Assignment-1
1. Define syntax-directed translation. How does it facilitate compiler
construction?
o Syntax-directed translation is a compiler construction technique where
the compiler's actions are driven by the syntax of the source program. It
involves attaching rules or actions to the grammar of a programming
language. These rules are executed during parsing to generate
intermediate code, perform type checking, or build a symbol table.
Syntax-directed translation makes compiler construction easier because
it provides a structured and formal way to specify the translation of a
source language to an intermediate language.
2. Differentiate between parse trees and syntax trees. Provide examples
illustrating their use.
o A parse tree is a graphical representation of the derivation of a program
according to a grammar. It shows the hierarchical structure of the code,
with each node representing a grammar symbol.
o A syntax tree (or abstract syntax tree - AST) is a more abstract
representation of the program's syntax. It omits some of the details of the
parse tree, such as non-essential non-terminals, and focuses on the
essential structure of the program.
o Example:
▪ Expression: a = b + c
▪ Parse Tree:
▪ =
▪ /\
▪ a +
▪ /\
▪ b c
▪ Syntax Tree:
▪ =
▪ /\
▪ a +
▪ /\
▪ b c
3. Explain the concept of three-address code. How is it generated from high-
level language constructs?
o Three-address code is an intermediate representation where each
instruction has at most three operands. It typically has the form: x = y op
z, where x, y, and z are variables, constants, or temporary names, and
"op" is an operator.
o Three-address code is generated from high-level language constructs by
breaking down complex expressions and statements into simpler
operations. For example, an assignment statement with an arithmetic
expression is translated into a sequence of three-address code
instructions that perform the operations in the expression step by step.
4. What are quadruples and triples? Compare their structures and uses in
intermediate code representation.
o Quadruples: A quadruple is a structure used to represent three-address
code. It has four fields: op, arg1, arg2, and result. The op field contains the
operator, arg1 and arg2 hold the operands, and result stores the result.
o Triples: Triples are another way to represent three-address code. Instead
of explicitly storing the result, a triple refers to the result of an operation
by its position in the triple structure. So, it has only three fields: op, arg1,
and arg2.
o Comparison: Quadruples have the advantage of making code
optimization easier because the result is explicitly named. Triples use
less space but make optimization more complex because the result must
be located by its position.
5. Describe the process of translating assignment statements into
intermediate code with suitable examples.
o Assignment statements involve evaluating an expression and storing the
result in a variable. The translation process breaks down the expression
into a sequence of three-address code instructions.
o Example:
▪ Source Code: a = b * c + d;
▪ Intermediate Code:
▪ T1 = b * c
▪ T2 = T1 + d
▪ a = T2
6. How are Boolean expressions translated in syntax-directed translation
schemes?
o Boolean expressions are translated into intermediate code that evaluates
the expression and represents the result as a Boolean value (true or
false). This is often done using conditional jumps.
o Example:
▪ Source Code: if (a > b) ...
▪ Intermediate Code:
▪ if a > b goto L1
▪ goto L2
▪ L1: ... (code for the 'if' block)
▪ L2: ... (code after the 'if' block)
7. Discuss the translation of control flow statements such as if-else and while
loops into intermediate code.
o Control flow statements like if-else and while loops are translated into
intermediate code using labels and conditional/unconditional jumps.
o If-else statements are translated into code that evaluates the condition
and jumps to the appropriate block of code based on the result.
o While loops are translated into code that evaluates the loop condition
before each iteration and jumps back to the beginning of the loop if the
condition is true.
8. Explain postfix notation. How is it utilized in syntax-directed translation?
o Postfix notation is a way of writing expressions where the operator
appears after its operands. For example, a + b in infix notation becomes a
b + in postfix notation.
o Postfix notation is useful in syntax-directed translation because it
eliminates the need for parentheses and operator precedence rules. It
can be directly evaluated using a stack.
9. Illustrate the translation process using a top-down parser. Provide a step-by-
step example.
o In top-down parsing, the parser starts from the start symbol of the
grammar and tries to derive the input string. Syntax-directed translation
can be integrated into this process by executing the semantic actions
associated with each grammar rule as the parser applies the rules.
o (Note: A full step-by-step example would be quite lengthy and is
difficult to format precisely in this text-based format. It would involve
showing the parse tree construction alongside the execution of
semantic actions at each step.)
10. How are array references in arithmetic expressions handled during
translation?
o Array references involve calculating the memory address of the specific
array element. This calculation typically involves the base address of the
array, the size of each element, and the index of the element being
accessed.
o Example:
▪ Source Code: x = a[i] + b;
▪ Intermediate Code (simplified):
▪ offset = i * element_size
▪ address = base_address_of_a + offset
▪ T1 = load address
▪ T2 = T1 + b
▪ x = T2
Assignment-2
1. Describe the translation of procedure calls in syntax-directed translation
schemes.
o Procedure calls involve passing arguments to the procedure, executing
the procedure's code, and returning the result (if any). Translation involves
generating code to:
▪ Evaluate the arguments.
▪ Set up the activation record for the procedure.
▪ Transfer control to the procedure's code.
▪ Handle the return value.
2. Explain the handling of declarations and case statements in syntax-directed
translation.
o Declarations: Declarations introduce variables, types, and procedures.
Translation involves:
▪ Allocating storage for variables.
▪ Entering information about the declared entities into the symbol
table.
o Case Statements: Case statements are translated into a sequence of
conditional jumps that transfer control to the appropriate branch based
on the value of the case expression.
3. What is a symbol table? Discuss the data structures commonly used to
implement symbol tables.
o A symbol table is a data structure used by a compiler to store information
about the identifiers (names) in a program. This information includes the
identifier's type, scope, and memory location.
o Common data structures:
▪ Lists: Simple to implement but slow for lookups.
▪ Hash Tables: Provide fast lookups but require more complex
implementation.
▪ Trees: Offer a balance between lookup speed and implementation
complexity.
4. How is scope information represented in symbol tables?
o Scope information is represented in symbol tables by:
▪ Nested Tables: Each scope (e.g., a procedure or block) has its
own symbol table.
▪ Attributes: Adding attributes to symbol table entries to indicate
scope level.
▪ Stack-like Structures: Pushing and popping symbol tables as
scopes are entered and exited.
5. Explain the implementation of a simple stack allocation scheme for run-
time storage management.
o A stack allocation scheme is used to manage the memory for procedure
calls. Each procedure call creates an activation record on the stack,
which stores the procedure's local variables, parameters, and return
address. When a procedure returns, its activation record is popped from
the stack, freeing the memory.
6. Discuss storage allocation strategies in block-structured languages.
o Block-structured languages (like C or Pascal) allow declarations within
blocks (e.g., within if statements or loops). Storage allocation strategies
include:
▪ Static Allocation: Allocates memory at compile time (for global
variables).
▪ Stack Allocation: Allocates memory for local variables on a stack
when a procedure or block is entered.
▪ Heap Allocation: Allocates memory dynamically at run time (for
dynamically created objects).
7. Identify common lexical phase errors. How can they be detected and
recovered?
o Lexical phase errors occur during the scanning (lexical analysis) phase of
compilation.
o Common errors:
▪ Invalid characters.
▪ Unterminated strings.
▪ Invalid number formats.
o Detection:
▪ The scanner detects these errors when it fails to match any token
pattern.
o Recovery:
▪ Deleting the invalid character.
▪ Inserting a missing character.
▪ Replacing an invalid character with a valid one.
▪ Skipping to the next valid token.
8. What are syntactic phase errors? Describe methods for their detection and
recovery.
o Syntactic phase errors occur during the parsing phase, when the parser
encounters a sequence of tokens that does not conform to the grammar
of the language.
o Detection:
▪ The parser detects these errors when it cannot construct a parse
tree or syntax tree for the input.
o Recovery:
▪ Panic Mode: The parser skips tokens until it finds a synchronizing
token (e.g., a semicolon).
▪ Phrase-Level Recovery: The parser attempts to correct the error
locally (e.g., inserting a missing semicolon).
▪ Error Productions: The grammar is augmented with error
productions to handle common errors.
9. Define semantic errors. How does a compiler detect and handle them?
o Semantic errors occur when the syntax of the program is correct, but the
program has a meaning that is not allowed by the language's rules.
o Examples:
▪ Type mismatches.
▪ Undeclared variables.
▪ Incorrect number of arguments to a function.
o Detection:
▪ Semantic analysis, performed after parsing, detects these errors
by checking the consistency and compatibility of the program's
components.
o Handling:
▪ Reporting the error to the user.
▪ Attempting to recover and continue compilation (e.g., by inserting
a type conversion).
10. Compare and contrast different error recovery strategies employed during
compilation.
o Error recovery strategies vary in their complexity and effectiveness.
▪ Lexical Recovery: (See Question 7) Focuses on handling errors at
the token level.
▪ Syntactic Recovery: (See Question 8) Deals with errors in the
program's structure. Panic mode is simple but may skip over many
tokens. Phrase-level recovery is more sophisticated but harder to
implement.
▪ Semantic Recovery: (See Question 9) Aims to allow the compiler
to continue checking for other errors after a semantic error is
found, even if the generated code might not be correct.
Assignment-3
1. List and explain the design issues involved in code generation.
o Code generation is the final phase of compilation, where the intermediate
representation is translated into the target machine code.
o Design issues:
▪ Input to the Code Generator: The intermediate representation
(e.g., three-address code, syntax trees).
▪ Target Language: The machine language of the target machine.
▪ Memory Management: Allocating registers and memory for
variables.
▪ Instruction Selection: Choosing the appropriate machine
instructions.
▪ Register Allocation: Deciding which variables to keep in
registers.
▪ Evaluation Order: The order in which operations are performed.
2. What are the characteristics of an ideal target language for code generation?
o An ideal target language for code generation would have the following
characteristics:
▪ Completeness: It should have instructions to perform all the
necessary operations.
▪ Uniformity: Instructions should have a consistent format.
▪ Efficiency: It should allow for the generation of efficient code.
▪ Availability of Registers: Sufficient number of registers for storing
intermediate values.
▪ Simplicity: Easy to understand and use.
3. Describe how addresses are handled in the target code during code
generation.
o Addresses in the target code need to be determined for variables,
constants, and labels. This involves:
▪ Static Allocation: Addresses for global variables are determined
at compile time.
▪ Stack Allocation: Addresses for local variables are calculated
relative to the stack pointer.
▪ Heap Allocation: Addresses for dynamically allocated memory
are obtained from the heap manager.
▪ Register Allocation: Registers are used to store frequently
accessed values to reduce memory access time.
4. Define basic blocks and flow graphs. How are they constructed and used in
optimization?
o Basic Block: A basic block is a sequence of consecutive statements in
which control enters at the beginning and leaves at the end without any
branches in between, except possibly at the end of the block.
o Flow Graph: A flow graph is a directed graph where the nodes are basic
blocks, and the edges represent the flow of control between the blocks.
o Construction:
▪ The intermediate code is partitioned into basic blocks.
▪ Edges are added to the flow graph to represent the possible flow of
control.
o Use in Optimization: Flow graphs are used to analyze the program's
control flow and identify opportunities for optimization.
5. Discuss the optimization techniques applicable to basic blocks.
o Optimization techniques that can be applied to basic blocks include:
▪ Common Subexpression Elimination: Identifying and eliminating
redundant computations.
▪ Dead Code Elimination: Removing code that has no effect on the
program's output.
▪ Constant Folding: Evaluating constant expressions at compile
time.
▪ Algebraic Simplification: Simplifying expressions using algebraic
laws.
▪ Instruction Scheduling: Reordering instructions to improve
performance.
6. What is machine-independent optimization? Provide examples of such
optimizations.
o Machine-independent optimization refers to optimizations that can be
applied to the intermediate code regardless of the target machine.
o Examples:
▪ Common subexpression elimination.
▪ Dead code elimination.
▪ Constant folding.
▪ Loop optimization (some techniques).
7. Explain loop optimization techniques and their impact on program
performance.
o Loop optimization techniques focus on improving the efficiency of loops,
which are often the most time-consuming parts of a program.
o Examples:
▪ Code Motion: Moving loop-invariant code (code that does not
change within the loop) outside the loop.
▪ Induction Variable Elimination: Replacing induction variables
(variables whose value changes predictably with each loop
iteration) with more efficient calculations.
▪ Loop Unrolling: Reducing loop overhead by replicating the loop
body.
o Impact: Loop optimization can significantly improve program
performance by reducing the number of instructions executed within
loops.
8. Describe the DAG representation of basic blocks. How does it aid in
optimization?
o A Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG)
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Okay, I'll continue providing the answers to the questions from the "CD Assignments for
Second Sessional [Link]" and the "CN Assignments for Second Sessional Exam
(1).pdf" files.
CD Assignments (Continued)
Assignment-3 (Continued)
8. Describe the DAG representation of basic blocks. How does it aid in
optimization?
o A Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG) is a graphical representation of the basic
block, where nodes represent the values computed in the block, and
edges represent the dependencies between these values.
o It aids in optimization by:
▪ Making common subexpression elimination easier.
▪ Exposing opportunities for algebraic simplification.
▪ Helping in instruction selection.
9. What are value numbers and algebraic laws? How are they used in code
optimization?
o Value Numbers: Value numbering is a technique that assigns a unique
number to each value computed in a basic block. If two expressions have
the same value number, they are equivalent.
o Algebraic Laws: Algebraic laws are mathematical rules that can be used
to transform expressions (e.g., x + 0 = x, x * 1 = x).
o Use in Optimization:
▪ Value numbers help in identifying common subexpressions.
▪ Algebraic laws are used to simplify expressions, reduce the
number of operations, or replace expensive operations with
cheaper ones.
10. Discuss global data-flow analysis. How does it contribute to code
optimization?
o Global data-flow analysis is a technique that collects information about
how data flows through a program across basic blocks. It analyzes how
values are defined and used throughout the program.
o It contributes to code optimization by:
▪ Enabling more effective common subexpression elimination.
▪ Performing constant propagation.
▪ Detecting dead code.
▪ Improving register allocation.
11. What do you mean by DAG? Explain the algorithm for constructing a DAG
with the help of example.
o A Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG) is a representation of a basic block
where:
▪ Nodes represent variables or computed values.
▪ Edges represent the flow of data (definitions and uses).
▪ The graph is directed (edges have a direction).
▪ The graph is acyclic (no cycles).
o Algorithm for Constructing a DAG:
1. For each statement in the basic block, create a node for each operand if it
doesn't already exist.
2. Create a node for the operator and make its children the nodes for the operands.
3. If a node represents the same value as an existing node, reuse the existing node.
4. Assign the variable on the left-hand side of the statement as a label to the node
representing the result of the operation.
o (A detailed example with step-by-step DAG construction would be
beneficial here, but it's challenging to format it effectively in this text-
based response. It would involve showing the evolution of the DAG as
each statement in a basic block is processed.)
