vData Representation

Number Systems

Binary System

 Base 2 number system

 It has two possible values only (0 and 1)

 0 represents OFF, and 1 represents ON

 A point to be noted is that the most left bit is called the MSB (Most
Significant Bit)

Denary System

 Base 10 number system

 Has values from 0 to 9

Hexadecimal (aka Hex)

 Base 16 number system

 Have values from 0 to 9 followed by A to F

 A represents 10, B represents 11 and so on until 15, which is F

Binary Hexadecimal Denary

Value Value Value

0000 0 0

0001 1 1

0010 2 2

0011 3 3

0100 4 4

0101 5 5

0110 6 6

0111 7 7
 Binary Hexadecimal Denary
Value Value Value

1000 8 8

1001 9 9

1010 A 10

1011 B 11

1100 C 12

1101 D 13

1110 E 14

1111 F 15

Number Conversions

Converting Binary to Denary

 Place the binary value in columns of 2 raised to the power of the

number of values from the right starting from 0. e.g. For binary
value 11101110, place it in a table like this:

12 6 3 1
8 4 2 1
8 4 2 6

1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0

 As can be seen it starts from 1 and then goes to 128 from left to
right

 Now values with 1 are to be added together, giving the final answer,
as for the example, it is 128 + 64 + 32 + 8 + 4 + 2 = 238

Converting Denary to Binary

 Take the value and successively divide it by 2, creating a table like

follows:
 14
2
2

Remainde
2 71 0
r:

Remainde
2 35 1
r:

Remainde
2 17 1
r:

Remainde
2 8 1
r:

Remainde
2 4 0
r:

Remainde
2 2 0
r:

Remainde
2 1 0
r:

Remainde
0 1
r:

 Note that when the value itself is not divisible by 2, it is divided by

the previous value of the current number and 1 is added to the
remainder column for that specific number

 When you reach 0, the remainder has to be read from bottom to top
giving us the binary value ( as in this case, it is 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 )

Converting Hexadecimal to Binary

 Separate each value from each other and convert them to denary

 Each separate denary value to be converted to binary

 All the binary values to be merged together

e.g.

Hexadecimal : 2 1 F D
Denary :2 1 15 13

Binary : 0010 0001 1111 1101

Final Answer: 0010000111111101

Converting Binary to Hexadecimal

 Divide the binary value into groups of 4 starting from the right. If at
the end, the last division is less than 4, add 0s until it reaches 4

 For each group, find the denary value as shown above, and then
convert each denary value to its corresponding hexadecimal value
(if less than 10, then itself, else, 10 is A, 11 is B, 12 is C, 13 is D, 14
is E and 15 is F).

 After conversion, just put all the hexadecimal values in order to get
the final answer

Given Value : 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1

When grouped: 10 0001 1111 1101

After 2 values added to left: 0010 0001 1111 1101

After Conversion to Denary: 2 1 15 13

Denary to Hexadecimal: 21FD

Converting Hexadecimal to Denary

 Convert the value to binary as shown above, and then convert the
final answer to denary

Converting Denary to Hexadecimal

 Convert the value to binary, and then convert it to hexadecimal as

explained above

Binary Calculations

 Binary values are not added the way denary values are added, as
when adding 1 and 1, we cannot write two because it doesn’t exist
in binary.

Points to Note:
  0+0=0

 1+0/0+1=1

 1 + 1 = 0 (1 carry)

 1 + 1 + 1 = 1 (1 carry)

Overflow

 When adding two values, if the solution exceeds the limit of given
values, e.g., the solution has 9 bits, but the question had 8 bits per
value, the 9th bit (most left bit) is called overflow.

 This indicates that the memory doesn’t have enough space to store
the answer to the addition done in the previous part.

Steps to add Two Values (With Example)

 The values we will add are 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 and 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0

1. Convert both the bytes into 8 bits (add zero to the left-hand
side to match them).

e.g., 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 would become 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0

2. Add the values as follows with the points given above

Carry 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Byte 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0

Byte 2 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0

OVERFLO
W

Soluti
1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
on

Note: We move from RHS to LHS, and when adding values, we use the
rules given above. If the bit crosses the limit (overflows), we put the value
in brackets, denoting it is overflow.

iii. The solution would now be (1) 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0

Logical Shifts

 The logical shift means moving a binary value to the left or the right
  When doing a logical shift, keep in mind that the bit being emptied
is going to become 0

Explanation with Example

 Shifting 10101010 - 1 place left:

1. The furthest bit in the direction to be logically shifted is

removed ( in this case, one at the LHS is removed) - ==(if it
were two places, 2 bits would have been removed)==

2. Every bit is moved in given places to the given direction

( every bit is moved one place to the left in this case, and the
leftover bit in the right is marked 0, so 10101010 would
become 01010100)

Two’s Complement (Binary Numbers)

 Two’s complement is a method used to represent negative values in

binary. Here, the MSB ( Most Significant Bit) is replaced from 128 to -
128; thus, the range of values in a two’s complement byte is -128 to
127

Converting Binary Values to Two’s Complement

 Firstly, write the binary value and locate the first one from the right;
e.g., 1101100 would have the first one at the third position from the
right.

 Now, switch every value to the left of the first one located above
(not switching the one), e.g., the value in our example becomes
0010100, which is the two’s complement of itself.

Converting negative values to two complement

 Find the binary equivalent of the value ignoring the - sign

 Convert the binary value to two’s complement

 Make the MSB 1, if not already

Converting Two’s Complement Value to Denary:

 We do it the same way as a normal value is converted from binary

to denary; we only replace 128 with -12,8 e.g., for 1011101,0 we do
the:
 -
6 3 1
12 8 4 2 1
4 2 6
8

1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0

-128 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 2 = -70

Use of the Hexadecimal System

Examples:

 Defining colours in Hypertext Markup Language (HTML)

 Media Access Control (MAC) addresses (a number that uniquely

identifies a device on a network)

 Assembly languages and machine code

 Memory Dumps

 Debugging (method to find errors in a program)

 Display error codes (numbers refer to the memory location of the

error)

 IP (Internet Protocol) addresses

Memory Dumps

 Hexadecimal is used when developing new software or when trying

to trace errors.

 Memory dump is when the memory contents are output to a printer

or monitor.

Assembly code and machine code (low-level languages)

 Computer memory is machine code/ assembly code

 Using hexadecimal makes writing code easier, faster, and less error-
prone than binary.

 Using machine code (binary) takes a long time to key in values and
is prone to errors.

Text, Sound and Images

ASCII
  The standard ASCII code character set consists of 7-bit code that
represents the letters, numbers and characters found on a standard
keyboard, together with 32 control codes

 Uppercase and lowercase characters have different ASCII values

 Every subsequent value in ASCII is the previous value + 1. e.g. “a”

is 97 in ASCII, “b” will be 98 (which is 97 + 1)

 Important ASCII values (in denary) to remember are as follows:

 0 is at 48

 A is at 65

 a is at 97

 ASCII uses one byte to store the value

 When the ASCII value of a character is converted to binary, it can be

seen that the sixth-bit changes from 1 to 0 when going from
lowercase to uppercase of a character, and the rest remains the
same. e.g.

Unicode

 ASCII does not contain all of the international languages thus,

Unicode is used to solve this problem

 The first 128 values are the same as ASCII.

 Unicode supports up to four bytes per character, storing multiple

languages and more data.

 To represent text in binary, a computer uses a character set,

a collection of characters and the corresponding binary
codes that represent them.

Sound

 Sound is analogue, and for it to be converted to digital form, it is

sampled

 The sound waves are sampled at regular time intervals where the
amplitude is measured. However, it cannot be measured precisely,
so approximate values are stored

How is Sound Recorded

  The amplitude of the sound wave is first determined at set time
intervals

 The value is converted to digital form

 Each sample of the sound wave is then encoded as a series of

binary digits

 A series of readings gives an approximate representation of the

sound wave

Sampling Resolution:

 The number of bits per sample is known as the sampling resolution

(aka bit depth)

 Increasing the sampling resolution increases the accuracy of the

sampled sound as more detail is stored about the amplitude of the
sound.

 Increasing the sampling resolution also increases the memory usage

of the file as more bits are being used to store the data.

Sampling Rate

 The sampling rate is the number of sound samples taken per

second, which is measured in Hertz (Hz)

 A higher sampling rate would allow more accurate sound as fewer

estimations will be done between samples.

Images

Bitmap Images

 Bitmap images are made up of pixels

 A bitmap image is stored in a computer as a series of binary

numbers

Colour Depth

 The number of bits representing each colour is called the colour

depth.

 An 8-bit colour depth means that each pixel can be one of 256
colours (because 2 to the power of 8 = 256)

 A 1-bit colour depth means each pixel can store one colour (because
2 to the power of 1 is 2) - ( This is done as the bit can either be 0 or
1, with 0 being white and 1 being black)
  Increasing colour depth increases the size of the file when storing an
image.

Image Resolution

 Image resolution refers to the number of pixels that make up an

image; for example, an image could contain 4096 × 3072 pixels.

 Photographs with a lower resolution have less detail than those with
a higher resolution.

 When a bitmap image is ‘ blurry ‘ or ‘ fizzy ’ due to having a low

amount of pixels in it or when zoomed, it is known as
being pixelated.

 High-resolution images use high amounts of memory as compared

to low-resolution ones.

Measurement of the Size of Computer Memories

 A binary digit is referred to as a BIT

 8 bits is a byte

 4 bits is a nibble

 Byte is used to measure memory size

IECB System (Most Common)

Name of memory No. of Equivalent Denary

size Bytes Value

1 kibibyte (1KiB) 210 1 024 bytes

1 mibibyte (1MiB) 220 1 048 576 bytes

1 gibibyte (1GiB) 230 1 073 741 824 bytes

1 099 511 627 776

1 tibibyte (1TiB) 240
bytes

1 125 899 906 842 624

1 pibibyte (1PiB) 250
bytes

Conventional System
 Name of memory No. of Equivalent Denary
size Bytes Value

1 kilobyte (1KB) 103 1 000 bytes

1 megabyte (1MB) 106 1 000 000 bytes

1 gigabyte (1GB) 109 1 000 000 000 bytes

1 000 000 000 000

1 terabyte (1TB) 1012
bytes

1 000 000 000 000 000

1 petabyte (1PB) 1015
bytes

Calculation of File Size

 The file size of an image is calculated as image resolution (in pixels)

× colour depth (in bits)

 The size of a mono sound file is calculated as sample rate (in Hz) ×
sample resolution (in bits) × length of sample (in seconds). (For a
stereo sound file, you would then multiply the result by two.)

File Types

Musical Instrument Digital Format (MIDI)

 Storage of music files

 A communications protocol that allows electronic musical

instruments to interact with each other

 Stored as a series of demands but no actual music notes

 Uses 8-bit serial transmission (asynchronous)

 Each MIDI command has a sequence of bytes:

o The first byte is the status byte – which informs the MIDI
device what function to perform

o Encoded in the status byte is the MIDI channel (operates on

16 different channels)

 Examples of MIDI commands:

o Note on/off: indicates that a key has been pressed

 o Key pressure: indicates how hard it has been pressed
(loudness of music)

 It needs a lot of memory storage

MP3

 It uses technology known as Audio Compression to convert music

and other sounds into an MP3 file format

 This compression reduces the normal file size by 90%

o Done using file compression algorithms, which use Perceptual

Music Shaping

o Removes sounds that the human ear cannot hear properly

o Certain sounds are removed without affecting the quality, too

much

 CD files are converted using File Compression Software

 Use lossy format as the original file is lost following the compression
algorithm

MP4

 This format allows the storage of multimedia files rather than just
sound

 Music, videos, photos and animations can be stored

 Videos could be streamed without losing any real discernible quality

Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG)

 JPEG is a file format used to reduce photographic file sizes

 Reducing picture resolution is changing the number of pixels per

centimetre

 When a photographic file undergoes compression, file size is

reduced

 JPEG will reduce the raw bitmap image by a factor between 5 and 15

Lossless and Lossy File Compression

Lossless File Compression

 All the data bits from the original file are reconstructed again when
the file is uncompressed.
  Important for files where the loss of data would be disastrous
(spreadsheet)

 An algorithm is used to compress data

 No data is lost

 Repeated patterns/text are grouped together in indexes

Run-Length Encoding

 It reduces the size of a string of adjacent, identical data (e.g.

repeated colours in an image)

 A repeating string is encoded into two values: the first value

represents the number of identical data items (e.g. characters), and
the second value represents the code of the data item (such as
ASCII code if it is a keyboard character), e.g. ‘aaaaabbbbccddddd’
becomes “05 97 04 98 02 99 05 100.”

 RLE is only effective where there is a long run of repeated units/bits

 One difficulty is that RLE compression isn't perfect for strings like
"cdcdcdcdcd". We use a flag to solve this; e.g., 255 can be made as
the flag. Now 255 will be put before every repeating value, e.g. our
previous example becomes 255 05 97 255 04 98 255 02 99 255 05
100 where 255 now indicates that the next character/set of
characters is approaching

Lossy File Compression

 The file compression algorithm eliminates unnecessary data bits like

in MP3 and JPEG formats.

 It is impossible to get the original file back once it is compressed

 Reduces file quality

 In this, the image's resolution and colour depth are reduced.

Data Transmission

Types and Methods of Data Transmission

Data Packets

 Packet Structure -
 o Header

 Contains the IP address of the sender and the receiver

 The sequence number of the packet

 Size of the packet

o Payload

 Contains the actual data

o Trailer

 Includes a method of identifying the end of the packet

 Error-Checking methods

 Packet Switching - Method of data transmission where the data is

broken into multiple packets. Packets are then sent independently
from start to end and reassembled at the receiver’s computer.

Advantages Disadvantages

There is no need to create a

Packets may be lost
single line of communication

Possible to overcome failed or More prone to errors in real-time

busy nodes streaming

Delay at the receiver while the

High data transmission speed
packets are being re-ordered

Easy to expand package usage

Data Transmission

 Simplex data transmission is in one direction only (e.g. computer to

printer)

 Half-duplex data transmission is in both directions but not at the

same time (e.g., walkie-talkie)

 Full-duplex data transmission is in both directions simultaneously

(e.g. broadband connection on the phone line)

 Serial data transmission is when data is sent one bit at a time over a
single wire
  Parallel data transmission is when data of several bits (1 byte) are
sent down several wires at the same time.

Comparison of Serial and Parallel Data Transmission

Serial Parallel

Better for longer distances Better for short distances

(Telephone Lines) (Internal circuits)

Expensive (More hardware

Cheaper Option
required)

Used when the size of data

Used when speed is necessary
transmitted is small

Slower Option Faster than Serial

Universal Serial Bus (USB)

 USB is an asynchronous serial data transmission method

 USB consists of:

o Four-wire shielded cable

o Two wires are used for power and earth

o Two wires are used in data transmission

Advantages Disadvantages

Transmission rate is less than

Automatically detected
120 MB/sec

Only fit one way, prevents incorrect Maximum cable length is about
connections 5 metres

Different data transmission rates

Backwards compatible

Industry-standard

Methods of Error Detection

Parity Checks

 It uses the number of 1-bits in a byte

 Type Types -

o Even - Even number of 1-bits

o Odd - Odd numbers of 1-bits

 Example (Even Parity) -

0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0

 The LMB (Left-Most Bit) is the parity bit. As the number of 1s is

even, the parity bit would be set to even.

Limitations with Parity Checks

 Two bits may change during transmission; therefore error is not

found

 Even though the parity checks would reveal the errors, the bit(s)
changed wouldn’t be identified

Parity Blocks

 To overcome the limitations of parity bits, Parity blocks would be

used.

 Any changes in bits would be identified through the rows and

columns

Checksum

 Whenever a block of data needs to be sent, the sender would

calculate the checksum value using a specific algorithm.

 Once the data has been sent, The receiver would calculate the
checksum again with the same set of data and the same algorithm
used before.
  The receiver would then compare the value received and the newly
calculated value. If they aren’t matched, A request is made to re-
send the data.

Echo Check

 Once the data has been sent, The receiver will send the data back
to the sender for verification.

 The sender would compare the received and original data for errors.

 The only downside is that we wouldn’t know if the error occurred

when sending the data or sending the data back for verification.

Check Digits

 Check digits are calculated from all the other digits in the data (ex-
codes). The check digit would be the last digit of the code.

 These are used to identify mistyping errors such as -

o 6372 typed as 6379

o 8432 typed as 842

Automatic Repeat Requests (ARQs)

 Uses acknowledgements and timeouts to make sure the user

received the data

 The receiver would check the data for any errors; if none are found,
a positive acknowledgement is sent to the sender. However, if errors
are found, a negative acknowledgement will be sent, and the data
will be sent again.

 The sender uses timeouts to wait for a pre-determined amount for

the acknowledgement.

 If no acknowledgements are received after the timeout, the data will

be sent again to the receiver.

Encryption

 Encryption is a process of turning the data into an unreadable form

so it doesn’t make sense to hackers and other attackers.

Plaintext and Ciphertext

 Plaintext is the original data that is being sent

 Ciphertext is the text produced after encryption

Symmetric and Asymmetric Encryption

  Symmetric Encryption:

o It uses an encryption key for the encryption process; the same

key is used for encrypting and decrypting the data.

 Asymmetric Encryption:

o Uses a public key and a private key. The public key is available
to everyone, whereas the private key is only available to the
user.

o The receiver would have the private key, and they would send
the public key to the sender. The sender can encrypt the
message with the public key, and the data can be decrypted
using the private key.

Hardware

Computer Architecture & Von Neumann Architecture

 The central processing unit (CPU) (also known as a microprocessor

or processor) is central to all modern computer systems

The CPU consists of the following architecture:

 Processor: The processor contains the Arithmetic and Logic Unit

(ALU)

 Control Unit: The control unit controls the operation of the

memory, processor and input/output devices

 Arithmetic Logic Unit: Carries out the logic system like

calculations

 System Clock: The system clock is used to produce timing signals

on the control bus

Buses: Carry data through components. The following are its types.

 Address bus – unidirectional

 Data Bus – bi-directional

 Control Bus – bi-directional

Immediate Access Store: Stores the instructions that are to be

processed, which are fetched by the CPU

 The following registers also exist in the architecture:

 REGIST
ABBREVIATION FUNCTION
ER

Current
Stores the instruction the CPU is
CIR instruction
currently decoding or executing
register

Memory address Stores the Address of the instruction,

MAR
register copy it, and sends it to MDR

Stores the Data from the address

Memory data
MDR received from the MAR and sends
register
data to CIR

Stores the address of the next

PC Program counter instruction to be fetched from
memory

During calculations, data is

ACC Accumulator
temporarily held in it

The Fetch-Execute Cycle

1. PC contains the address of the next instruction to be fetched

2. This address is copied to the MAR via the address bus

3. The instruction of the address is copied into the MDR temporarily

4. The instruction in the MDR is then placed in the CIR

5. The value in the PC is incremented by 1, pointing to the next

instruction to be fetched

6. The instruction is finally decoded and then executed

Stored Program Concept

 Instructions are stored in the main memory

 Instructions are fetched, decoded, and executed by the processor

 Programs can be moved to and from the main memory

Memory Concept

 A computer’s memory is divided into partitions: Each partition

consists of an address and its contents, e.g.

MEMORY CONTE
LOCATION NT

0101011
10101010
0

Instruction Set:

An instruction set is a list of all the commands that a CPU can process,
and the commands are machine code

Cores, Cache and Internal Clock

System’s Clock

The clock defines the clock cycle that synchronises all computer
operations. By increasing the clock speed, the computer's
processing speed also increases. This doesn’t mean that the
computer's performance is increased, however.

Overclocking

Using a clock speed higher than the computer was designed for.

It leads to multiple issues.

 Operations become unsynchronised - (the computer would

frequently crash and become unstable)

 can lead to serious overheating of the CPU

Length of Data Buses

The wider the data buses, the better the performance of the
computer

Cache

Cache memory is located within the CPU itself

-- allows faster access to the CPU

-- stores frequently used instructions and data that need to be accessed

faster, which improves CPU performance

The larger the cache memory size, the better the CPU
performance

Cores

The more cores in the CPU, the better and faster the performance

 But if any number of cores are used, it could slow down the system
performance as the communication between each core increases,
and so do the data cables between each. Which in turn reduces the
potential system performance.

 You might have heard about quad and dual cores, not septa or octa
cores.

Input Devices

Two-dimensional Scanners:

 Used to input hard-copy documents

 The image is converted into an electronic form, which can be stored

in the computer

o The document is placed on a glass panel

o A bright light illuminates the document

o A scan head moves across the document until the whole page
is scanned. An image of the document is produced and sent to
a lens using a series of mirrors

o The lens focuses on the document image

o The focused image now falls onto a charge-coupled device

(CCD), which consists of several integrated circuits

o The software produces a digital image in the electronic form

 Optical Character Recognition (OCR) is a software which converts

scanned documents into a text file format

 If the original document was a photo/image, then the scanned

image forms an image file such as JPEG

Three-dimensional Scanners
  3D scanners can scan solid objects and produce a three-dimensional
image

 Scanners take images at several points, x, y and z (lasers, magnetic,

white light)

 The scanned images can be used in Computer-Aided Design

(CAD) or in a 3D printer to produce a working model

Application of 2D Scanners at an Airport:

 Make use of (OCR) to produce digital images which represent the

passport pages

 Text can be stored in ASCII format

 The 2D photograph in the passport is also scanned and stored as

jpeg image

 The passenger’s face is also photographed using a digital camera

and compared to using face recognition software

 Key parts of the face are compared (distance between eyes, width of
nose)

Barcode readers/scanners

 A barcode is a series of dark and light parallel lines of varying

thicknesses

 The numbers 0 -9 are each represented by a unique series of lines

 The left and right-hand sides of the barcode are separate using
guard bars

 Allows barcode to be scanned in any direction

o The barcode is read by a red laser or red LED

o Light is reflected off the barcode; dark areas reflect little light,
which allows the bars to be read

o Reflected light is read by sensors (photoelectric cells)

o The pattern is generated, which is converted to digital

Quick Response (QR) Codes

 Another type of barcode is the QR codes

 Made up of a matrix of filled-in dark squares on a light background

 Can hold more storage (7000 digits)

  Advantages of QR codes:

o No need for the user to write down the website address

o QR codes can store website addresses

Digital Cameras

 It is controlled by a microprocessor that adjusts the shutter speed,

focuses the image, etc.

 Photo is captured when light passes through the lens onto a light
sensitive cell

 The cell is made up of pixels

 The number of pixels determines the size of the file

Keyboards

 Connected to a computer with a USB connection or by wireless

connection

 Each character has an ASCII value and is converted into a digital

signal

 Slow method

 Prone to errors

Pointing devices

 Mouse/trackball

o Traditional mechanical ball, connected by USB port

 Modern type: red LEDs to detect movement

Microphones

 Used to input sound to a computer

 When a microphone picks up sound, a diaphragm vibrates,

producing an electric signal

 The signal goes to a sound card and is converted into digital values
and stored in a computer

 Voice recognition: voice is detected and converted into digital

Touchscreens

 Capacitive (medium cost tech)

o Made up of many layers of glass

 o Creating electric fields between glass plates in layers

o When the top layer of glass is touched, electric current

changes

o Co-ordinates where the screen was touched are determined

by an on-board microprocessor

 Infra-red heat (expensive)

o Use glass as the screen material

o Needs a warm object to carry an input operation

 Infra-red optical (expensive)

o Uses glass as screen material

o Uses an array of sensors (grid form)

o Point of contact is based on which grid co-ordinate is touched

 Resistive (inexpensive)

o The upper layer of polyester, the bottom layer of glass

o When the top polyester is touched, the top layer and bottom
layer complete a circuit

o Signals are then sent out, which are interpreted by a

microprocessor to determine where the screen was touched

Sensors

 Devices that read or measure physical properties

 Data needs to be converted to digital

 Analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) converts physical values into

digital

 Sensors and their purposes:

o Acoustic - These sensors act like a microphone that converts

sound to electric pulses.

o Accelerometer - These sensors measure an object's

acceleration or deceleration and motion.

o Flow - This sensor measures the flow of liquid or gas.

o Gas - These sensors measure the amount/level of any gas in

the environment.
 o Humidity - This sensor measures the water vapour in the air or
any sample.

o Infra-red (active) - This IR sensor uses an invisible infrared

beam. When the beam is broken/disturbed, it changes the
amount of infrared light reaching the detector.

o Infra-red (passive) - These sensors detect the heat emitted by

any object.

o Level - This sensor detects the solids, liquids, or gas level.

o Light - These devices use light-sensitive cells that generate

electric current based on light brightness.

o Magnetic field - This sensor detects the change in magnetic

field.

o Moisture - This type of sensor detects the water content

wherever this sensor has been installed.

o pH - This measures the acidity or alkalinity.

o Pressure - This sensor measures the pressure applied

o Proximity - This sensor detects the nearby objects around the

sensor

o Temperature - These sensors measure the temperature of the

environment.

 (Note: You do not need to know the working principle of the sensor.
But have an idea of their purposes.)

Control of Street Lighting

 The light sensor sends data to the ADC

 The data is digitised and sent to the microprocessor

 Microprocessor samples data every minute

 If data from sensor < value stored in memory:

o Signal sent from microprocessor to street lamp

o Lamp switched on

Output Devices

Inkjet Printers

 Used to print one-off pictures and documents

  Data from the document sent to the printer driver

 The printer driver ensures data is in the correct format

 Check made by printer driver that the chosen printer is available

 Data is sent to the printer and stored in a temporary memory

(printer buffer)

 A sheet of paper is fed; the sensor detects if the paper is available in

the paper tray

 The print head moves across paper printing text/image, four ink
colours sprayed in the exact amount

 Paper is advanced, so the next line is printed

 Repeated until the buffer is empty

 Once it is done, the printer sends an interrupt to the processor

(request for more data to be sent)

Laser Printers

 Used to print flyers, high quality

 Use dry powder ink (toner) and static electricity to produce text and
images

 Prints the whole page in one go

1. (steps 1-4 same as inkjet)

2. The printing drum is given a positive charge; as the drum rotates, a

laser beam is scanned across it; removing the positive charge
leaves negatively charged areas which match the text/image

3. The drum is then coated with positively charged toner; it only sticks
to negatively charged parts of the drum

4. A negatively charged sheet is rolled over the drum

5. The toner on the drum now sticks to the paper to produce a copy of
the page

6. Paper finally goes through a fuser (set of heated rollers); heat melts
the ink so it is permanent

7. The discharge lamp removes all electric charge from the drum,
ready to print on the next page

3D Printers

 Used for models of cars

  Produce solid objects that work

 Built up layer by layer, using powdered resin, ceramic powder

 A design is made using Computer-aided Design (CAD)

2D and 3D Cutters

 3D cutters can recognise objects in x, y, z direction

 3D laser cutters can cut glass, crystal, metal, wood

Actuators

 The actuators convert electrical signals to mechanical processes.

 Used in many control applications involving sensors and devices

(ADC and DAC)

Loudspeakers/Headphones

 Sound is produced by passing the digital data through a DAC, then

through an amplifier, and then emerges from the loudspeaker

 Produced by voltage differences vibrating a cone in the speaker at

different frequencies

LCD and LED Monitors

 The front layer of the monitor is made up of Liquid Crystal

Display (LCD); these tiny diodes are grouped in threes as pixels (LCD
doesn’t emit any light)

 LCD monitors are backlit using Light Emitting Diode (LED) because:

o LEDs reach their maximum brightness immediately

o LEDs sharpen image (higher resolution), and CCFL has a

yellow tint

o LEDs improve the colour image

o Monitors using LED are much thinner than CCFL

o LEDs consume very little power

 Before LEDs, LCD monitors were backlit using CCFL

 CCFL uses two fluorescent tubes behind the LCD screen, which
supplies the light source

Light Projectors:

 Two common types of light projectors:

 o Digital Light Projector (DLP)

o LCD Projector

 Projectors are used to project computer output onto larger

screens/interactive whiteboards

Digital Light Projectors (DLP)

 Uses millions of micromirrors

 the number of micromirrors and the way they are arranged on the
DLP chip determines the resolution of the image

 When the micromirrors tilt towards the light source they are on

 When the micromirrors tilt away from the light source, they are off

 This creates a light or dark pixel on the projection screen

 A bright white light source passes through a colour filter on its way
to the DLP chip

 White light splits into primary colours

LCD Projectors

 Older technology than DLP

 A powerful beam of white light is generated from a bulb

 This beam of light is then sent to a group of chromatic-coated

mirrors; these reflect the light at different wavelengths

 When the white light hits the mirrors, the reflected light has
wavelengths corresponding to red, green, and blue

 These three different lights pass through three LCD screens; these
screens show the image to be projected as millions of pixels in
grayscale

 When the coloured light passes through the LCD screens, a red,
green and blue version of the grey image emerges

 Finally, the image passes through the projector lens onto the screen
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Science - Second Edition
(Hodder Education)

Memory, Storage Devices & Media

Primary vs. Secondary Storage

 The CPU directly accesses primary storage

 The CPU does not directly access secondary storage

 RAM, ROM, and cache memory are some examples

 HDD, SSD, DVD, memory stick, and Blu-ray disc are some examples

Primary Memory:

Random Access Memory (RAM)

 RAM is used by a system when it needs to store and access data

that is actively being used or processed by the user immediately.

 Features of RAM

o Volatile/temporary memory (contents lost if RAM is turned off)

o Used to store; data, files

o It can be written to or read from, and the contents of the

memory can be changed

 The larger the size of the RAM, the faster the computer will operate

 RAM never runs out of memory and continues to run slow

 As RAM becomes full, the processor has to access the continually

hard drive to overwrite old data on RAM with new data

 RAM is of two types:

DRAM (Dynamic RAM) and SRAM (Static RAM)

Source: Cambridge
IGCSE and O Level Computer Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)

Virtual memory

 When RAM runs out of memory, there is a problem with memory

management; thus, the system has a high chance of crashing. This
is why virtual memory comes into the picture.

 The virtual memory can be either HDD or SSD (these storages are
discussed below)

 You may be expected to draw a diagram like the above.

 The main advantages of virtual memory are

o They can be larger than the physical memory provided in the

RAM.

o Avoids the need to install/upgrade RAM, as it could be

expensive

o The system wastes no storage on unwanted/unused data.

Read Only Memory (ROM)

 Features of ROM

o Non-volatile/permanent memories (contents remain even

when ROM is turned off)
 o Used to store start-up instructions (basic input/output
systems)

o Data/contents of a ROM chip can only be read and cannot be

changed

Secondary Storage:

Hard Disk Drives (HDD)

 Data is stored in a digital format on the magnetic surface of the

disks (platter)

 A number of read/write heads can access all of the surfaces of the

disk

 Each platter will have two surfaces which can be used to store the
data

 Data is stored on the surfaces in sectors and tracks

 HDD has very slow data access compared to RAM

Solid-State Drive (SSD)

 There are no moving parts, and all data is received at the same time
(not like HDD)

 Store data by controlling the movement of electrons within NAND

chips, as 1s and 0s

 Non-volatile rewritable memory

 Benefits of using SSD rather than HDD:

o More reliable (no moving parts)

o Considerably lighter (suitable for laptops)

o Lower power consumption

o Run much cooler than HDDs

o Very thin

o Data access is faster than HDD

 Drawback – questionable longevity (20GB per day)

Off-Line Storage:

CD/DVD Disks
  Laser (red) light is used to read and write data on the surface of the
disk.

 A thin layer of metal alloy is used to store data.

 Both systems use a single spiral track that runs from the centre of
the disk to the edge

 DVD uses Dual-Layering, which increases the storage capacity (two

individual recording layers)

Blu-ray Disks

 Uses a blue laser to carry out read-and-write operations

 The wavelength of laser light is less than CD and DVD (stores up to

five times more data than DVD)

 Automatically come with secure encryption (prevent piracy and

copyright infringement)

 Used as backup systems

USB Flash Memories

 Very small, lightweight, and suitable for transferring files

 Small back-up devices for photo, music

 Solid state, so needs to be treated with care

Cloud Storage:

 Cloud storage is a method of data storage where data is stored on

remote servers

 The same data is stored on more than one server in case of

maintenance or repair, allowing clients to access data at any time.
This is known as data redundancy.

The following are its types:

 Public cloud – this is a storage environment where the

customer/client and cloud storage provider are different companies

 Private cloud – this is storage provided by a dedicated

environment behind a company firewall; customer/client and cloud
storage provider are integrated and operate as a single entity

 Hybrid cloud – this is a combination of the two above

environments; some data resides in the private cloud, and less
sensitive/less commercial data can be accessed from a public cloud
storage provider
Embedded System

 A combination of hardware and software is designed to carry out a

specific set of tasks.

 Embedded systems may contain -

o Microcontrollers - CPU, RAM, ROM and other peripherals on

one single chip

o Microprocessor - Integrated circuit with CPU only

o System on Chips (SoC) - microprocessor with I/O ports, storage

and memory

 Process of Embedded Devices -

o Input from the user is sent to the microprocessor (ADC needed

if the data is analogue)

o Data from the user interface is also sent to the microprocessor

o The microprocessor then sends signals to actuators which are

the output

 Non-programmable devices need to be replaced if they need a

software update.

 Programmable devices have two methods of updating

o Connecting the device to a computer and downloading the

update

o Updating automatically via a satellite, cellular or Wi-Fi link

Advantages and Disadvantages of using embedded systems

Advantages Disadvantages

Small in size, therefore can

Can be difficult to upgrade
easily fit into devices

Low cost to make The interface can be confusing

 Advantages Disadvantages

sometimes

Requires very little power Troubleshooting is a specialist’s job

Very fast reaction to Often thrown away as difficult to

changing input upgrade and faults are harder to find

Increased garbage as they are thrown

Dedicated to one task only
away

Any computerised system is prone to

Can be controlled remotely
attacks

 Applications of Embedded devices

o GPS systems

o Security Systems

o Vending Machines

o Washing Machines

o Oven

o Microwave

Network Hardware

Network Interface Card (NIC)

A network interface card (NIC) is needed to allow a device to connect to a

network (such as the Internet).

Media Access Control (MAC)

A MAC address comprises 48 bits which are shown as six groups of

hexadecimal digits. The first six display the manufacturer’s code, and the
second half shows the device serial number.

 These do not change and are primarily constant for every device

 there are two types of MAC addresses: the Universally Administered

MAC Address (UAA) and the Locally Administered MAC Address (LAA)

The only difference between the two types is that UAA is made Universally
and cannot be changed, but it is the opposite for LAA.
IP Addresses

 IP address allocation:

o The network allocates IP addresses.

o Two types of IP addresses: static and dynamic.

 Static IP addresses:

o Assigned manually to a device.

o Does not change over time.

 Dynamic IP addresses:

o Assigned automatically by a DHCP (Dynamic Host

Configuration Protocol) server.

o Changes periodically or when the device connects to a

different network.

 IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4):

o Widely used protocol.

o Consists of four groups of decimal numbers separated by dots

(e.g., 192.168.0.1).

o Provides approximately 4.3 billion unique addresses.

 IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6):

o Developed to address the limitations of IPv4.

o Uses eight groups of hexadecimal numbers separated by

colons (e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).

o Provides an extremely large number of unique addresses

(approximately 340 undecillion).

 Differences between IPv4 and IPv6:

o Address format: IPv4 uses a 32-bit address, while IPv6 uses a

128-bit address.

o Address space: IPv4 provides approximately 4.3 billion

addresses, whereas IPv6 offers around 340 undecillion
addresses.

o Address allocation: IPv4 addresses are allocated manually

using DHCP, while IPv6 addresses are primarily assigned using
stateless autoconfiguration.
Routers

 Router functionality:

o A router is a networking device that directs data packets

between different networks.

o It determines the most efficient path for data transmission.

 Sending data to a specific destination on a network:

o A router examines the destination IP address of incoming data

packets.

o It uses routing tables to determine the next hop or the next

router on the path to the destination.

o The router forwards the data packet to the appropriate next

hop.

 Router's role in IP address assignment:

o A router can act as a DHCP server (Dynamic Host

Configuration Protocol) and assign IP addresses to devices on
a local network.

o It dynamically allocates IP addresses from a predefined range

to connected devices.

o DHCP allows for automatic IP address configuration and

simplifies network management.

 Connecting a local network to the Internet:

o A router serves as the gateway between a local network and

the internet.

o It connects the local network to an internet service provider

(ISP) network.

o The router receives data packets from devices on the local

network and forwards them to the internet.

o It also receives incoming data packets from the internet and

routes them to the appropriate devices on the local network.
Types of Software and Interrupts

Types of Software

1. System Software e.g. Operating System, Utility programs and

device drivers

2. Application Software e.g. spreadsheet, word processor, etc.

System Software:

 these are a set of programs which control and manage the

operations of hardware

 gives a platform for other software to run

 it is required to allow hardware and software to run without

problems

 provides a human-computer interface (HCI) to the user

 controls the allocation and usage of hardware resources

Application Software:

 allows a user to perform specific tasks using the computer’s

resources

 maybe a single program (for example, NotePad) or a suite of

programs (for example, Microsoft Office)

 user can execute the software when they require, and it is mostly
not automatic

Examples

System Software:

 Compiler: Translates high-level language into machine code,

allowing for direct use by a computer to perform tasks without re-
compilation.

 Linker: Combines object files produced by a compiler into a single

program, allowing the use of separately written code modules in the
final program.

 Device driver: Software that enables hardware devices to

communicate with a computer's operating system, without which a
device like a printer would be unable to work.

 Operating system: Software that manages basic computer functions

such as input/output operations, program loading and running, and
security management, making computers more user-friendly.
  Utility programs: Software that manages, maintains, and controls
computer resources by carrying out specific tasks, such as virus
checking, disk repair and analysis, file management, and security.

Application Software:

 Word Processor: Software used for manipulating text documents,

including creating, editing, and formatting text with tools for
copying, deleting, spell-checking, and importing images.

 Spreadsheet: Organizes and manipulates numerical data using a

grid of lettered columns and numbered rows, with each cell
identified using a unique combination of columns and rows. It can
calculate using formulas, produce graphs, and do modelling and
"what if" calculations.

 Database: Software used to organize, analyze, and manipulate data

consisting of one or more tables that hold records and fields. It
provides the ability to query and report on data and add, delete, and
modify records in a table.

 Control and Measuring Software: A program designed to interface

with sensors and allow a computer or microprocessor to measure
physical quantities and control applications by comparing sensor
data with stored data and altering process parameters accordingly.

 Apps: Software designed to run on mobile phones or tablets,

downloaded from an "App Store" and ranging from games to
sophisticated software such as phone banking. Common examples
include video and music streaming, GPS, and camera facilities.

 Photo and Video Editing Software: Software that allows users to

manipulate digital photographs or videos, including changing colour,
brightness, and contrast, applying filters and other enhancements,
and creating transitions between clips.

 Graphics Manipulation Software: Software that allows the

manipulation of bitmap and vector images, with bitmap graphics
editors changing pixels to produce a different image, while vector
graphics editors manipulate lines, curves, and text to alter the
stored image as required.

Interrupts

An interrupt is a signal sent to the microprocessor, either from a device or

software, prompting the microprocessor to pause its ongoing tasks and
handle the interrupt temporarily. Various factors can trigger interrupts,
including:
  Timing signals: Scheduled signals prompt the microprocessor to
pause and handle tasks at specific intervals.

 Input/Output processes: Events such as a disk drive or printer

requiring additional data cause an interruption in the
microprocessor's activities.

 Hardware faults: Issues like a paper jam in a printer, signalling the

microprocessor to halt its operations and address the hardware
problem.

 User interaction: Instances like a user pressing specific keys on a

keyboard (e.g., ), leading to an interrupt in the system's operation.

 Software errors: Problems such as missing .exe files needed to

initiate a program, conflicts like two processes accessing the exact
memory location, or attempts to divide by zero. These errors trigger
interrupts, prompting the microprocessor to handle the issues.

Source: Cambridge
IGCSE and O Level Computer Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)

Utility Software

 Computer users have access to utility programs as part of system

software

 Utility programs can be initiated by the user or run in the

background without user input

 Common utility programs include virus checkers, defragmentation

software, disk analysis and repair tools, file compression and
management software, backup software, security tools, and
screensavers.

Virus Checkers & Anti-Virus Software

 Virus checkers or anti-virus software are important for protecting

computers from malware.

 They should be kept up to date and run in the background to

maintain their effectiveness.

 Anti-virus software checks files before they are run or loaded and
compares possible viruses against a database of known viruses.
  Heuristic checking is used to identify possible viruses that are not
yet on the database.

 Infected files are put into quarantine for automatic deletion or for
the user to decide.

 Anti-virus software must be updated as new viruses are constantly

discovered.

 Full system scans should be carried out regularly to detect dormant

viruses.

Disk Defragmentation Software

 Defragmentation software rearranges the data blocks on a hard disk

drive (HDD) to store files in contiguous sectors, reducing head
movements and improving data access time.

 As an HDD becomes full, blocks used for files become scattered all
over the disk surface, making it slower to retrieve data as the HDD
read-write head needs several movements to find the data.

 When a file is deleted or extended, new data does not fill the vacant
sectors immediately, causing the files to become more scattered
throughout the disk surfaces.

 A disk defragmenter rearranges the data blocks to store files in

contiguous sectors wherever possible, allowing for faster data
access and retrieval.

 The defragmentation process can free up previously occupied

sectors and empty some tracks.

Backup Software

 Backup software is a utility software that helps create and manage

backup copies of data files and programs.

 Manual backups using memory sticks or portable hard drives are

good practices, but operating system backup utilities are also
recommended.

 Backup utilities allow scheduling backups and only backup files if

changes have been made to them.

 There could be three file versions for total security: the current
version stored on the internal HDD/SSD, a locally backed-up copy on
a portable SSD, and a remote backup on cloud storage.

Security Software
  Security software is a utility software that manages access control,
user accounts, and links to other utilities such as virus and spyware
checkers.

 It also protects network interfaces using firewalls to prevent

unauthorized access.

 Security software uses encryption and decryption to ensure

intercepted data is unreadable without a decryption key.

 It oversees software updates to verify legitimate sources and

prevent malicious software from being installed.

 Access control and user accounts use IDs and passwords to secure
user data and prevent unauthorized access.

Screensavers

 Screensavers display moving and still images on the monitor screen

after computer inactivity.

 They were originally developed to protect CRT monitors from

'phosphor burn'.

 Screensavers are now mostly used for customizing a device and as a

part of computer security systems.

 They automatically log out of the user after a certain period of

inactivity.

 Some screensavers activate useful background tasks like virus scans

and distributed computing applications.

Device Drivers

 Device drivers translate data into a format that can be understood

by the hardware device they are associated with.

 Without the appropriate device driver, a hardware device cannot

work with a computer and may not be recognised by the operating
system.

 USB device drivers contain descriptors, which include a vendor ID

(VID), product ID (PID) and unique serial number that allow the
operating system to identify the device.

 Serial numbers must be unique to avoid confusion if two devices

with the same serial number are plugged into a computer
simultaneously.

Operating Systems
  Operating Systems are designed to establish communication
between the user and the computer

 Functions of a typical operating system -

-managing files

– handling interrupts

– providing an interface

– managing peripherals and drivers

– managing memory

– managing multitasking

– providing a platform for running applications

– providing system security

– managing user accounts

 WIMP - Windows, Icons, Menu, and Pointing Devices

Advantages and Disadvantages of CLI and GUI

Source: Cambridge
IGCSE and O Level Computer Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)

 Memory Management - Manages the RAM and the HDD/SSD during

the execution of programs

 Security Management - Providing security features such as Anti-

Virus, System updates and so on

 Hardware Peripheral Management - Managing the device drives,

Inputs, Outputs, Queues and buffers
  File Management - Opening, Creating, Deleting, Renaming, and
many more functions

 Multitasking - OS would share the hardware resources with each of

the processes

 Management of User Accounts - OS would allow multiple users to

customise their accounts individually.

Running of Applications

 The computer starts its OS (booting up the computer) through the

bootstrap loader.

 The BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) tells the computer the

location of the OS in the storage.

 BIOS is often referred to as the firmware

Interrupts

 Signal that causes the operating system to stop what it’s doing and
service a task

 Ensures important tasks are dealt with on a priority basis

 It can be a software or a hardware interrupt

 Peripherals like a keyboard & mouse can generate it

 Different interrupts have different levels of priority

 After interruption is dealt with, the previous process continues

Programming Languages, Translators and IDEs

 Computers can only understand machine code; therefore,

translators are needed

High-Level Languages

 It is easier to read and understand as the language is closer to

human language.
  Easier to write in a shorter time

 Easier to debug at the development stage

 Easier to maintain once in use

Low-Level Languages

 Refer to machine code

 Binary instructions that the computer understands

Source: Cambridge
IGCSE and O Level Computer Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)

Assembly Language

 Few programmers use assembly language to -

o Make use of special hardware

o Write code that doesn’t take up much space

o Write code that runs very quickly

o Assembly language must be translated into machine code

using an assembler to run.

Translators

Compiler

 Translates a program written in a high-level language into machine

code

 Used without compiler

 Executable file of machine code produced

 One high-level language translated into several machine code

instructions

 Used for general use

Interpreter
  Executes a high-language program a statement at a time

 No executable file of machine code produced

 One high-level language program statement may require several

machine code instructions to be executed.

 Interpreted programs cannot be used without an interpreter

 Used when the program is being developed

Assembler

 Translates a low-level language program into machine code

 Executable file of machine code produced

 One low-level language translated into one machine code

instructions

 It can be used without an assembler

 Used for general use

Compiler Interpreter Assembler

Translates a high- Translates a low-

Executes a high-level
level language level assembly
language program one
program into language program
statement at a time.
machine code. into machine code.

An executable file of No executable file of An executable file of

machine code is machine code is machine code is
produced. produced. produced.

One high-level
One high-level One low-level
language program
language statement language statement
statement may require
can be translated is usually translated
several machine code
into several machine into one machine
instructions to be
code instructions. code instruction.
executed.

Assembled
Compiled programs Interpreted programs
programs are used
are run without the cannot be run without
without the
compiler. the interpreter.
assembler.
 Compiler Interpreter Assembler

An assembled
A compiled program An interpreter is often
program is usually
is usually distributed used when a program
distributed for
for general use. is being developed.
general use.

Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Science - Second Edition

(Hodder Education)

Integrated Development Environments (IDEs)

 An IDE would usually have these features -

o Code Editor

o Translator

o Debugger

o Error Reports

o Auto-Completion and Auto-Correction

o Auto-Documenter

o Pretty Printing

Automated and Emerging Technologies

Automated Systems

 Automated Systems are a combination of software and hardware

designed to function without human intervention.

 Process of Automated Systems

o Sensors take inputs, and they are sent to the microprocessor.

The data is usually analogue, so it has to go through
Analogue-to-Digital Converter (ADC)

o The microprocessor processes the data and makes the

necessary decisions based on its program

o The actions are then executed by the actuators (Motors,

wheels and so on)

Advantages and Disadvantages of Automated Systems

 Advantages Disadvantages

Faster and Safer Expensive to set up and maintain

Any changes can be Any computerised systems are prone to

identified quickly attacks

Less Expensive in the Over-reliance on automated systems may

long run cause humans to lose skills

Higher Productivity and

Efficiency

You should be able to describe the advantages and disadvantages

of an automated system used for a given scenario.

Including scenarios from:

 industry

 transport

 agriculture

 weather

 gaming

 lighting

 science

Robotics

 Robotics is the branch of computer science that combines robot

design, construction and operation.

 Isaac Asimov’s Laws of Robotics -

o A robot may not injure a human through action or inaction

o A robot must obey orders given by humans unless it comes

into conflict with Law 1

o a robot must protect itself unless this conflicts with law 1.

 Characteristics of a robot -

o Ability to sense their surroundings

o Have a degree of movement

 o Programmable

NOTE - ROBOTS DO NOT POSSESS AI; THEY TEND TO DO

REPETITIVE TASKS RATHER THAN REQUIRING HUMAN
CHARACTERISTICS

 Types of Robots -

o Independent - Have no human intervention; they can

completely replace humans

o Dependent - Needs human intervention through an interface,

can supplement but can’t completely replace humans

Advantages and Disadvantages of Robots

Advantages Disadvantages

Robots can find it difficult to do

Robots can work 24/7
non-standard tasks

Robots can work in hazardous Robots can lead to higher

conditions unemployment

They are less expensive in the Risk of deskilling as robots replace

long run humans in some task

They have high productivity and Expensive to install and maintain in

are more consistent the short run

Robots have the risk of getting

hacked.

Artificial Intelligence

 AI is the branch of computer science that simulates intelligent

human behaviour.

 Types of AI -

o Narrow AI - A machine has superior performance to a human

when doing one specific task

o General AI - A machine is similar to a human when doing one

specific task

o Strong AI - Machine has superior performance to a human in

many tasks
  Characteristics of AI -

o Collection of Data and Rules

o Ability to Reason

 Ability to learn and adapt

Types of AI

 Expert System - AI that is developed to mimic human knowledge

and experiences. They are usually used for answering questions
using knowledge and inference.

 They have many applications, including chatbots, diagnosis in the

medical industry, financial calculations and so on

Advantages and Disadvantages of Expert Systems

Advantages Disadvantages

Setup and Maintenance costs are very

High level of Expertise
high

High Accuracy and Can only rely on the information in the

Consistent system

Tend to give cold responses

High response times
sometimes

 Machine Learning is a subset of AI in which machines are

trained to learn from past experiences.

Difference Between AI and Machine Learning

AI Machine Learning

Machines are trained to make

Representation of human
decisions without being programmed
intelligence in machines
to

The aim is to build machines The aim is to make machines learn

that think like humans through data acquisitions