malware
What is it? Malware is an all-encompassing term for a variety of cyber threats including Trojans,
viruses and worms. Malware is simply defined as code with malicious intent that typically
steals data or destroys something on the computer.
How does it work? Malware is most often introduced to a system through email attachments,
software downloads or operating system vulnerabilities.
How can I prevent it? The best way to prevent malware is to avoid clicking on links or
downloading attachments from unknown senders. This is sometimes done by deploying
robust and updated firewalls, which prevent the transfer of large data files over the network
in a hope to weed out attachments that may contain malware.
It’s also important to make sure your computer’s operating system (e.g. Windows, Mac OS X,
Linux) uses the most up-to-date security updates. Software programmers update programs
frequently to address any holes or weak points. It’s important to install these updates as well
to decrease your own system’s weaknesses.

2. Phishing
What is it? Often posing as a request for data from a trusted third party, phishing attacks are sent
via email and ask users to click on a link and enter their personal data. Phishing emails
have gotten much more sophisticated in recent years, making it difficult for some people to
discern a legitimate request for information from a false one. Phishing emails often fall into
the same category as spam, but are more harmful than just a simple ad.
How does it work? Phishing emails include a link that directs the user to a dummy site that will
steal a user’s information. In some cases, all a user has to do is click on the link.
How can I prevent it? Verify any requests from institutions that arrive via email over the phone. If
the email itself has a phone number, don’t call that number, but rather one you find
independently online or within documentation you’ve received from that company.
Most companies are adamant that they will not ask for personal information via email. At the same
time, most companies strongly recommend that users not make sensitive information
available. While it might seem like a pain to make a phone call to find out if something is
legitimate, the hassle of having your Social Security number or EIN stolen is worse.

3. Password Attacks
What is it? A password attack is exactly what it sounds like: a third party trying to gain access to
your systems by cracking a user’s password.
How does it work? This type of attack does not usually require any type of malicious code or
software to run on the system. There is software that attackers use to try and crack your
password, but this software is typically run on their own system. Programs use many
methods to access accounts, including brute force attacks made to guess passwords, as
well as comparing various word combinations against a dictionary file.
How can I prevent it? Strong passwords are really the only way to safeguard against password
attacks. This means using a combination of upper and lower case letters, symbols and
numbers and having at least eight characters or more. As a point of reference, an attacker
using a brute force password cracking program, can typically unlock a password with all
 29

lower case letters in a matter of minutes. It’s also recommended not to use words found in
the dictionary, no matter how long they are; it just makes the password attacker’s job easier.
It’s also good practice to change your passwords at regular intervals. If a hacker is able to obtain
an older password, then it won’t work because it’s been replaced!

4. Denial-of-Service (DoS) Attacks

What is it? A DoS attack focuses on disrupting the service to a network. Attackers send high
volumes of data or traffic through the network (i.e. making lots of connection requests), until
the network becomes overloaded and can no longer function.
How does it work? There are a few different ways attackers can achieve DoS attacks, but the
most common is the distributed-denial-of-service (DDoS) attack. This involves the attacker
using multiple computers to send the traffic or data that will overload the system. In many
instances, a person may not even realize that his or her computer has been hijacked and is
contributing to the DDoS attack.
Disrupting service can have serious consequences relating to security and online access. Many
instances of large scale DoS attacks have been implemented as a sign of protest toward
governments or individuals and have led to severe punishment, including jail time.
How can I prevent it? Unless your company is huge, it’s rare that you would be targeted by an
outside group or attacker for a DoS attack. Your site or network could still fall victim to one,
however, if another organization on your network is targeted.
The best way to prevent an additional breach is to keep your system as secure as possible with
regular software updates, online security monitoring and monitoring your data flow to
identify any unusual or threatening spikes in traffic before they become a problem. DoS
attacks can also be perpetrated by simply cutting a cable or dislodging a plug that connects
your website’s server to the internet, so due diligence in physically monitoring your
connections is recommended as well.

5. “Man in the Middle” (MITM)

What is it? By impersonating the endpoints in an online information exchange (i.e. the connection
from your smartphone to a website), the MITM can obtain information from the end user and
the entity he or she is communicating with.
For example, if you are banking online, the man in the middle would communicate with you by
impersonating your bank, and communicate with the bank by impersonating you. The man
in the middle would then receive all of the information transferred between both parties,
which could include sensitive data, such as bank accounts and personal information.
How does it work? Normally, a MITM gains access through a non-encrypted wireless access point
(i.e. one that doesn’t use WAP, WPA, WPA2 or other security measures). They would then
have access to all of the information being transferred between both parties.
How can I prevent it? The best way to prevent them is to only use encrypted wireless access
points that use WPA security or greater. If you need to connect to a website, make sure it
uses an HTTPS connection or, for better security, consider investing in a virtual private
network (VPN). HTTPS uses certificates that verify the identity of the servers you’re
connecting to using a third-party company such as VeriSign, while VPNs allow you to
connect to websites through virtual private networks.

6. Drive-By Downloads
What is it? Through malware on a legitimate website, a program is downloaded to a user’s
system just by visiting the site. It doesn’t require any type of action by the user to download.
How does it work? Typically, a small snippet of code is downloaded to the user’s system and that
code then reaches out to another computer to get the rest and download the program. It
often exploits vulnerabilities in the user’s operating system or in different programs, such as
Java and Adobe.
How can I prevent it? The best way is to be sure all of your operating systems and software
programs are up to date. This lowers your risk of vulnerability. Additionally, try to minimize
the number of browser add-ons you use as these can be easily compromised. For example,
if your computers don’t need Flash or the Java plug-in, consider uninstalling them.

7. Malvertising
What is it? A way to compromise your computer with malicious code that is downloaded to your
system when you click on an affected ad.
How does it work? Cyber attackers upload infected display ads to different sites using an ad
network. These ads are then distributed to sites that match certain keywords and search
criteria. Once a user clicks on one of these ads, some type of malware will be downloaded.
Any website or web publisher can be subjected to malvertising, and many don’t even know
they’ve been compromised.
How can I prevent it? The best way to prevent falling victim to malvertising is to use common
sense. Any ad that promises riches, free computers or cruises to the Bahamas is probably
too good to be true, and therefore could be hiding malware. As always, up-to-date software
and operating systems are your best first line of defense.
 30

8. Rogue Software
What is it? Malware that masquerades as legitimate and necessary security software that will
keep your system safe.
How does it work? Rogue security software designers make pop-up windows and alerts that look
legitimate. These alerts advise the user to download security software, agree to terms or
update their current system in an effort to stay protected. By clicking “yes” to any of these
scenarios, the rogue software is downloaded to the user’s computer.
How can I prevent it? The best defense is a good offense—in this case, an updated firewall. Make
sure you have a working one in your office that protects you and your employees from these
types of attacks. It is also a good idea to install a trusted anti-virus or anti-spyware software
program that can detect threats like rogue software.

As with most types of crime, vigilance is one of the keys to prevention. As cyber criminals become
more sophisticated and more transactions migrate online, the number of threats to people
and businesses will continue to grow. Prepare yourself and your business by taking the time
to secure your systems and make cyber security a priority.
If you’re curious about some other ways to remain vigilant against cyber attacks, it’s always best
to start at home.
https://quickbooks.intuit.com/r/technology-and-security/8-types-of-cyber-attacks-your-business-needs-to-avoid/