Chapter–21 Cell Cycle

21.0 INTRODUCTION
Definition
Sequence of changes by which cell undergoes growth, replication of DNA and cell
division is called cell cycle.
Phases
There are two phases of cell cycle i.e.
1) Interphase (Period of non apparent division)
2) Mitotic phase (Period of division)
21.1 INTERPHASE
Definition
The period of cell cycle between two consecutive divisions is called interphase.
It is misleadingly called resting phase. It is the period of great biochemical activity and
further be divided into G1-phase, S-phase and G2-phase. Chromosomes are not visible
during this stage even with electron microscopy. They can be seen as fine network of
threads by histological stains for DNA. This network is called chromatin.
Phases of Interphase
It is subdivided into three phases.
G1-Phase
It is first growth phase (Gap 1). It starts after cell division, so may be called post-mitotic
phase. During this phase, following events occur;
i) There is extensive metabolic activity.
ii) Cell grows in size.
iii) Specific enzymes are synthesized.
iv) DNA base units are accumulated for DNA synthesis.
Post-mitotic cell can exit the cell cycle during G1 enering a phase called G0 and remain
for days, weeks or in some cases life time of organism without proliferating further (e.g.
nerve cells, cells of eye lens).
S-Phase
It is called synthesis phase. Various events occurring during this phase are as follows:
i) DNA is synthesized.
ii) Chromosome number is doubled.
G2-Phase
It is second growth phase and also called as pre-mitotic phase. It prepares the cell for
division. Various events occurring during this phase are as follows
i) Cell prepares energy stores for chromosomes.
ii) Mitosis specific proteins are synthesized.
iii) RNA and microtubule subunits for spindle fibers are also synthesized.
After this phase cell enters into phase of cell division.
179
Chapter–21 Cell Cycle
Check Points & Duration of Cell Cycle
During cell cycle, there are specific check points, which determine the fate of new phase
according to cell’s internal make up.
Length of each phase is variable. e.g.
(i) In human cell average time period of:
 Cell cycle is 24 hours
 Mitosis is 30 minutes
 G1 is 9 hours
 S is 10 hours
 G2 is 4.5 hours
(ii) In yeast cells full cell cycle occurs in 90 minutes.

Fig 21.1 The fate of a single parental chromosome

throughout the eukaryotic cell cycle
QUESTIONS RELATED TO ABOVE ARTICLE
Describe about the interphase of cell cycle.
21.2 MITOSIS
Definition
Such type of cell division in which number of chromosomes in daughter cells remains
same as in parental cell is called mitosis.
Features
i) Major steps of mitosis in plants and animal cells are same with slight differences.
ii) It takes place in haploid as well as diploid cells.
iii) It occurs in nearly all parts of the body if and when required.
Cell division described here explains division in animal cell.
Difference between Mitosis in Plant & Animal Cell
Difference Animal cell Plant cell
Centrioles Present Absent
It is made by centrioles, asters and
Mitotic apparatus It is made only by spindles.
spindles.
Spindles are formed from They have region analogous to
Spindle formation
centrioles. centriole from which spindles radiate.
It occurs by phragmoplast which
develops from vesicles of Golgi
Cytokinesis It occurs by contractile ring.
bodies. It is also responsible for
cell wall formation.
Shape of cell does not remain Shape of cell remains same due to
Shape of cell
same. rigid cell wall.

180
Chapter–21 Cell Cycle
Phases
Mitosis is a continuous process but conventionally it is divided into two phases.
1) Karyokinesis
2) Cytokinesis
21.2.1 Karyokinesis
Definition
Division of nucleus is called karyokinesis.
Initial Events
In an animal cell following initial steps occur:
i) Centrioles, which have been duplicated during interphase and are in same centrosome,
are partitioned.
ii) Early in the mitosis the two pairs of centrioles separate and migrate to opposite sides of
the nucleus, establishing bipolarity of dividing cells.
iii) Three sets of microtubules (fibers) originating from each pair of centrioles. These
microtubules are formed by protein tubulin and traces of RNA. Mitotic apparatus is larger
than nucleus and is designed to attach, capture chromosomes, align and finally separating
them.
iv) Three sets of microtubules are:
 Astral microtubules, which radiate outward and form asters.
 Kinetochore microtubules will be attached to chromosomes at kinetochore.
 Polar microtubules do not interact the chromosomes but instead interdigitate with polar
microtubules from the opposite pole.
Both kinetochore and polar microtubules constitute spindles.
Phases of Karyokinesis
Karyokinesis can further be divided into four phases:
I) Prophase
II) Metaphase
III) Anaphase
IV) Telophase

Fig 21.2 The stages of mitosis and cytokinesis in an animal cell

181
Chapter–21 Cell Cycle
I) Prophase
Various steps occurring during this phase are:
i) Chromatin material gets condensed by folding and chromosomes appear as thin threads
(0.25μm-50μm in length) at the beginning of prophase.
ii) Chromosomes start thickening, become visible having two sister chromatids attached at
centromere.
iii) Nucleoli and nuclear membrane are disappeared.
iv) Nuclear material is released in cytoplasm.
v) Cytoplasm becomes viscous.
vi) Mitotic apparatus is organized.
II) Metaphase
Each metaphase chromosome is a duplicated structure, which consists of two sister
chromatids, attached at a point called centromere or primary constriction.
Various steps occurring during this phase are:
i) The kinetochore fibers of spindle attach to the kinetochore region. Kinetochore is a
special area of centromere with specific base arrangement and special proteins. Each
kinetochore gets two fibers each from opposite poles.
ii) These fibers align chromosomes at the equator of the spindle forming equatorial plate or
metaphase plate.
III) Anaphase
It is the most critical phase of mitosis which ensures equal distribution of chromatids in
the daughter cells. Various steps occurring during this phase are;
i) The kinetochore fibers of spindle contract towards their respective poles, at the same time
polar microtubules elongates exert force and sister chromatids are separated from
centromere.
ii) As a result, half sister chromatids travel towards each pole.
IV) Telophase
Various steps occurring during this phase are
i) Chromosomes reach at opposite poles terminate anaphase and start telophase.
ii) These chromosomes decondense due to unfolding and ultimately disappear as chromatin.
iii) Mitotic apparatus is disorganized.
iv) Nuclear membrane and nucleoli are reorganized.
v) At the end two nuclei appear at two poles of cell.
21.2.2 Cytokinesis
Definition
Division of whole cell is called cytokinesis.
Events in Animal Cell
Cytokinesis starts during late telophase. Various events occurring during this phase are as
follows;
i) During late telophase astral microtubules send signals to equatorial region of the cell.
ii) Actin and myosin at equatorial region are activated and form contractile ring, followed by
cleavage furrow.
iii) This cleavage furrow deepens towards the centre of the cell dividing the parent cell into
two daughter cells.
182
Chapter–21 Cell Cycle
MITOSIS IN PLANT CELLS
Mitotic events in plant cells are generally similar to the events observed in animal cells
but there are some major differences.
i) Most higher plants lack visible centrioles, instead they have its analogous region from
which the spindle microtubules radiate.
ii) Moreover, shape of the plant cell does not change greatly compared with an animal cell
because it is surrounded by rigid cell wall.
iii) At cytokinesis, in place of contractile ring a membrane structure, phragmoplast is formed
from vesicle which originate from Golgi complex. These vesicles originate actually
during metaphase, line up in the centre of the dividing cell, where they fuse to form
phragmoplast at the end of telophase.
iv) The membrane of vesicle becomes the plasma membrane of daughter cells. These
vesicles also contain materials for future cell wall such as precursors of cellulose and
pectin.

Fig 21.3 Mitosis in a higher plant cell

21.2.3 Importance of Mitosis
Following is the importance of mitosis.
1) Unchanged Genetic Information
In mitosis the hereditary material is equally distributed in the daughter cell. As there is no
crossing over or recombination, the genetic information remains unchanged generation after
generation, thus continuity of similar information is ensured from parent to daughter cell.
2) Asexual Reproduction
Some organisms, both plants and animals undergo asexual reproduction by mitosis.
3) Regeneration
Regeneration is also due to mitosis.
4) Healing of Wounds
Healing of wounds and replacement of older cells etc. are by mitosis.
5) Development and Growth
Development and growth of multicellular organism depends upon orderly controlled mitosis.
For all this an organism requires managed, controlled and properly organized process of
mitosis. If mitosis is uncontrolled then malfunction, unwanted tumors and lethal diseases like
cancer may result.
6) Tissue Culture and Cloning
Tissue culture and cloning is carried out through mitosis.
183
Chapter–21 Cell Cycle
QUESTIONS RELATED TO ABOVE ARTICLE
Write an essay on Mitosis.
How cytokinesis occurs in animal cells? In which way does it differ from that in plant
cell? (Exercise Question i)
Why and how do the chromosomes get separated during anaphase of mitosis?
(Exercise Question ii)
What is role of centriole in an animal cell? How is this function carried out in plant
cell? (Exercise Question iii)
21.2.4 Cancer (Uncontrolled Cell Division)
Definition
Uncontrolled division of cells is called cancer.
Relation of Cancer with Normal Mechanism
 Normally multiplication of cells is carefully regulated and responsive to specific needs of body.
Due to this control, process of cell death and birth are balanced to produce a steady state.
 In cancer, sometime the control regulates the cell multiplication breaks down and cell
begins to grow and divide in unregulated fashion without body’s need. This continuous
division leads to unwanted clone of cells.
Tumor
Unwanted clone of cells produced by proliferation of cells due to uncontrolled multiplication
is called tumor.
Types of Tumors
Tumors are of two basic types.
1) Benign tumors
2) Malignant tumors
1) Benign Tumors
 These are of small size and localized (not transferred to other parts) called benign.
 Benign cells usually behave like normal cells and have little deleterious effects.
 They only interfere with functioning of normal cells or produce hormone like secretions.
2) Malignant Tumors
They are also called cancer.
 They divide more rapidly and mostly invade surrounding tissues.
 They get into body circulatory system and set up areas of proliferation away from their
site of original appearance.
The spread of tumor cells and establishment of secondary areas of growth is called metastasis.
Identification of Cancer Cells
Presence of invading cells in normal tissue is an indication of malignancy. Cancer cells
can be distinguished from normal cells due to presence of following features;
i) They are less differentiated than normal cells.
ii) They exhibit characteristics of rapidly growing cells.
iii) They have high nucleus to cytoplasm ratio.
iv) They have prominent nucleoli.
v) They show many mitosis.
Causes of Cancer
i) Cancers frequently develop in old persons with age.
ii) Major cause is mutation in somatic cells.
iii) It may be due to accumulation of 3-20 mutations in genes regulating cell division.

184
Chapter–21 Cell Cycle
Mechanism of Metastasis
Two basic changes are caused by mutations to produce cancer cells and their metastasis.
These are following;
i) Metastatic cells break their contact with other cells and overcome the restrictions on cell
movement provided by basal lamina and other barriers. After this metastatic cells can
invade other parts of the body.
ii) Their proliferation becomes unlimited against the normal programming of body without
any control or check.
QUESTIONS RELATED TO ABOVE ARTICLE
Write a note on cancer.
21.3 MEIOSIS
Definition
It is a type of cell division by which chromosome number in daughter cells is reduced to
half as compared to parent cell.
Features
i) It takes place in diploid cells only.
ii) It takes place in animals during gamete formation and in plants during spore formation.
iii) It results in formation of four haploid daughter cells.
Divisions
Meiosis is divided into two divisions.
1) Meiosis I
2) Meiosis II
1) MEIOSIS I
It is also called reduction division. It is further divided into four phases.
(A) Prophase I (B) Metaphase I
(C) Anaphase I (D) Telophase I

Fig 21.4 Result of meiosis, four haploid cells, each

with half as many chromosomes as the original cells

185
Chapter–21 Cell Cycle
(A) Prophase I
It is very lengthy phase. It is different from prophase
of mitosis due to homologous pair of chromosomes.
Interphase of meiosis lacks G2 stage. So, there is no duplication instead already similar
chromosomes called homologous chromosomes join to form homologous pair of
chromosomes.
Prophase I is further subdivided into five stages.
a) Leptotene
Various events occurring during this stage are following.
i) Chromosomes become visible, shorten and thick.
ii) Size of nucleus increases.
iii) Homologous chromosomes start getting closer to each other.
Leptotene can last only for few hours.
b) Zygotene
Various events occurring during this stage are following.
i) Pairing of homologous chromosomes called synapsis starts.
ii) Synapsis is highly specific and exactly pointed but there is no definite starting point.
iii) Each paired but not fused complex structure is called as bivalent or tetrad.
Zygotene can last only for few hours.
c) Pachytene
Various events occurring during this stage are following.
i) Pairing of homologous chromosomes is completed.
ii) Chromosomes become more and more thick and each bivalent has for chromatids.
iii) Chromatids wrap around each other.
iv) Non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes exchange their segments due to
chiasmata formation. This exchange is called crossing over.
v) Due to crossing over, reshuffling of genetic material occurs, which produces
recombination.
Pachytene may last for days, weeks or even years.
d) Diplotene
Various events occurring during this stage are following.
i) Paired chromosomes repel each other and begin to separate.
ii) Separation is not complete because homologous chromosomes remain united by their
point of interchange (chiasmata).
iii) At the end, each bivalent has at least one such point, and the chromatids otherwise are
separated.
e) Diakinesis
Various events occurring during this stage are following.
i) Condensation of chromosomes reaches to its maximum.
ii) Separation of homologous chromosomes is completed but still they are united at one
point, more often at ends.
iii) Nucleoli disappear.
186
Chapter–21 Cell Cycle

Fig 21.5 Chiasmata formation

(B) Metaphase I
Various events occurring during this phase are as follows.
i) Nuclear membrane disorganizes at the beginning of this phase.
ii) Spindle fibers originate.
iii) Kinetochore fibers are attached to the kinetochore of homologous chromosome from each
pole.
iv) Bivalents are arranged at the equator. Sister chromatids of individual chromosome in
bivalent behave as a unit.
(C) Anaphase I
Various events occurring during this phase are following.
i) Kinetochore fibers contract and the spindle or pole fibers elongate.
ii) Contraction of fibers pulls the individual chromosome towards their respective poles.
iii) In contrast to mitosis anaphase, sister chromatids are not separated.
This is in actual reduction phase because each pole receives half of the total number of
chromosomes.
(D) Telophase I
Various events occurring during this phase are following.
i) Nuclear membrane reorganizes around each set of chromosomes at two poles.
ii) Nucleoli reappear.
iii) Two nuclei each with half number of chromosomes are formed.
Cytoplasm then divides cell into two, terminating first mitotic division. Chromosomes
may decondense during this state.
2) MEIOSIS II
After telophase I, two daughter cells experience small interphase but in contrast to
mitosis there is no replication of chromosome.
Meiosis II is further divided into
(A) Prophase II
(B) Metaphase II
(C) Anaphase II
(D) Telophase II
These phases are just like the phases of mitosis. Meiosis II receives two daughter cells
from meiosis I and ends in production of four daughter cells with half number of
chromosomes.
187
Chapter–21 Cell Cycle
21.3.1 Importance of Meiosis
Crossing over and random assortment of chromosomes are two significant happenings of
meiosis. Following is the importance of meiosis.
(i) Greater Recombinations
During crossing over, parental chromosomes exchange segments with each other which
results in a large number of recombinations.
(ii) Wide Variety of Gametes
During anaphase, the separation of homologous chromosomes is random which gives
very wide range of variety of gametes.
(iii) Evolution and Uniqueness
These variations are not only the bases of evolution, but also make every individual
specific, particular and unique in his characteristics. Even the progeny of very same
parents, i.e., brothers and sisters are not identical to each other.
(iv) Constancy in Chromosome number
Meiosis usually takes place at the time of sexual cells formation i.e. gamete formation in
animals and spores’ formation in plants. In this way chromosome number is halved (n
number). However, the 2n number is restored after fertilization. Thus, the constant
chromosome number is maintained generation after generation.
QUESTIONS RELATED TO ABOVE ARTICLE
What is meiosis? Elaborate the events of prophase-I.
Compare mitosis and meiosis and describe their importance. (Exercise Question v)
Describe meiosis and explain significance. (Exercise Question vii)
21.3.2 Meiotic Errors (Non-Disjunction))
Meiosis is an orderly occurring phenomenon, which ensures every phase with appropriate
finish, but sometimes, at any point the result may be unexpected, causing abnormalities.
One of such abnormalities is chromosome non-disjunctions, in which chromosomes fail
to segregate during anaphase and telophase and do not finish with equal distribution of
chromosome among all the daughter nuclei. This result either increase or decrease in the
number of chromosomes, causing serious physical, social and mental disorders.
This non-disjunction may occur at
 Autosomes level.
 Sex chromosomes level.

188
Chapter–21 Cell Cycle
Example
Some examples of each type may discuss below in some detail.

Fig 24.6 Non-disjunction of autosomes (a) Non disjunction occurring during meiosis I
and meiosis II, gametes (asterisks mark points of non-disjunction).

Syndrome Sex Chromosomes Frequency Frequency of births

of Abortions
Down M or F Trisomy 21 1/40 1/700
Patau M or F Trisomy 13 1/33 1/15,000
Edward M or F Trisomy 18 1/200 1/6,000
Turner F XO 1/18 1/6,000
Metafemale F XXX or XXXX 0 1/1,500
Klinefelter M XXY or XXXY 0 1/1,500
Jacobs M XYY ? 1/1,000
Fig 21.6 (b) Frequency of syndromes
A) Down’s Syndrome (Mongolism)
Features
i) It is result of autosomal non-disjunctions in man during which 21st pair of chromosomes
fail to segregate.
ii) Resulting in gametes with 24 chromosomes.
iii) Individual resulting from fusion of this gamete with normal gamete has 47 (2n+1) instead
of normal 46 chromosomes.
iv) Non-disjunction usually occurs in formation of ova.
Autosomal non-disjunction may occur in other than 21st chromosome, which usually
results in abortion or death in very early age.
Frequency
It is related with age of mother.
 Frequency by teenage mother having down’s syndrome child is one in many thousands.
 Frequency by forty-year-old mother is one in hundred chances.
 Frequency by forty five year old mother is three times greater than forty.
189
Chapter–21 Cell Cycle
Abnormalities
The affected individuals have flat, broad face, squint eyes with skin folded in the inner
corner, protruding tongue, mental retardation and defective development of central
nervous system.
B) Turner’s Syndrome
Features
i) These affected individuals have one missing X chromosome with only 45 chromosomes
(44 autosomes + X).
ii) They have 45 chromosomes (2n-1) instead normal 46.
iii) There are 44 autosomes with one X chromosome.
Abnormalities
Individuals with this condition often do not survive pregnancy and are aborted. Those
who survive have female appearance with short stature, webbed neck, without ovaries
and complete absence of germ cells.
C) Klinefelter’s Syndrome
Features
i) These individuals have additional sex chromosomes i.e. 47 chromosomes.
ii) Extra chromosomes may be X or Y.
iii) Individuals with 47 chromosomes (44 Autosomes + XXY) are phenotypically male but
have enlarged breasts, tendency to tallness, obesity, small testes with no sperm
ejaculation and under development of secondary sex characters.
iv) Male with 47 chromosomes i.e. 44 autosomes and XYY are also observed.
v) Male with 48 chromosomes have 44 autosomes with XXXY chromosomes.
vi) Male with 49 chromosomes have 44 autosomes with XXXXY chromosomes.
QUESTIONS RELATED TO ABOVE ARTICLE
Write note on Klinefelter ‘s syndrome.
Write note on Turner ‘s syndrome.
Define non-disjunction and discuss its effects with one example.
(Exercise Question)
21.4 NECROSIS AND APOPTOSIS
All the activities of cells i.e. cell division, pattern formation, differentiation, morphogenesis
and motility are controlled and depend upon extracellular and intracellular signals.
Death of a cell is also programmed and predestined.
Cell Death in Multicellular Organisms
Cell death in multicellular organisms is controlled by two fundamentally different ways;
1) Cell commits suicide in absence of survival signals (Trophic factors)
2) Murder of cells by killing signals from other cells (necrosis)

190
Chapter–21 Cell Cycle
1) Apoptosis
It is Greek word meaning dropping off or
falling off.
It can be defined as follows
“Internal program of events and sequence of
morphological changes by which cell commits
suicide is collectively called as apoptosis.”
Changes in Cell during Apoptosis
Various events occurring during apoptosis are
described below
i) Cell shrinks.
ii) Chromatin material first becomes compact and
then segregates.
iii) Cytoplasm is condensed.
iv) Nuclear fragmentation occurs.
v) Blebbing of cell membrane occurs with its loss
later on.
vi) Ultimately cell fragmentation occurs, and
membrane bounded apoptotic bodies are
Fig. 21.7 Ultrastructural features of cell
released and phagocytosed by other cells. death by apoptosis
vii) Intracellular constituents are not released freely
in extracellular atmosphere which otherwise might have deleterious effects.
Importance
i) Programmed cell dearth helps in proper control of multicellular development.
ii) It may lead to deletion of entire structure e.g. tail of developing human embryo or part of
structure e.g. tissue between developing digits.
iii) Cell death even controls the number of neurons because most of neurons in the human
body die during development.
2) Necrosis
Cell death due to tissue damage is called necrosis.
Changes in Cell During Necrosis
i) Typical cell swells and bursts.
ii) Intracellular contents are released in extracellular environment.
iii) These contents damage neighbouring cells and cause inflammation.
QUESTIONS RELATED TO ABOVE ARTICLE
Write about necrosis and apoptosis.
In what respect cell death is regarded beneficial? (Exercise Question iv)

191
Chapter–21 Cell Cycle

KEY POINTS
Genetic recombination
The reshuffling of genetic material (DNA) and formation of new combination is called
genetic recombination.
Equatorial plate
The chromosomes in metaphase are arranged in the middle of spindle fibers in such a
way that they form equatorial plates.
Random assortment of chromosomes
The phenomenon in which homologous chromosome has a chance to form combination
with any other non – homologous chromosome. Humans have 46 chromosome, except its
non-homologous chromosome.
Edward’s Syndrome
Genetic disorder caused by the presence of all or part of an extra 18 th chromosome. The
majority of people with the syndrome die during the fetal stage; in fact who survive
experience serious defects and commonly live for short time period.
Jacob’s Syndrome
Genetic condition in which a male has an extra Y-chromosome. Symptoms include being
taller than average, acne and an increased risk of learning problems.
Patau Syndrome
In this syndrome all cells of the body contain extra genetic material from chromosome-13.
This disrupts normal development causing multiple and complex organ defects.
Synaptonemal Complex
A protein structure that forms between homologous chromosomes during meiosis. It mediates
chromosome pairing, synapsis and recombination.

192
Chapter–21 Cell Cycle

EXERCISE
Q1 Fill in the blanks. Q3 Write whether the statement is
i) Mongolism is also known as true or false and write the correct
______________. statement if false.
ii) During ______________ i) Meiosis occurs in haploid cells only.
homologous chromosomes get close (False)
to each other. Meiosis occurs in diploid cells only.
iii) _____________ Phase precedes G2 ii) Cell cycle is comprised of two
phase. phases i.e. karyokinesis and
iv) Polar microtubules _____________ cytokinesis. (False)
during anaphase. Cell cycle is comprised of two
v) Mitotic apparatus is formed during phases i.e. interphase and cell
__________ of cell division. division.
vi) The chromosome number (44 + 1) iii) A point where non-sister chromatids
denotes ___________ syndrome. cross each other is called
vii) Intracellular contents are released kinetochore. (False)
during the type of cell death called A point where non-sister chromatids
_____________. cross each other is called chiasma.
Ans i) Down’s syndrome iv) G0 stands for no gap. (True)
ii) Leptotene v) Full life cycle of yeast cells requires
iii) S 90 seconds to be completed. (False)
Full cell cycle of yeast cells requires
iv) Elongate
90 minutes to be completed.
v) Prophase
vi) Crossing over takes place during
vi) Turner’s syndrome vii) Necrosis
metaphase I. (False)
Q2 Encircle the correct answer from
Crossing over takes place during
the multiple choices.
prophase I.
i) In Klinefelter’s syndrome: vii) Autosomal non-disjunction may
(a) One X chromosome is missing occur in other than 21 st chromosome.
(b) Additional sex chromosome (True)
present viii) Benign tumors are always non-
(c) Sex chromosome fail to segregate localized. (False)
(d) None of these Benign tumors are always localized.
ii) Mitosis is divided into: ix) Cancer is caused mainly by
(a) Karyokinesis (b) Cytokinesis mutations in germ cells. (False)
(c) Interphase (d) Both a and b Cancer is caused mainly by
iii) Separation of homologous mutations in somatic cells.
chromosomes occur during: x) Genetic information remains
(a) Prophase (b) Metaphase unchanged during mitosis. (True)
(c) Telophase (d) Anaphase xi) Homologous chromosomes are
i b necessarily identical. (True)
ii d xii) The cells are kept alive due to
iii d trophic factors. (True)
xiii) Cytokinesis involves the division of
cytochromes. (False)
Cytokinesis involves the division of
whole cell.
xiv) Phragmoplast is a type of
fragmentation (True)
193
Chapter–21 Cell Cycle
Q4 Short Questions. iv) Give importance and significance
i) Differentiate between “Necrosis” of meiosis.
and “Apoptosis”. Ans:
Ans:  Crossing over results in a large
number of recombination.
Necrosis Apoptosis
Cell death due It is programmed  It results in wide range of variety
of gametes.
to tissue cell death.
damage.  These variations provide raw
material for evolution.
Also known as It is called as
 Constancy in chromosome
murder of the suicide of the
number.
cell. cells.
v) Define chromosomal non-
Cell bursts after Cell shrinks, disjunction.
swelling cytoplasm Ans: Inability of chromosomes to segregate
condenses during anaphase and telophase is called
Intracellular Intracellular non-disjunction and do not finish equal
contents are contents are not distribution of chromosomes among all
released released instead the daughter nuclei.
outside. apoptotic bodies vi) What are symptoms of Turner’s
are formed. syndrome?
May causes Does not cause Ans: These affected individuals have one
inflammation. inflammation. missing X chromosome with only 45
Harmful for It is beneficial, chromosomes (44 autosomes + X).
tissues. as some Individuals with condition often do
unwanted cells not survive pregnancy and are aborted.
during Those who survive have female
development or appearance with;
metamorphosis  Short stature,
are removed.  Webbed neck,
ii) What are the functions of mitotic  Without ovaries
apparatus?  And complete absence of germ
Ans: It is designed to attach and capture cells.
chromosomes, align them and finally vii) Define cell cycle. Highlight its
separating them so that equal importance and significance
distribution of chromosomes is Ans: Sequence of changes, which involve
ensured. period of growth, replication of
iii) How can you identify the cancer DNA, followed by cell division is
cells? called cell cycle. At each stage of
Ans: Cancer cells can be indicated by; cell cycle, there are specific check
 Higher nucleus to cytoplasm points, which determine the fate of
ratio new phase according to cell’s
internal make up.
 Prominent nuclei
viii) Is interphase resting phase? Why?
 Many mitosis Ans: No, interphase is the period of life
 Less differentiated than normal cycle of cell between two
cells consecutive divisions is termed as
 Rapidly growing cells the interphase or misleadingly called
resting phase. It is the period of great
biochemical activity and can further
be divided into G1-phase, S-phase
and G2-phase

194
Chapter–21 Cell Cycle
ix) In what respect mitosis in plant iii) What is role of centriole in an animal
cells differ from that of in animal cell? How this function is carried out
cells? in plant cell?
Ans: Ans (see article 21.2)
Animal Plant Mitosis iv) In what respect can cell death be
Mitosis regarded beneficial?
Spindle fibers As centrioles are Ans (see article 21.4)
originate from absent so spindle v) Compare mitosis and meiosis and
centrioles. fibers originate describe their importance.
from analogous Ans (see article 21.2 & 21.2.3 & 21.3.1)
region of vi) Define non-disjunction and discuss
centriole. its effect.
Mitotic Only spindle is Ans (see article 21.3.2)
apparatus is present. vii) Describe meiosis and explain
formed. significance.
During Cell shape does Ans (see article 21.3)
cytokinesis cell not change
shape is during
changed. cytokinesis.
Cytokinesis Cytokinesis
occurs by occurs by means
means of of phragmoplast.
contractile ring.
Centrioles are Centrioles are
present absent
Q5 Extensive Questions.
i) How cytokinesis occurs in animal
cells? In which way does it differ
from that in plant cell?
Ans (see article 21.2)
ii) Why and how do the chromosomes
get separated during anaphase of
mitosis?
Ans (see article 21.2)

195