Activating your

K nowledge
Activity
Name: _______________________________ 1 Date: ______________________
Course/Year/Section: _______________

CULTUR
E CLASH

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1. Think of at least THREE (3) PRACTICES in your province which you deemed to be unique
in your culture.
2. Discuss the general perspective of the country in relation to your province’s practice.
(E.g.:
Practice: Nueva Ecija has terms for elder/younger brothers and sisters like ditse,
dikong, sangko, sanse, etc.
General Perspective (GP): The country, in general, only uses ate, kuya or bunso.
3. Fill-in the figure below.

Practice:
GP:

Practice:
GP:

Practice:
GP:

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 Expanding your
Knowledge
UNIT I
INTRODUCTION to LANGUAGE, SOCIETY, and
CULTURE
This unit gives you an idea on how language, society, and culture are interwoven and
interrelated with each other. A major focus of the unit will be on how different languages and
language varieties co-exist, complement or replace other languages and language varieties or even
result in new languages. In particular, it also examines various factors which explicates why people
use language differently in different social situations, and aims to explain how they convey social
meaning and signal aspects of their social and cultural identity through language.

Objectives: What is a Language?

At the end of this unit, I According to Britannica.com (2021), language is a
am able to: system of conventional spoken, manual (signed), or written
1. differentiate language,
symbols by means of which human beings, as members of
society and culture and
a social group and participants in its culture, express
analyze their
interrelationship; themselves. Further, Henry Sweet, an English phonetician and
2. discuss some of the social language scholar, defined language as “the expression of ideas
norms that guide by means of speech-sounds combined into words. Words are
conversational interaction; combined into sentences, this combination answering to that of
3. identify some of the ways in ideas into thoughts.” Moreover, the American
which language varies based linguists Bernard Bloch and George L. Trager formulated
on cultural context; the following definition: “A language is a system of arbitrary
4. explain the role that vocal symbols by means of which a social group cooperates.”
accommodation and code-
switching play in Language is also seen as species-specific to human
communication; and beings. Its functions include communication, the expression
5. discuss cultural bias in of identity, play, imaginative expression
relation to specific cultural and emotional release. Among these, in most accounts, the
identities of the writers in primary purpose of language is to facilitate communication, in
this era. the sense of transmission of information from one person to
another. However, sociolinguistic and psycholinguistic
studies have drawn attention to a range of other functions for language. Among these is the use of
language to express a national or local identity since it interacts with every aspect of human life in
society, and it can be understood only if it is considered in relation to society.
Language Designations
The word language includes a mult of different designations. Two senses have already
been distinguished: language as a universal species-specific capability of the human race and
languages as the various manifestations of that capability, as with English, French, Latin, Swahili,
Malay, and so on. With these, the following designations are made:

Dialects
It is a variety of a language that signals where a person Tagalog of Nueva Ecija is
comes from. The notion is usually interpreted geographically different from the Tagalog
(regional dialect), but it also has some application in relation to a of Aurora, Bulacan,
person’s social background (class dialect) or occupation Batangas, Metro Manila
(occupational dialect). The word dialect comes from the Ancient and other Tagalog
Greek dialektos “discourse, language, dialect,” which is derived speaking provinces. Hence,
from dialegesthai “to discourse, talk.” A dialect is chiefly they are considered as
distinguished from other dialects of the same language by features of “dialects” of Tagalog
linguistic structure i.e., grammar (specifically morphology and language.
syntax) and vocabulary (Crystal, 2020).

Jargons
Like a secret “insider” language, jargon is the terminology only understood by people in a
certain group. Most words in the English language are a part of common, everyday speech,

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 understood by almost anyone who speaks the language.
However, jargon is like a type of shorthand between members of a
particular group of people, often involving words that are
meaningless outside of a certain context. Following are some
examples of jargon that will help illustrate the concept
(YourDictionary, 2020).

Pidgin
It is a simplified form of speech formed out of one or more
existing languages and used as a lingua franca by people who have
no other language in common. Also known as a pidgin language or an auxiliary language.
Further, R.L. Trask and Peter Stockwell, stressed out that pidgin is a nobody's mother
tongue, and it is not a real language at all: it has no elaborate grammar, it is very limited in what it
can convey, and different people speak it differently. Still, for simple purposes, it does work, and
often everybody in the area learns to handle it (Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts,
2007).
Moreover, pidgin is the combination of two or more languages which sometimes occurs in
trade contact, multi-ethnic or refugee situations, where participants need a functioning common
language. . . . Sometimes the pidgin becomes stable and established and comes to be spoken as
a mother-tongue by children: the language has then become a creole, which quickly develops in
complexity and is used in all functional settings. The process of turning a pidgin into a creole is
called
creolization (Language and Linguistics, 2007).

Creole
It is a stable natural language that develops from the simplifying and mixing of different
languages into a new one within a fairly brief period of time: often, a pidgin evolved into a full-
fledged language. While the concept is similar to that of a mixed or hybrid language, creoles are
often characterized by a tendency to systematize their inherited grammar (e.g., by eliminating
irregularities or regularizing the conjugation of otherwise irregular verbs). Like any language,
creoles are characterized by a consistent system of grammar, possess large stable vocabularies,
and are acquired by children as their native language. These three features distinguish a creole
language from a pidgin. Creolistics, or creology, is the study of creole languages and, as such, is a
subfield of linguistics. Someone who engages in this study is called a creolist.

What is a Society?
According to sociologists, a society is a group of people with common territory, interaction,
and culture. The society in which we live determines everything from the food we eat to the
choices we make. The word society comes from the Latin root socius, meaning “companion” or
“being with others.” A society consists of people who share a territory, who interact with each
other, and who share a culture. Some societies are, in fact, groups of people united by friendship or
common interests. Our respective societies teach us how to behave, what to believe, and how we’ll
be punished if we don’t follow the laws or customs in place.
Social groups, which consist of two or more people who interact and identify with one
another, vary depending on the following factors:

a. Territory
Most countries have formal boundaries and territory that the world recognizes as
theirs. However, a society’s boundaries don’t have to be geopolitical borders, such as the
one between the United States and Canada. Instead, members of a society, as well as
nonmembers, must recognize particular land as belonging to that society.
b. Interaction
Members of a society must come in contact with one another. If a group of people
within a country has no regular contact with another group, those groups cannot be
considered part of the same society. Geographic distance and language barriers can
separate societies within a country.
c. Culture
People of the same society share aspects of their culture, such as language or
beliefs. Culture refers to the language, values, beliefs, behavior, and material objects that
constitute a people’s way of life. It is a defining element of society.
d. Pluralism

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 Philippines is a society composed of many groups of people, some of whom originally
belonged to other societies. Sociologists consider Philippines a Pluralistic Society, meaning it is
built of many groups. As societies modernize, they attract people from countries where there
may be economic hardship, political unrest, or religious persecution.
e. Assimilation
Some practices that are common in other societies will inevitably offend or contradict
the values and beliefs of the new society. Groups seeking to become part of a pluralistic society
often have to give up many of their original traditions in order to fit in—a process known
as Assimilation.

What is Culture?
Culture is the characteristics and knowledge of a particular group of people, encompassing
language, religion, cuisine, social habits, music and arts.
The Center for Advance Research on Language Acquisition goes a step further, defining
culture as shared patterns of behaviors and interactions, cognitive constructs and understanding
that are learned by socialization. Thus, it can be seen as the growth of a group identity fostered by
social patterns unique to the group.
"Culture encompasses religion, food, what we wear, how we wear it, our language,
marriage, music, what we believe is right or wrong, how we sit at the table, how we greet visitors,
how we behave with loved ones, and a million other things," Cristina De Rossi, an anthropologist at
Barnet and Southgate College in London, told Live Science.

Other Definitions of Culture

 Culture refers to the cumulative deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values,
attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts
of the universe, and material objects and possessions acquired by a group of people in the
course of generations through individual and group striving.
 Culture is the systems of knowledge shared by a relatively large group of people.
 Culture is communication, communication is culture.
 Culture in its broadest sense is cultivated behavior; that is the totality of a person's
learned, accumulated experience which is socially transmitted, or more briefly, behavior
through social learning.
 A culture is a way of life of a group of people--the behaviors, beliefs, values, and symbols
that they accept, generally without thinking about them, and that are passed along by
communication and imitation from one generation to the next.
 Culture is symbolic communication. Some of its symbols include a group's skills,
knowledge, attitudes, values, and motives. The meanings of the symbols are learned and
deliberately perpetuated in a society through its institutions.
 Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior acquired and
transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievement of human groups,
including their embodiments in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of
traditional ideas and especially their attached values; culture systems may, on the one
hand, be considered as products of action, on the other hand, as conditioning influences
upon further action.
 Culture is the sum of total of the learned behavior of a group of people that are generally
considered to be the tradition of that people and are transmitted from generation to
generation.
 Culture is a collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one
group or category of people from another.

Relationship Among Language, Society, and Culture

Society and culture influence the words that we speak, and the words that we speak
influence society and culture. Such a cyclical relationship can be difficult to understand, but many
of the examples throughout this chapter and examples from our own lives help illustrate this point.
One of the best ways to learn about society, culture, and language is to seek out opportunities to go
beyond our typical comfort zones. Studying abroad, for example, brings many challenges that can
turn into valuable lessons.

Language and Social Context

Meanings are also derived through conversational interaction which follows many social
norms and rules. Rules are explicitly stated conventions and norms are implicit. To help

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conversations function meaningfully, we have learned social norms and internalized them to such
an extent that we do not often consciously enact them. Instead, we rely on routines and roles to
help us proceed with verbal interaction, which also helps determine how a conversation will
unfold. Our various social roles influence meaning and how we speak. For example, a person may
say, “As a longtime member of this community…” or “As a first-generation college student…” Such
statements cue others into the personal and social context from which we are speaking, which
helps them better interpret our meaning.
One social norm that structures our communication is turn taking. People need to feel like
they are contributing something to an interaction, so turn taking is a central part of how
conversations play out (Crystal, 2005).
We also have certain units of speech that facilitate turn taking. Adjacency pairs are related
communication structures that come one after the other (adjacent to each other) in an interaction
(Crystal, 2005). For example, questions are followed by answers, greetings are followed by
responses, compliments are followed by a thank you, and informative comments are followed by
an acknowledgment.

Language and Cultural Context

Culture isn’t solely determined by a person’s native language or nationality. It’s true that
languages vary by country and region and that the language we speak influences our realities, but
even people who speak the same language experience cultural differences because of their various
intersecting cultural identities and personal experiences. We have a tendency to view our language
as a whole more favorably than other languages. Although people may make persuasive arguments
regarding which languages are more pleasing to the ear or difficult or easy to learn than others, no
one language enables speakers to communicate more effectively than another (McCornack, 2007).
The actual language we speak plays an important role in shaping our reality. Comparing
languages, we can see differences in how we are able to talk about the world. In English, we have
the words grandfather and grandmother, but no single word that distinguishes between a
maternal grandfather and a paternal grandfather. But in Swedish, there’s a specific word for each
grandparent: morfar is mother’s father, farfar is father’s father, farmor is father’s mother,
and mormor is mother’s mother (Crystal, 2005). In this example, we can see that the words
available to us, based on the language we speak, influence how we talk about the world due to
differences in and limitations of vocabulary. The notion that language shapes our view of reality
and our cultural patterns is best represented by the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. Although some
scholars argue that our reality is determined by our language, we will take a more qualified view
and presume that language plays a central role in influencing our realities but doesn’t determine
them (Martin & Nakayama, 2010).
Culturally influenced differences in language and meaning can lead to some interesting
encounters, ranging from awkward to informative to disastrous. In terms of awkwardness, you
have likely heard stories of companies that failed to exhibit communication competence in their
naming and/or advertising of products in another language. For example, American Motors
introduced a new car called the Matador to the Puerto Rico market only to learn
that Matador means “killer,” which wasn’t very comforting to potential buyers (Kwintessential,
2012). At a more informative level, the words we use to give positive reinforcement are culturally
relative. In the United States and England, parents commonly positively and negatively reinforce
their child’s behavior by saying, “Good girl” or “Good boy.” There isn’t an equivalent for such a
phrase in other European languages, so the usage in only these two countries has been traced back
to the puritan influence on beliefs about good and bad behavior (Wierzbicka, 2004). In terms of
disastrous consequences, one of the most publicized and deadliest cross-cultural business
mistakes occurred in India in 1984. Union Carbide, an American company, controlled a plant used
to make pesticides. The company underestimated the amount of cross-cultural training that would
be needed to allow the local workers, many of whom were not familiar with the technology or
language/jargon used in the instructions for plant operations to do their jobs. This lack of
competent communication led to a gas leak that immediately killed more than two thousand
people and over time led to more than five hundred thousand injuries (Varma, 2012).

Accents and Dialects

Dialects are versions of languages that have distinct words, grammar, and
pronunciation. Accents are distinct styles of pronunciation (Lustig & Koester, 2006). There can be
multiple accents within one dialect. Even though the speakers speak a similar dialect, a person
from one region/location could still have an accent that is distinguishable from other
region/location.

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 Dialects and accents can vary by region, class, or ancestry, and they influence the
impressions that we make of others. Research shows that people tend to think more positively
about others who speak with a dialect similar to their own and think more negatively about people
who speak differently. Of course, many people think they speak normally and perceive others to
have an accent or dialect. Although dialects include the use of different words and phrases, it’s the
tone of voice that often creates the strongest impression. For example, a person who speaks with a
Baleriano (Aurora Province) accent may perceive a Novo Ecijano’s accent to be grating, harsh, or
rude.

Customs and Norms

Social norms are culturally relative. The words used in politeness rituals in one culture can
mean something completely different in another. For example, thank you in American English
acknowledges receiving something (a gift, a favor, a compliment), in British English it can mean
“yes” similar to American English’s yes, please, and in French merci can mean “no” as in “no, thank
you” (Crystal, 2005). Additionally, what is considered a powerful language style varies from
culture to culture. Confrontational language, such as swearing, can be seen as powerful in Western
cultures, even though it violates some language taboos, but would be seen as immature and weak
in Japan (Wetzel, 1988).
Gender also affects how we use language, but not to the extent that most people think.
Although there is a widespread belief that men are more likely to communicate in a clear and
straightforward way and women are more likely to communicate in an emotional and indirect
way, a meta-analysis of research findings from more than two hundred studies found only small
differences in the personal disclosures of men and women (Dindia & Allen, 1992).

Communication Accommodation and Code-Switching

Communication accommodation theory is a theory that explores why and how people
modify their communication to fit situational, social, cultural, and relational contexts (Giles, Taylor,
& Bourhis, 1973). Within communication accommodation, conversational partners may
use convergence, meaning a person makes his or her communication more like another person’s.
People who are accommodating in their communication style are seen as more competent, which
illustrates the benefits of communicative flexibility. In order to be flexible, of course, people have
to be aware of and monitor their own and others’ communication patterns. Conversely,
conversational partners may use divergence, meaning a person uses communication to emphasize
the differences between his or her conversational partner and his or herself.
Convergence and divergence can take place within the same conversation and may be used
by one or both conversational partners. Convergence functions to make others feel at ease, to
increase understanding, and to enhance social bonds. Divergence may be used to intentionally
make another person feel unwelcome or perhaps to highlight a personal, group, or cultural
identity.
While communication accommodation might involve anything from adjusting how fast or
slow you talk to how long you speak during each turn, code-switching refers to changes in accent,
dialect, or language (Martin & Nakayama, 2010).

Language and Cultural Bias

Cultural bias is a skewed way of viewing or talking about a group that is typically negative.
Bias has a way of creeping into our daily language use, often under our awareness. Culturally
biased language can make reference to one or more cultural identities, including race, gender, age,
sexual orientation, and ability. Much biased language is based on stereotypes and myths that
influence the words we use. Bias is both intentional and unintentional, but we have to be
accountable for what we say even if we didn’t “intend” a particular meaning—remember, meaning
is generated; it doesn’t exist inside our thoughts or words.

Race
People sometimes use euphemisms for race that illustrate bias because the terms are
usually implicitly compared to the dominant group (Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association, 2010). For example, referring to a person as “urban” or a neighborhood
as “inner city” can be an accurate descriptor, but when such words are used as a substitute for
racial identity, they illustrate cultural biases that equate certain races with cities and poverty.
Using adjectives like articulate or well-dressed in statements like “My black coworker is articulate”
reinforces negative stereotypes even though these words are typically viewed as positive. Terms
like nonwhite set up whiteness as the norm, which implies that white people are the norm against
which all other races should be compared. Biased language also reduces the diversity within
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certain racial groups—for example, referring to anyone who looks like they are of Asian descent as
Chinese or everyone who “looks” Latino/a as Mexicans. Some people with racial identities other
than white, including people who are multiracial, use the label person/people of color to indicate
solidarity among groups, but it is likely that they still prefer a more specific label when referring to
an individual or referencing a specific racial group.

Gender
Language has a tendency to exaggerate perceived and stereotypical differences between
men and women. The use of the term opposite sex presumes that men and women are opposites,
like positive and negative poles of a magnet, which is obviously not true or men and women
wouldn’t be able to have successful interactions or relationships. A term like other gender doesn’t
presume opposites and acknowledges that male and female identities and communication are
more influenced by gender, which is the social and cultural meanings and norms associated with
males and females, than sex, which is the physiology and genetic makeup of a male and female. One
key to avoiding gendered bias in language is to avoid the generic use of he when referring to
something relevant to males and females. Instead, you can informally use a gender-neutral
pronoun like they or their or you can use his or her (Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association, 2010). Other words reflect the general masculine bias present in
English. The following word pairs show the gender-biased term followed by an unbiased term:
waitress/server, chairman / chair or chairperson, mankind/people, cameraman / camera
operator, mailman / postal worker, sportsmanship / fair play. Common language practices also
tend to infantilize women but not men, when, for example, women are referred to as chicks, girls,
or babes. Since there is no linguistic equivalent that indicates the marital status of men before their
name, using Ms. instead of Miss or Mrs. helps reduce bias.

Age
Language that includes age bias can be directed toward older or younger people.
Descriptions of younger people often presume recklessness or inexperience, while those of older
people presume frailty or disconnection. The term elderly generally refers to people over sixty-
five, but it has connotations of weakness, which isn’t accurate because there are plenty of people
over sixty-five who are stronger and more athletic than people in their twenties and thirties. Even
though it’s generic, older people doesn’t really have negative implications. More specific words
that describe groups of older people include grandmothers/grandfathers (even though they can be
fairly young too), retirees, or people over sixty-five (Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association, 2010).

Sexual Orientation
Discussions of sexual and affectional orientation range from everyday conversations to
contentious political and personal debates. The negative stereotypes that have been associated
with homosexuality, including deviance, mental illness, and criminal behavior, continue to
influence our language use (American Psychological Association, 2012). Terminology related to
gay, lesbian, and bisexual (GLB) people can also be confusing. Sexual orientation is the term
preferred to sexual preference. Preference suggests a voluntary choice which doesn’t reflect the
experience of most GLB people or research findings that show sexuality is more complex. Using
gender neutral terminology like partner and avoiding other biased language may create a climate
in which a GLB person feels comfortable disclosing his or her sexual orientation identity.

Ability
People with disabilities make up a diverse group that has increasingly come to be viewed
as a cultural/social identity group. People without disabilities are often referred to as able-bodied.
As with sexual orientation, comparing people with disabilities to “normal” people implies that
there is an agreed-on definition of what “normal” is and that people with disabilities are
“abnormal.” Disability is also preferred to the word handicap. Just because someone is disabled
doesn’t mean he or she is also handicapped. The environment around them rather than their
disability often handicaps people with disabilities (Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association, 2010). Language used in conjunction with disabilities also tends to
portray people as victims of their disability and paint pictures of their lives as gloomy, dreadful, or
painful. Such descriptors are often generalizations or completely inaccurate.

Two Perspectives on Sociolinguistic Variation

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Sociolectal Variation

Trudgill (2003) defines socialect as ‘a variety or lect which is thought of as being related to
its speakers’ social background rather geographical background. In other words, it is the language
spoken by a particular social group, class or subculture, whose determinants include such
parameters as: gender, age, occupation, and possibly a few others.
Further, Wilkon (1989) expounded the term sociolect as a ‘language variety related to such
social groups as: class, community and professional groups. The term is meant to apply to
colloquial varieties of a language which are socially and functionally restricted. What distinguishes
a sociolect from the standard variety is above all its lexical repertoire, which is activated in group-
specific contexts. Wilkon (1989) also argues that the main prerequisite for a sociolect is the
existence of a social group whose members maintain strong bonds (professional, social or cultural)
established through frequent contacts with each other. If a sociolect is to evolve, the group of its
users must be stable, have an established tradition, and display a sense of differentness from other
groups.
To elaborate Wilkon’s ideas, Grabias (1994) argues that the interdependence between
language and society is more conspicuous in sociolects than in any other varieties of language. This
is because a social group generates its own language (sociolect), and, simultaneously, the sociolect
shapes and reinforces the group in question.
To support this point, Grabias (1994: 117-118) lists a few group forming functions of social
dialects.
a. a sociolect links individuals with the community of its users and assigns prestige to a
group;
b. it also serves as an important identity marker, distinguishing thus a particular group from
others; and
c. a sociolect, like every language, provides tools for interpreting reality, and imposes on its
users a group-specific image of the world by strengthening the social values that a
particular group holds dear.
This function comes to the fore especially in the languages of violent groups: a violent
group creates a violent language, which in turn consolidates the behavioral patterns of the group
(Grabias 2001: 239).
Grabias’s typology of social dialects is based on three supreme sociolectal categories:
1. professionalism – the usefulness of linguistic devices in the professional activity of the
group;
2. secrecy – the ability to code information to make it accessible only to selected
individuals;
3. expressiveness – means of conveying attitudes to extra-linguistic reality (Grabias
1994: 127).
The nature of a sociolect is largely determined by two of these controlling variables:
professionalism and expressiveness. As a result, in the first stage of categorization social dialects
can be arranged in two oppositions: occupational (professional) vs. non-occupational
(nonprofessional) and expressive vs. non-expressive.
Occupational varieties, according to Grabias, tend to be non-expressive, while expressive
sociolects are lacking in the professionalism category. Grabias (1994) claims that every sociolect
includes strictly professional terminology as well as vocabulary referring to the human being and
the world at large. Whether a particular social dialect should be classified as occupational or
expressive depends on the proportions between professional and non-professional vocabulary. In
the case of occupational varieties, a large portion of sociolectal vocabulary serves to label
unlexicalized concepts, filling thus lexical gaps. Members of occupational groups make subtle
lexical distinctions that are irrelevant to outsiders. A distinctive feature of expressive sociolects, in
turn, is the existence of sets of synonyms: new words and meanings are coined primarily to
replace worn-out slang terms as well as convey humorous and ironical connotations rather than
fill lexical gaps. Semantic precision gives way to attitudinal undertones (some of this vocabulary is
emotionallyloaded).
Grabias also argues that occupational varieties are marked by abbreviated communication
while the vocabularies of expressive social dialects tend to be periphrastic. What we are left with is
the last category, i.e. secrecy. Grabias (1994: 135) thinks that it is a constituent feature of all social
varieties setting them apart from the standard and colloquial varieties of a language. Every
sociolect to a smaller or larger extent contains terminology which is incomprehensible to non-
members of the social group which has generated that sociolect. In some social dialects their users
may deliberately code information to make it inaccessible or incomprehensible to outsiders. Other
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varieties include words and phrases which may just be hardly communicative to ordinary people;
however, their incomprehensibility is by no means intentional. Grabias (1994: 138) distinguishes
then between intentionally coded and unintentionally coded sociolects.
What follows is a complete typology of Polish sociolects, proposed by Grabias (1994: 139),
which is based on all three sociolectal categories (variables): professionalism, secrecy and
expressiveness. Social dialects can accordingly be subdivided into:
1. occupational sociolects – dominated by the referential function: a/ professional
languages (uncoded) – professiolects, according to Wilkoń (1989), in which language items are
designed to convey thoughts in a precise and effective manner; e.g. the sociolects of hunters,
soldiers or seamen; b/ jargons (intentionally coded) – varieties used by groups excluded from
society at large, such as criminals or prisoners;
2. expressive sociolects – dominated by the expressive function: a/ slang (intentionally
uncoded) - language items are designed to convey emotions or attitudes; e.g., students’ or teenage
slang; b/ unintentionally coded varieties – created to experiment or play with language; e.g.,
children’s secretive language.
An important contribution to the Polish theory of social dialects was also made by
Kołodziejek (2006: 35-42). While embracing many of Grabias’s ideas, she argues that nowadays it
is difficult to delimit the boundaries between sociolects given the extent of social mobility (which
applies in particular to young people). After all, most of us belong to a variety of groups
(professional, peer, subcultural, hobby-based), and as we join new speech communities, we bring
in some words and phrases and absorb new ones. As a result, a great deal of sociolectal
terminology is shared by various (sometimes socially remote) groups. Coupled with that is another
valid point concerning the sources of lexical repertoires of sociolects. Kołodziejek identifies three
layers of sociolectal vocabulary:
1. colloquial language – the lexical base of all social dialects. This variety is generally
understood and used by all native speakers of a particular language;
2. general slang vocabulary – used by young people regardless of their social group
affiliation;
3. social group-specific vocabulary – lexical repertoire which is related to the kind of
group activity. It is this layer of lexis which sets apart the varieties of different social
groups, such as soldiers, seamen, hunters, etc.
In the final stage of her theoretical investigation Kołodziejek goes on to elaborate on the
concept of subculture. She makes a distinction between sociolects and languages of subcultures.
While the former, just like slang or jargons, are associated solely with verbal behavior, the latter
should be viewed as much broader concepts as besides the three lexical layers, they embrace
typically subcultural attributes, i.e., the symbolic meaning of group-specific music, rituals, dress,
tattoos, haircuts, etc. Thus, besides the three layers of vocabulary discussed above, a subcultural
language includes yet another one. Hence the communication process within a subculture displays
greater complexity than in the case of a nonsubcultural group.

Registerial variation

According to de Beaugrande (1993) and Matthiessen (1993), the forerunner of the concept
of register was the restricted language – a term coined by J. R. Firth, who defined it as a variety
‘serving a circumscribed field of experience or action’, which ‘can be said to have its own grammar
and dictionary’ (Firth 1957: 87; 98).
Firthian ideas were further pursued by his disciple, the British Australian linguist M.A.K.
Halliday, who is credited to have introduced the term into mainstream linguistic discourse. He
contrasted the concept of register with that of dialect, labeling the former as a variety according to
the use, and the latter as a variety according to the user. In other words, ‘a register is a variety
defined by reference to the social context – it is a function of what you are doing at the time’ while
‘a dialect is a variety of a language that is defined by reference to the speaker: the dialect you speak
is a function of who you are’ (Halliday 1978: 157). A register is thus a variety of language which
corresponds to a variety of situation, and should be viewed as a semantic concept. ‘Since it is a
configuration of meanings, a register must also, of course, include the expressions, the
lexicogrammatical and phonological features, that typically accompany or realize these meanings’
(Halliday and Hassan 1991: 39). Table 1 displays major differences between dialect and register.

Table 1. Dialects and Registers (Halliday 1978: 35)

Dialect (‘dialectal variety’) = variety Register (‘diatypic variety’) = variety
‘according to the user’ ‘according to the use’

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 A dialect is: A register is:
 what you speak (habitually)  what you are speaking (at the time)
 determined by who you are (socio-  determined by what you are doing
region of origin and/or adoption), and (nature of social activity being engaged
 expressing diversity of social structure in), and
(patterns of social hierarchy)  expressing diversity of social process
(social division of labor)

So in principle dialects are: different ways of So in principle registers are: ways of saying
saying the same thing different things and tend to differ in:
and tend to differ in: phonetics, phonology, semantics (and hence in lexicogrammar, and
lexicogrammar (but not in semantics) sometimes phonology, as realization of this)

Extreme cases: antilanguages, mother-in-law Extreme cases: restricted languages, languages

languages for special purposes

Typical instances: subcultural varieties Typical instances: occupational varieties

(standard/nonstandard) (technical, semi-technical)

Principal controlling variables: Social class, Principal controlling variables: Field (type of
caste; provenance (rural/urban); generation; social action); tenor (role relationships); mode
age; sex (symbolic organization)

Characterized by: major distinctions of

Characterized by: Strongly-held attitudes spoken/written; language in action/language
towards dialects as symbol of social diversity in reflection

A number of analysts, while generally subscribing to the traditional approach, under which
registers are defined as situationally-conditioned varieties of language, have focused on different
aspects of these varieties. For instance, Gregory and Carroll (1978: 64) view register as an example
of language-in-action. Assuming a textual perspective, they argue that registers should be
discussed in terms of 1) text-specific phonological, lexical and grammatical markers, and 2)
common-core features, which are typical of all texts. Gregory and Carroll also stress the importance
of cultural factors in the creation of registers ‘since it is the culture of a society which determines the
patterns of environments in which language can occur’ (Gregory and Carroll 1978: 64).
Zwicky and Zwicky (1982) view register as a continuum. At one end there are classical
cases of registers characterized by a strong correlation between linguistic and situational factors.
Examples include newspaper headlines, baby talk, and recipes. On the other end of the spectrum
lie varieties exhibiting a relatively small number of features, such as the language of advertising,
which the authors regard as a collection of various styles and registers.
According to Holmes (2001: 246), the term register can be understood in two ways. In a
broader sense, it is a variety of language associated with such situational parameters as: addressee,
setting, mode of communication, task or topic. However, some researchers apply the term to refer
to the specific vocabulary employed by various occupational groups or used in specific situations.
The narrower definition of the concept seems rather unacceptable since, as has already been
suggested and will be stressed further, register analysis should not be solely restricted to
vocabulary. Register studies should include (and, in fact, most of them do include) other aspects of
language as well. As Ferguson (1994: 20) once put it, ‘people participating in recurrent
communication situations tend to develop similar vocabularies, similar features of intonation, and
characteristic bits of syntax and phonology that they use in these situations.’
Wardhaugh emphasizes a different aspect of registers, referring to them as ‘sets of
language items associated with discrete occupational or social groups’ (Wardhaugh 2002: 51). It is
certainly true that a number of studies have focused on the registers employed by specific groups
such as, for example, sports announcers (Ferguson 1983), students (Reppen 2001), researchers
(Conrad 2001), or even parents speaking baby talk (Ferguson 1977). Nevertheless, the concept is
strongly associated with situations of use rather than with specific groups of individuals, which is
why Wardhaugh’s definition is difficult to accept.
The vagueness of the term register coupled with definitional confusion has led to
numerous discussions among linguists, some of whom have argued for alternative concepts. For

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example, Crystal and Davy (1969), sound highly critical of the notion of register, which they find
obscure, general and overused:
‘This term has been applied to varieties of language in an almost indiscriminate
manner, as if it could be usefully applied to situationally distinctive pieces of language of
any kind. The language of newspaper headlines, church services, sports commentaries,
popular songs, advertising, and football, amongst others, have all been referred to as
registers in one work. […] it is inconsistent, unrealistic, and confusing to obscure these
differences by grouping everything under the same heading.’ (Crystal and Davy 1969:61).

What Is Multilingualism

The entire discussion on multilingualism, including its sub-topics are credited to

Larissa Aronin.
The term multilingualism is used here to refer to the use of three and more languages
and is distinguished, where appropriate, from bilingualism, the use of two languages. In this
perspective bilingualism is taken to be a special case of multilingualism rather than vice versa.
The basic understanding of what multilingualism is often diverges for researchers
depending on their differing backgrounds and ideologies. Definitions include: ‘Multilingualism
is the presence of a number of languages in one country or community or city’;
‘Multilingualism is the use of three or more languages’; and ‘Multilingualism is the ability to
speak several languages’. In this last sense, multilingualism is widely regarded as ‘a natural
state of humankind’ (Flynn, 2016). In addition, neuroscientists discuss multilingualism in the
context of the way the brain is organized among those who speak multiple languages.

Forms of Multilingualism

a. Individual and societal multilingualism

Individual multilingualism relates to the personal sphere and covers the acquisition and
use of several languages by an individual. It deals with an individual’s ability to master, and
appropriately use, two or more languages, and includes language-related physical abilities
and neurological processes taking place in the brain, in healthy, challenged and gifted
individuals. The term plurilingualism is sometimes used instead of individual multilingualism.
The term societal multilingualism refers to the contexts, circumstances, order, manner
and routines of use of languages in different kinds of communities, organizations and groups.
People are not only aware of, but often regulate their language practices through the way they
deal with the language varieties they know, and by introducing additional language varieties
into their communal life. Societies have a prescribed or expected linguistic behavior,
associated with the particular position or status of languages in a family, school, nation and
country. How multiple language varieties intersect in society, what the status and social
opportunities of people are who use particular languages in certain multilingual contexts,
what the language policies and practices are and how they change with time – all these issues
are within the scope of societal multilingualism (Edwards, 2007). Also, multilingualism may
impact on how the language(s) one uses influence how easily one can obtain medical help,
publish an article, write a complaint and get a job in a multilingual country. Likewise, such
details as whether one has a container in one’s kitchen on which the word ‘bread’ is written in
an indigenous or a lesser used language, rather than in an official language of a country, are
matters of societal multilingualism.

b. Historical and current multilingualism

Multilingualism is a specifically human feature and has been characteristic of humans for
thousands of years. Language is involved in human evolution in an intricate way and language
is a quality distinguishing our species from others. Notably, many languages have been
spoken from the dawn of human interaction. Barnard (2016: 134) maintains that with Homo
sapiens and possibly Neanderthals, who had bigger brains than Homo sapiens,
‘[m]ultilingualism was the norm, and multilingual peoples were made up of individuals from
different linguistic backgrounds, whose groups intermarried and passed on both their genes
and their linguistic diversity’. Looking at more recent history, we see that the social nature of
language and ideas about it roughly parallel stages of societal evolution and organization,
varying under changing historical circumstances.

The Key Features of Current Multilingualism

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 Current multilingualism differs from the previous social linguistic arrangements in
many ways. The following discussions present the characteristic features of postmodernity
inextricably linked to current language practices and the key features of current
multilingualism.

Globalization as a context and the driving force

The scope of multilingualism has broadened immensely to the extent that it now covers
the whole world. Even the countries that were until recently considered strictly monolingual,
such as Japan and Iceland, are now experiencing an influx of languages and multilingual
speakers. Current multilingualism is suffusive, being part and parcel of most current human
activities. In late postmodern times multilingualism has gradually developed into a
phenomenon crucial in its role in and impact on human civilization. It is central to the
progress and maintenance of modern civilization (Aronin & Singleton, 2012).

Mobility is one of the features deemed to be the cause of diversity of the current
multilingualism. Barnard (2016) believes that language had begun before modern humans
populated the earth: ‘[w]hen humans first arrived in Australia, they arrived with language,
having used it on their migration and after their fortuitous settlement on the continent’
(Barnard, 2016: 134). In the Middle Ages in Europe the roads were full of pilgrims, priests and
wandering soldiers, and carriages bringing families and their luggage from villages to towns
and back. Chaunu (1966) describes the ways in which improving transport in Europe
facilitated the flow of people and trade, resulting in remarkable economic effects for some
places. Early modern history (see, for example, Betteridge, 2007; Schilling, 2008) also
presents us with evidence of significant movements of individuals, populations and goods
around Europe.

Technological advance in our times may seem pertinent only to our period, but
scholars tell us that the previous eras’ breakthroughs in technology appeared perhaps even
more drastic to their contemporaries. Radical technological improvements have been
occurring for a long time and some scientists claim that the emergence of such technologies
stunned contemporaries not less and perhaps more than the internet and modern-day
sophisticated appliances impress us. It has to be acknowledged, on the other hand, that the
transformations wrought by communication technology have brought crucial changes to
linguistic practices.
In 2007 Steven Vertovec introduced the concept of ‘superdiversity’ in the field of social
science. His intention was to address ‘a changed set of conditions and social configurations
which call for a multidimensional approach to understanding contemporary processes of
change and their outcomes’ (Vertovec, 2014, italics in original). The author of this concept
specified that transformative ‘diversification of diversity’ ‘has not just occurred in terms of
movements of people reflecting more ethnicities, languages and countries of origin, but also
with respect to a multiplication of significant variables that affect where, how and with whom
people live’ (Vertovec, 2014). No doubt the sociolinguistic diversity and superdiversity of
language variants, language users and linguistic practices and situations that has ensued is
part of this global process.
One more important novelty that has entered the globalization discourse is a complexity
or emergence perspective. According to this, the world is not only complex in the meaning of
‘complicated’, as simply compiled of many elements, but complex, assuming that the whole is
greater than the sum of its parts.
To conclude, we can say the following. Being part and parcel of globalization,
multilingualism is inherently involved in its main processes. Globalization processes, such as
migration and technological advance and characteristics such as superdiversity and
complexity, reflect multilingualism practices.

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 Activity
2
Synthesizing your
Knowledge
Name: _______________________________
Course/Year/Section: _______________
Score: ______________________
Date: _______________________

Directions: In three to five sentences, answer the given questions.

1. Describe an accent or a dialect that you find pleasing/interesting. Describe an

accent/dialect that you do not find pleasing/interesting. Why do you think you evaluate
one positively and the other negatively?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
2. How does your language reflect your culture?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
3. What do you think the impact on your identity would be if you were to lose your native
language?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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 Activity
3
Name: _______________________________ Score: ______________________
Course/Year/Section: _______________ Date: _______________________

Research on the The words must be

“distinct Tagalog related to
A minimum of 10 words
words of Nueva Ecija, “family/relationship”
shall be collected
or your municipality, in and
specific” “farming/agriculture”

If the words you listed

Check FILIPINO/
have the same meaning,
TAGALOG Dictionary if List down the words,
THEY are NOT
the words you listed based on the two (2)
DISTINCT and should be
belong there and have categories
cancelled from the
the same meaning.
roster

Hence, think of other You are given 1 month

Present the words in a
words which will qualify to complete the task
table
to the aforesaid criteria

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Referenc
es
American Psychological Association. (2012). Supplemental Material: Writing Clearly and Concisely.
Retrieved from http://www.apastyle.org/manual/supplement/redirects/pubman-
ch03.13.aspx on January 9, 2021.

Crystal, D. (2005). Dialects. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/topic/language

Crystal, D. (2005). How Language Works: How Babies Babble, Words Change Meaning, and
Languages Live or Die. Woodstock, NY: Overlook Press, 155.

Giles, H., Donald M. Taylor, and Richard Bourhis. (1973). Toward a Theory of Interpersonal
Accommodation through Language: Some Canadian Data,” Language and Society 2, no.
2: 177–92.
https://www.livescience.com/21478-what-is-culture-definition-of-culture.html

Kwintessential Limited. (2012). Results of Poor Cross Cultural Awareness.” Retrieved from
http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/cultural-services/articles/Results of Poor Cross
Cultural Awareness.html on January 9, 2021.

Martin, J. N. and Thomas K. Nakayama. (2010). Intercultural Communication in Contexts, 5th ed.
(Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 222–24.

McCornack, S. (2007). Reflect and Relate: An Introduction to Interpersonal

Communication (Boston, MA: Bedford/St Martin’s, 224–25.

Mufwene, S. S. (2005). Creole. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/topic/jargon-

linguistics on January 9, 2021.

Mufwene, S. S. (2005). Jargon. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/topic/jargon-

linguistics on January 9, 2021.

Mufwene, S. S. (2005). Pidgin. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/topic/jargon-

linguistics on January 9, 2021.

Nadeem, S. (2012). “Accent Neutralisation and a Crisis of Identity in India’s Call Centres,” The
Guardian. Retrieved
from http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2011/feb/09/india-call-centres-
accent-neutralisation on January 9, 2021.

Nordquist, R. (2020). Pidgin. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/pidgin-language-

1691626 on January 9, 2021.

Wierzbicka, A. (2004). The English Expressions Good Boy and Good Girl and Cultural Models of
Child Rearing,” Culture and Psychology 10, no. 3: 251–78.

Your Dictionary. (2020). Examples of Jargons. Retrieved from

https://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-of-jargon.html on January 9, 2021.

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 Activating your
K nowledge
Activity
1
Name: _______________________________ Date: ______________________
Course/Year/Section: _______________

INTERPR
ET ME!
A. Direction: Look at each face and write down the name of the emotion or mental state that you
think the face is showing.

Now, redraw each face leaving the eyes as they are, but changing the mouth to better fit your
interpretation. Compare your newly drawn faces with those of others in the class.

B. Direction: Use the smile/frown notation of the Carlos and Merissa example to annotate a recent
conversation of your own or a conversation that you have observed between two family members
or friends. If "smile" and "frown" are insufficient to convey the meanings needed, develop
additional symbols.

TAKE NOTE: Use other sheets of paper to answer these activities.

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 Expanding your
Knowledge
UNIT II
LANGUAGE USE IN SOCIETY
This unit gives you an idea on how the language is used in a society as it is seen as a sealed
system, subject to its own rules. Social context recognizes that people use language and that
language is a part of society. In particular, it considers the relationship between a person’s
language and their social identity. It also observes the way that people use language differently
and try to explain why this is.

Objectives: Language and Society

At the end of this unit, I
am able to: Language is both a system of communication between
1. discuss speech individuals and a social phenomenon. The area of language
communities; and society – sociolinguistics – is intended to show how our
2. explain how speech use of language is governed by such factors as class, gender,
acts and speech events race, etc. A subsection of this area is anthropological
take place; linguistics which is concerned with form and use of language
3. compare and contrast
in different cultures and to what extent the development of
dialect, idiolect and
language has been influenced by cultural environment.
sociolect;
4. differentiate code The study of language and society – sociolinguistics –
mixing from code can be dated to about the middle of the twentieth century.
switching; and Before that there were authors who commented on how
5. discuss register, style,
language use was influenced or indeed guided by socially
and usage.
relevant factors, such as class, profession, age or gender.
Indeed, the father of modern linguistics, Ferdinand de
Saussure (1857-1913), saw language as a type of social behavior and in this he reflected French
sociological thinking of his day, above all that of his contemporary Emile Durkheim (1858-1917).
But a set of independent, objective principles, in short, a methodology for investigating social
factors in language use, was not available until some decades after the advent of Saussurean
structuralism.
In the early 1960s a number of linguists in America began to investigate English usage in
the United States from a social point of view. Since then, there has been a flood of publications in
this vein, primarily in America but soon afterwards in Europe as well (notably in Britain).

A. SPEECH COMMUNITIES

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What are speech communities?
The study of speech communities is central to the understanding of human language and
meaning. Speech communities are groups that share values and attitudes about language use,
varieties and practices. These communities develop through prolonged interaction among those
who operate within these shared and recognized beliefs and value systems regarding forms and
styles of communication. While we are born with the ability to learn language, we do so within
cultures and societies that frame the process of learning how to talk to others. This framing once
exclusively occurred as face-to-face interactions within communities of speakers. Constant
relocation, mass migration, transmigration, ever-evolving technology and globalization have
transformed many societies and increased the need to provide more detailed descriptions and
theories regarding the nature of speech communities. The importance of our growing
understanding of speech communities remains one of the most significant projects faced by those
interested in language, discourse and interaction. This chapter defines and identifies types of
speech communities, provides the history of the term and examines its importance to the study of
language and discourse in general.
The concept of speech community does not simply focus on groups that speak the same
language. Rather, the concept takes as fact that language represents, embodies, constructs and
constitutes meaningful participation in society and culture. It also assumes that a mutually
intelligible symbolic and ideological communicative system must be at play among those who
share knowledge and practices about how one is meaningful across social contexts.1 Thus as
peoples relocate away from their families and home communities and build others, relationships
and interactions continue and change, and are sustained through the use of evolving technology
and media that enhances, recognizes and re-creates communities. These interactions constitute
the substance of human contact and the importance of language, discourse and verbal styles in the
representation and negotiation of the relationships that ensue. It is within speech communities
that identity, ideology and agency are actualized in society.
Speech Communities
A group of people is not necessarily a community unless they share a common view,
activity, belief etc. Speech is not simply sounds that come from a person’s mouth. Social actors
recognize the significance of innate human sounds such as screams, moans, cries etc. without
learning and being socialized into a system of meaning. In contrast, the act of turning human sound
into symbols that are recognizable as speech and particular to a group of people requires an
agreement of some sort regarding the system of symbols in circulation. That agreement can vary
within a language and among various languages. Members must be socialized to learn the language
symbols of that community and how and when to use them.
Communities can be defined and identified in terms of space, place, affiliation, practices
and any combination of these terms. For example, while the term “community” is generally used in
reference to a social unit larger than a household, it can also refer to a national and international
group. Online communities can exist where members are in the thousands and there may be no
physical, visual or auditory contact among members. Anthony Cohen believes that communities
can be understood by their boundaries, since they are identified by both their uniqueness and
difference. He argues that “a reasonable interpretation of the word’s use would seem to imply two
related suggestions: that the members of a group of people (a) have something in common with
each other, which (b) distinguishes them in a significant way from members of other putative
groups”. What is fundamental to both speech and community is that a system of interaction and
symbols is shared, learned and taught, and that participants and members are aware they share
this system. This is why speech communities are one way that language ideologies and social
identities are constructed.
Retrieving the Speech Community
The work of John Gumperz (1968, 1972, 1982) revived the concept of the speech
community by considering it a social construct. He defined verbal interaction as “a social process
in which utterances are selected in accordance with socially recognized norms and expectations”.
Instead of focusing on a single language model, he defined the speech community as “any human

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aggregate characterized by regular and frequent interaction by means of a shared body of verbal
signs and set off from similar aggregates by significant differences in language usage”. Gumperz
focused on interface communication and determined that the notion of consistent, repetitive and
predictable interactions and contact is necessary for a speech community to exist. He argued that
regardless of the linguistic similarities and differences, “the speech varieties employed within a
speech community form a system because they are related to a shared set of social norms”. This
formulation could incorporate the sociolinguistic research that was occurring in cities at the time
and reconstituted the notion of speech community to include not only languages and language
boundaries, but also values, attitudes and ideologies about language. Thus, while the concept of the
speech community initially focused on language systems, relationships and boundaries, it
expanded to include the notion of social representation and norms in the form of attitudes, values,
beliefs and practices – and the notion that members of speech communities work their languages
as social and cultural products.
Many direct and indirect efforts to reclaim the integrity of speech community that
complemented Gumperz’s interpretation emerged. In particular, Dell Hymes described the speech
community as a “fundamental concept for the relation between language, speech, and social
structure”. He considered the question of boundaries essential in order to recognize that
communities are not, by definition, fixed units. In fact, Dell Hymes’ model of ethnographies of
communication and speaking argued for the importance of communicative competence – the
knowledge a speaker must have to function as a member of a social group. Communicative
competence is based on language use and socialization within cultures, and one becomes
knowledgeable of both grammar and appropriateness across speech acts and events that are
evaluated and corroborated by others. Hymes’ argument that competence was “the
interrelationship of language with the other code of communicative conduct” replaced the notion
that a language constitutes a speech community with the recognition that speech community, also,
requires a code of beliefs and behaviors about language and discourse and knowledge of how to
use them.
The influence of John Gumperz and Dell Hymes on the understanding of speech
communities and language and discourse cannot be overstated. Their analyses and contributions
are discussed throughout this text.

B. SPEECH ACTS AND SPEECH EVENTS

Communication has always been a necessity in human life. Through communication, the
trade of thought among people, which directly contributes to the development of the quality of life
itself, can be performed. The ability to percept utterances in communication can determine the
actions followed. Communication can be conveyed through verbal and nonverbal communication.
Buck (2002) states that there are two types of communication, they are verbal and nonverbal
communication. Verbal communication is the way of communicating messages by using words as
elements. Nonverbal communication is the way of communicating messages by using gesture,
body movements, eye contact, facial expression, or general appearances as the elements.
Pragmatics is a study which belief is what is communicated is more than what is said. The
utterances that the speakers produce in communication contain deeper sense than the actual
meaning of the words or phrases themselves. Yule (1996) states that pragmatics has consequently
more to do with the analysis of what people mean by their utterances than what the words or
phrases in those utterances might mean by themselves. Pragmatics also strongly related with
context or situation when something is being said, thus it is very important for the speakers to
focus on the context. Leech (1983) also states that pragmatics is the study of meaning which is
related to the speech situations. In accordance to Leech statement, Yule (1996) argues that
pragmatics should also consider aspects of context such as who people are talking to, when, where,
and under what circumstances that will determine the way they say and what they want to say.
Yule (1996) states that there are four areas which pragmatics is concerned with:
1. Pragmatics is the study of speaker meaning.

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2. Pragmatics is the study of contextual meaning.
3. Pragmatics is the study of how to get more communicated than it is said.
4. Pragmatics is the study of the expression of relative distance.
In the broad sense, through pragmatics we must be able to grasp the message of the
utterances by being aware that the words or phrases contain deeper meaning than literal meaning
of what is spoken. In line with this, Richard and Schmidt (2002) argue that pragmatics is the study
of the use of language in communication related to sentences and the context and situations in
which they are used.
In the scope of pragmatics, there are some factors that should be considered. These factors
establish the very definition of pragmatics itself. The factors are Implicature, Speech Acts,
Presupposition, Context, Adjacency Pairs, and Deixis and Distance.
Speech act, a variety of verbal communication and also a subdivision of pragmatics, often
takes place in verbal and nonverbal communication. Yule (1996) states that speech acts are a
study of how the speakers and hearers use language. Bach (1979) explains that an action in verbal
communication has message in itself, so the communication is not only about language but also
with action. In conclusion speech act is the utterance that occurs and act refers to an action.
There are certain aims beyond the words or phrases when a speaker says something.
Austin (in Tsui, 1994) explains that speech acts are acts that refer to the action performed by
produced utterances. In line with this, Yule (1996) states that speech acts are actions which are
performed via utterances. Stating the same idea, Birner (2013) also says that uttering something
means doing something. Here, people can perform an action by saying something. Through speech
acts, the speaker can convey physical action merely through words and phrases. The conveyed
utterances are paramount to the actions performed.

Speech Acts
...speaking a language is performing speech acts, acts such as making statements,
giving commands, asking questions, making promises, and so on. - John Searle
Suppose that during dinner one evening you get up, walk across the room, turn on the
spigot, and pour yourself a glass of water - clearly, you performed an action. Now, suppose that
you are having dinner and you ask a dinner partner to get you a glass of water. This also is an
action ... the act of asking. Speech, then, is not something that just happens by coincidence. Rather,
to speak is to act.

This way of thinking about speech is important because it provides insight into the utility
of human communication - namely, that humans use communication as a tool to further their own
ends.

One of the original scholars in this area, Searle, identifies four basic categories of speech
acts as: utterances, propositional utterances, illocutionary utterances and perlocutionary
utterances. These are not separate and independent of one another. Rather, they are similar to
building blocks -- humans make utterances, some of which are propositional, some of which are
illocutionary, and some of which are perlocutionary. The following sections present each type of
speech act in turn.

Utterance

An utterance is a spoken word or string of

spoken words. At the simplest level, to utter is
simply to say a word with no particular forethought
or intention to communicate a meaning.

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 For example, if you put your hand on the hood of a car that has been sitting out in the hot
sun, you might quickly pull it back while uttering the word, "Oh!"

In this case, you don't intend to communicate meaning by this - it is simply a reflex action
brought on by surprise. (Someone who hears you might take it mean something, but you did not
plan on it.)

Examples of "pure" utterances include such as sing-song rhymes while jumping rope or
making choices (as, for example, "one potato, two potato, three potato, four..."), singing "scales" for
practice, and other similar meaningless expressions.

Propositional Utterances

A more meaningful type of utterance makes

reference to or describes a real or imaginary object.
In the act of making a propositional utterance the
speaker gains the opportunity to interact. If speaker
and listener are using the same code (that is, if they
speak the same language), and if both recognize the
object to which the speaker is referring, then it
becomes possible for them to share meanings.
Propositional utterances need not be
sentences, and they do not have to intend anything.
Any phrase that identifies or specifies something is a
propositional utterance. It is important to see that
utterances and propositions are not separate categories -- a propositional utterance is a particular
kind of utterance.

Illocutionary Utterances

An illocutionary utterance is spoken with the

intention of making contact with a listener.
Illocutionary utterances are usually sentences that
contain propositional utterances, that is, they refer to
things in the world -- but it is their intentional nature
that is of the most importance.
Once it becomes clear that the speaker's
intention is important to the meaning of an
utterance, it can be seen that the same set of words
might have different meanings depending on the
speaker's intention. This leads scholars to further
categorize illocutionary utterances in terms of how they communicate such intent.

For example, consider the sentence: "I'm tired." Depending on the intention of the speaker,
this utterance could mean any of the following:

I'm tired.

TYPE OF
CONTEXT INTENTION MEANING
ACT
To answer the
A friend has just asked how I feel I feel fatigued Statement
question
Someone I'm trying to avoid has asked me if
To politely avoid her I'd rather not Statement
I'd like to go dancing tonight
My husband and I are watching a football That we do Could we turn Question

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game on television something else this off?
or Request
It's late and my small children are asking if we
To put them to bed No, go to bed Command
can go to the movies

Thus, depending upon the context and the speaker's intention, a given utterance might
become a statement, a command, a question, a request, a promise, and so on.

Perlocutionary Utterances

Illocutionary speech acts may be intended to provide

information, solicit answers to questions, give praise,
and so on, but they don't necessarily require that the
listener change his or her behavior. Perlocutionary
utterances, on the other hand, do attempt to effect a
change.

As with the others, perlocutionary speech acts are utterances; they include propositions,
and they intend interaction with the receiver. Thus, Searle's model consists of a series of levels,
each of which forms as the foundation for the levels that rest upon it.

The Speech Act Model

It is important to remember that each speech act may be followed by a return act on the
part of the receiver. The next section of this tutorial will consider how communication with
feedback leads to the kind of continuing communication that supports human relationships.

Classification of Speech Acts

Speech acts can be classified into five categories as Searle in Levinson (1983) states that
the classifications are representatives, directives, commissives, expressive, and declarations.
a. Representatives
Representatives are speech acts that the utterances commit the speaker to the truth of the
expressed proposition. The utterances are produced based on the speaker’s observation of certain
things then followed by stating the fact or opinion based on the observation. When someone says
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“she’s beautiful”, the speaker can state the sentence based on the fact or just give his or her own
opinion about physical condition of a person.
It also states what the speaker believes to be the case or not. Statements of fact, assertions,
conclusions, and descriptions are all examples of the speaker representing the world as he or she
believes it is. For example, when someone says “The earth is flat”, it represents the speaker’s
assertions about the earth. The speaker has opinion that the earth is flat.
Representatives speech act can be noted by some speech acts verb, such as: remind, tell,
assert, deny, correct, state, guess, predict, report, describe, inform, insist, assure, agree, claim,
beliefs, conclude.
b. Directives
Directives area speech acts that speaker uses to get someone else to do something. These
speech acts include requesting, questioning, command, orders, and suggesting. For example, when
someone says “Could you lend me a pencil, please?” the utterance represents the speaker
requests that the hearer to do something which is to lend him a pencil.
c. Commissives
Commissives are speech acts that the utterances commit the speaker to some future course
of action, these include promising, threatening, offering, refusal, pledges. For example, when
someone says “I’ll be back”, represents the speaker’s promise that he/she will be back.
d. Expressives
Expressives are speech acts that the utterances express a psychological state. These speech
acts include thanking, apologizing, welcoming, and congratulating. For example, when someone
says “don’t be shy, my home is your home.” The utterance represents the speaker’s expression
that he/she welcomes someone.
e. Declarations
Declarations are speech acts that the utterances effect immediate changes in the
institutional state of affairs and which tend to rely on elaborate extra-linguistic institutions. These
speech acts include excommunicating, declaring war, christening, firing from employment. For
example, “you are dead to me.”

C. DIALECTS, IDIOLECTS, AND SOCIOLECTS

Different situations and different people create varieties in the way the language is spoken.
The variety is divided into three distinct features: the dialect, sociolect and idiolect.
Dialect
It is a variety in spoken language. This language has its own vocabulary, grammar and
pronunciation. A sector in dialect is the regional dialect; where the geographical position of a
country effects the language spoken. An example is the difference between the Yorkshire dialect
and Cockney dialect. There is also a difference between the Urban and Rural Areas. The vocabulary
changes in a dialect, for example in Northern Ireland, the word ‘wee’ is used instead of the word
‘little’ that is used in Standard English.
There is also a change in grammar. An example can be that in the Black Vernacular English,
there is no use of the verb ‘to be’ – ‘he playing!’. In the regional dialects, there is non-standard
grammatical form. An example can be the fact that they have missing plurals ex. ‘she bought five
chocolate’. The pronunciation is also diverse, where words such as dance and chance, change their
ways of being said.
Sociolect

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 On the other hand, sociolect means that different groups of people have distinct styles of
language use. These are created to mark an identity and induces a sense of belonging. There are
several factors that influence the style of language including:
 socio-economic status (ex. language of high class is different from that of low class)
 age (ex. adults and teens do not have the same style of language)
 occupation (ex. certain professions such as lawyer or doctor have their very own jargon
and sentence structure)
 gender (ex. men tend to use slang and swear words more than woman)
Idiolect
Subsequently, idiolect is how individuals use language differently. This obviously depends
on the region where you are from, the socio-economic background, gender, age, occupation and
education given. Although sociolects speak the same language, the manner is different. Everyone
has his own voices, phrases and personality which effect the language spoken.
To conclude, a language as it is spoken by many, takes different forms and is used in
different ways in order to satisfy every situation.
Flashcards in Dialects, Sociolects, Idiolects

1. What is a dialect? A form of language with distinct features of

grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation.
2. How many dialects does each language have? Multiple and they can be divided up into many
different categories.
3. Why are they called dialects and not Because they are mutually intelligible versions
languages? of the same language.
4. What are regional dialects? Dialects which are specific to a certain
graphological area.
5. How does dialect differ from accent? It is a broader term and accent only refers to
the pronunciation used.
6. What can also be said about accent and Dialect could also only be seen to refer to
dialect? vocabulary and grammar.
Therefore, a specific dialect may be spoken
with a number of different accents.
7. What dialect is very popular to be spoken in Standard English
different accents?
8. What is a "standard" variety of dialect? It is the widely accepted dialect (SE) and is the
most socially prestigious dialect, being favored
by education, government and written
communications.
9. Where did Standard English originally come South East England
from? London, Cambridge, Oxford
10. What are Sociolects? The variety of language used by a particular
social group.
11. What are the bases of sociolects? Socio-economic status
Age
Occupation
Education
Gender
Belief system and culture
12. What is believed about sociolects of People from different social statuses will use
different socio-economic statuses? language in different ways.
13. What are the differences of language use in People from a higher social status are more
different socio-economic status groups? likely to use a variety closer to Standard
English and Received Pronunciation.
People from a lower social status are more
likely to use regional variations.
14. What is believed about sociolects of Most notable difference between teenagers and
different age groups? older members of the same community.
15. What are the differences of language use in Teenagers include more non-standard and
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 different age groups? slang forms; this strengthens their identity and
separates them from the world of adults.
16. What is believed about sociolects of Each has its own jargon and specific lexis as
different occupations? well as slang used to make conversation
humorous or more economical than using the
SE equivalent.
17. What is believed about sociolects of people People who are more educated are more likely
with different educational backgrounds? to use Standard English and Received
Pronunciation than regional dialects
18. What is believed about sociolects of men They use language in different ways.
and women's languages?
19. What are the differences of language use for Women tend to use more prestigious forms,
the two genders? being closer to Standard English and Received
Pronunciation.
Women are also more cooperative and offer
more encouragement and sympathetic
feedback, whereas men are more competitive
and are inclined to interrupt.
20. What is believed about sociolects of Use of specialist vocabulary of certain groups.
different religious and cultural backgrounds? However, this has spread more due to society
being multicultural.
21. What are idiolects? The language used which is unique to a specific
individual.
22. What affects a person's idiolect? Where they are from
Their social background
How they were educated
Personal characteristics
23. What affects a person's social background? Who they're friends with and are they a part of
any groups or clubs?
Generally, their sociolect.
24. How can personal characteristics affect If they have particular feelings or emotions.
someone's idiolect? Their general personality.
e.g., nervousness = use of more fillers

D. CODE MIXING AND CODE SWITCHING

Code Switching
Code-switching is a term in
linguistics referring to using more
than one language or variety in
conversation. Sometimes the
bilingual speakers getting problem
when they having a conversation
with another bilingual, so they
switch their language from code to
another in the construction of
sentence to make the interlocutor
understand, sometimes they do it
with the same language background
and it may do so many times.
Code switching is the one of
alternative ways to bilingual of two or more languages in the same conversation. Hymes (1974)
defines code-switching as “a common term for alternative use of two or more languages, varieties
of a language or even speech styles” while Bokamba (1989) defines code-switching is the mixing of
words, phrases and sentences from two distinct grammatical (sub) systems across sentence
boundaries within the same speech event.

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 In the class, when the teacher teaches a foreign language code switching also become
strategies learning in order to develop the student’s skill in English language. In the beginning of
meeting the teacher use target language when they explain the material and then they switch again
into Indonesia to make sure understood for the students. The student uses the target language as
much as possible but reverts to their native language for any element of an utterance that they are
unable to produce in the target language.
Generally, there are different perspectives on code-switching. A major approach in
sociolinguistics focuses on the social motivations for switching, a line of inquiry concentrating
both on immediate discourse factors such as lexical need and the topic and setting of the
discussion, and on more distant factors such as speaker or group identity, and relationship-
building (solidarity). Code-switching may also be reflective of the frequency with which an
individual uses particular expressions from one or the other language in his daily communications;
thus, an expression from one language may more readily come to mind than the equivalent
expression in the other language.
Code-switching can occur between sentences (inter-sentential) or within a single sentence
(intra-sentential).
Four Major Types of Code Switching
Tag-switching

In which tags and certain set phrases in one language

are inserted into an utterance otherwise in another.
Sometimes, emblematic code-switching or tag switching
can take the form of intra-sentential switching where
categorical equivalence exists between the two
languages involved.

Intra-sentential switching

In which switches occur within a clause or

sentence boundary. It can take the form such as, code
changing, code mixing, insertion and congruent
lexicalizations.

Inter-sentential switching

In which a change of language occurs at sentence levels,

where each clause or sentence is in one language or the
other.

Intra-word switching
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 In which a change occurs within a word
boundary.

On other hand, Milroy and Pieter define code switching “as a term ‘intra sentential’ used
for switches within the sentence, in contrast with ‘inter-sentential’ used for switches between
sentences”. Although some commentators have seen code-switching as reflecting a lack of
language ability, most contemporary scholars consider code-switching to be a normal and natural
product of interaction between the bilingual or multilingual speaker’s languages.

Code Mixing
Code-mixing is the other
phenomenon closely related to
code-switching. It usually occurs
when conversant use both languages
together, switch between two
language to the extent that they
change from one tongue to the other
in the course of a single utterance.
Code mixing takes place without a
change of topic and can involve
various levels of language such as
phonology, morphology,
grammatical structures or lexical
items.
We could not avoid that the first language is a big effect in second language. Interaction and
mixing between languages result in various languages. Most of the people in the society mix their
language with other language by borrowing or using pieces of foreign languages even sometimes
they are still influenced by first language.
Kachru in Nusjam defines code mixing as the term refers to the use of one or more
languages for consistent transfer of linguistic units from one language into another, and by such a
language mixture developing a new restricted or not so restricted code of linguistic interaction.
Related to Kachru defines, we can see the reality in the class, when students saying
something in English, they mix some language in the sentence that they don’t know how to say in
English its mean combine the language between Indonesia and English. For example:
“have you done your homework hasan? Yes sir, saya sudah kerja my homework.”
Maaf sir, kemarin I was sick.
From example above (based on the Indonesian context), the student uses the peace of
English word to answer the teacher’s question, it’s because the student does not know how to say
in English. However, grammatically the sentence of students is also suitable for grammar in
English.
Blom and Gumpers as quoted by Gibbons they say that code mixing is behavior element
from one code become to some extent integrated into another. One code, the base code, is normally
dominant, and speakers use the second code in additive fashion. Elements from the latter code
tend to be some extent assimilated and consequently are used less consciously.
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 Code-mixing is one of the major kinds of language choice which is subtler than code-
switching. In code-mixed sentences, pieces of one language are used while a speaker is basically
using another language. These 'pieces' of the other language are often words, but they can also be
phrases or larger units. From describing before, we can see that the definition of code-mixing is
limited to the shift of code found within one and the same clause or sentence.
Many bilingual people come to be very self-conscious about their language change and try
to avoid it in talking to strangers or on formal occasions. Such dismissal of the phenomenon
demonstrates serious misunderstanding. Conversational code-mixing is not just the mixing of two
languages brought about by laziness or ignorance, or some combination of these. Rather, it
requires conversant to have a sophisticated knowledge of both languages and to be aware of
community norms.
Jacobson has proposed a number of formal and functional constraints on mixing two or
more codes. He says that the constraint relates to the sociological (context situation),
psychological (cognition, production, and processing of the mixed code), and linguistic
(interaction of the two or more grammar) dimension of code mixing.
From describing above, we can say that code mixing is using two or more language in the
same sentence or discourse but one language more dominant, and it related with the social context
as a function of choosing the code.
Types of Code Mixing
Intra-sentential code-switching

It is defined as a change from one

code to another code across clauses
(=inter-sentential code switching). The
linguistic result is a characteristic
hybridization because of the mixing of
linguistic elements from two languages
within the same sentence or clause.

Intra-lexical code mixing

This type of code mixing occurs within a

word boundary - involving a change of
pronunciation. This type of code mixing
occurs in the phonological level.

Some Reasons in Using Code Switching and Code Mixing

When code switching or code mixing occurs, the reasons of the speaker is an important
consideration in the process.
Reasons why people use code switching:
According to Hoffman (1991), there are a number of reasons for bilingual or multilingual
person to switch or mix their languages. Those are:
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1. Talking about a particular topic.
People sometimes prefer to talk about a particular topic in one language rather than in
another. Sometimes, a speaker feels free and more comfortable to express his/her emotional
feelings in a language that is not his/her everyday language. The case can be found in Singapore, in
which English language is used to discuss trade or a business matter, Mandarin for international
“Chinese” language, Malay as the language of the region, and Tamil as the language of one of the
important ethnic groups in the republic.
2. Quoting somebody else
A speaker switches code to quote a famous expression, proverb, or saying of some well-
known figures. The switch involves just the words that the speaker is claiming the quoted person
said. The switch like a set of quotation marks. In Indonesian, those well-known figures are mostly
from some English-speaking countries. Then, because many of the Indonesian people nowadays
are good in English, those famous expressions or sayings can be quoted intact in their original
language. For example:
A: Bolehkah saya tahu nama anda, Pak? (May I know your name, Sir?)
B: What is a name.
In this conversation, B answers the question from A with the famous proverb ‘what is a
name.’
3. Being emphatic about something (express solidarity)
As usual, when someone who is talking using a language that is not his native language
suddenly wants to be emphatic about something, he either intentionally or unintentionally, will
switch from his second language to his first language. Or, on the other hand, he switches from his
second language to his first language because he feels more convenient to be emphatic in his
second language rather that in his first language.
4. Interjection (inserting sentence fillers or sentence connectors)
Interjection is words or expressions, which are inserted into a sentence to convey surprise,
strong emotion, or to gain attention. Interjection is a short exclamation like: Darn!, Hey!, Well!,
Look!, etc. They have no grammatical value, but speaker uses them quite often, usually more in
speaking than in writing. Language switching and language mixing among bilingual or multilingual
people can sometimes mark an interjection or sentence connector. It may happen unintentionally.
The following are examples of the usage of interjection in sentences:
1. Indonesian English
Dompetku ketinggalan di taksi!
Shitt!
(My wallet was left in the taxi!)
2. Spanish English (Gumperz, 1982)
Chicano professionals saying goodbye, and after having been introduced by a third
speaker, talking briefly:
A: Well, I’m glad to meet you.
B: Andale pues
(O.K.Swell). And do come again. Mm?
5. Repetition used for clarification
When a bilingual or multilingual person wants to clarify his speech so that it will be
understood better by listener, he can sometimes use both of the languages (codes) that he masters

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to say the same message. Frequently, a message in one code is repeated in the other code literally.
A repetition is not only served to clarify what is said, but also to amplify or emphasize a message.
For example:
English_Hindi (Gumperz, 1982)
Father calling his small son while walking through a train compartment, “Keep straight.
Sidha jao” (keep straight).
6. Intention of clarifying the speech content for interlocutor
When bilingual or multilingual person talks to another bilingual/multilingual, there will be
lots of code switching and code mixing occurs. It means to make the content of his speech runs
smoothly and can be understood by the listener. A message in one code is repeated in the other
code in somewhat modified form.
7. Expressing group identity
Code switching and code mixing can also be used to express group identity. The way of
communication of academic people in their disciplinary groupings, are obviously different from
the other groups. In other words, the way of communication of one community is different from
the people who are out of the community. Saville-Troike (1986) also gives some additional reasons
for bilingual and multilingual person to switch or mix their languages, these are:
8. To soften or strengthen request or command
For Indonesian people, mixing and switching Indonesian into English can also function as a
request because English is not their native tongue, so it does not sound as direct as Indonesian.
However, code mixing and code switching can also strengthen a command since the speaker can
feel more powerful than the listener because he can use a language that everybody cannot.
9. Because of real lexical need
The most common reason for bilingual/multilingual person to switch or mix their
languages is due to the lack of equivalent lexicon in the languages. When an English- Indonesian
bilingual has a word that is lacking in English, he will find it easier to say it in Indonesian. And vice
versa, when he has a word that is lacking in Indonesian, he will use the English term. If it put into
Indonesian, the meaning will be hazy / vague, and sometime it would not be used. For example, in
Indonesia, the technical topics are firmly associated with English and the topic itself can trigger a
switch or mix to/with English.
According to Harding and Riley (in Komsiyah, 2002), there are some reasons in using code
mixing:
1. The bilingual probably forget to the term for something in the language. she or he is currently
speaking.
2. The language being spoken may not have term for a particular concept of the bilingual wants
to refer to.
3. A word which is similar in both languages and name may trigger a switch.
4. Language mixing can also be used to express emotion of close personal relationship.
In addition, Suwito (1983) explains that there are three reasons why code mixing occurs in
conversation:
1. Role identification such as social, educational and register role.
2. Variant identification refers to the kinds of language used by the user.
3. Social status identity that refers to the sense for people to be supposed aseducated people when
they use certain language.

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Reasons why people use code switching:
1. Affection
2. To Persuade Audience
3. It helps us convey a thought
4. We want to say something in secret
5. We want to get something
6. We want to fit in
7. Our take over

E. REGISTER, STYLE, AND USAGE

Based on situational factors different speech situations influence the speaker's choice of a
language variety. Registers are functional varieties; they ‘function’ in different types of speech
situations. Accordingly, a register is a linguistic variety regarded as appropriate to use in a
particular speech situation. Register is usually associated with a particular speech situation
(Kortmann 2005).
Legal language, or Legalese, is an example of a register normally only used in the field of
law and justice.
The choice of register in different types of speech situations is termed ‘situational
variation’. The term ‘style’ is also occasionally used to refer to situational variation. However, it
includes variation in grammatical structures, too. It is less predictable and more dependent on
personal preferences than register (Kortmann 2005).
There is a terminological distinction between register and style. Both are associated with a
specific speech situation but whereas register often refers to the specific vocabulary chosen and
expected in connection with a particular speech situation, style also includes grammatical
variation (Kortmann 2005).
Linguistic Register
In linguistics, the register is defined as the way a speaker uses language differently in
different circumstances. Think about the words you choose, your tone of voice, even your body
language. You probably behave very differently chatting with a friend than you would at a formal
dinner party or during a job interview. These variations in formality, also called stylistic variation,
are known as registers in linguistics. They are determined by such factors as social occasion,
context, purpose, and audience.
Registers are marked by a variety of specialized vocabulary and turns of phrases,
colloquialisms and the use of jargon, and a difference in intonation and pace; in "The Study of
Language," linguist George Yule describes the function of jargon as helping " to create and
maintain connections among those who see themselves as 'insiders' in some way and to exclude
'outsiders.'"
Registers are used in all forms of communication, including written, spoken, and signed.
Depending on grammar, syntax, and tone, the register may be extremely rigid or very intimate. You
don't even need to use an actual word to communicate effectively. A huff of exasperation during a
debate or a grin while signing "hello" speaks volumes.
Types of Linguistic Register
Some linguists say there are just two types of register: formal and informal. This isn't incorrect, but
it is an oversimplification. Instead, most who study language say there are five distinct registers.
1. Frozen

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 This form is sometimes called the static register because it refers to historic language or
communication that is intended to remain unchanged, like a constitution or prayer.
Examples:
The Bible,
the United States Constitution,
the Bhagavad Gita, "Romeo and Juliet"

2. Formal
Less rigid but still constrained, the formal register is used in professional, academic, or
legal settings where communication is expected to be respectful, uninterrupted, and restrained.
Slang is never used, and contractions are rare.
Examples:
a TED talk,
a business presentation,
the Encyclopaedia Brittanica,
"Gray's Anatomy," by Henry Gray
3. Consultative
People use this register often in conversation when they're speaking with someone who
has specialized knowledge or who is offering advice. Tone is often respectful (use of courtesy
titles) but may be more casual if the relationship is longstanding or friendly (a family doctor.)
Slang is sometimes used; people may pause or interrupt one another.
Examples:
the local TV news broadcast,
an annual physical,
a service provider like a plumber
4. Casual
This is the register people use when they're with friends, close acquaintances and co-
workers, and family. It's probably the one you think of when you consider how you talk with other
people, often in a group setting. Use of slang, contractions, and vernacular grammar is all common,
and people may also use expletives or off-color language in some settings.
Examples:
a birthday party,
a backyard barbecue.
5. Intimate
Linguists say this register is reserved for special occasions, usually between only two
people and often in private. Intimate language may be something as simple as an inside joke
between two college friends or a word whispered in a lover's ear.

Knowing which register to use can be challenging for English students. Unlike Spanish and
other languages, there is no special form of a pronoun expressly for use in formal situations.
Culture adds another layer of complication, especially if you're not familiar with how people are
expected to behave in certain situations.
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 Activity
2
Synthesizing your
Knowledge
Name: _______________________________
Course/Year/Section: _______________
Score: ______________________
Date: _______________________

Directions: In three to five sentences, answer the given questions.

1. In what respects does the language which is characteristic of each of the following groups, if
there is such a characteristic language, mark each group off as a separate speech community:
adolescents; stockbrokers; women; linguists; air traffic controllers; priests; disk jockeys? How
useful is the concept of ‘speech community’ in cases such as these?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Keep a log of your linguistic usage over a day. Record such factors as the time spent talking
versus listening, reading versus writing, conversing, lecturing, gossiping, asking and answering,
complaining, requesting, stating, deliberately being silent, singing, humming, being formal and
being informal, and so on. What are some of the difficulties you encounter in trying to do this kind
of thing?
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3. Most of us know someone who has a repertoire of linguistic abilities that we admire, possibly
envy. Try to specify some of these abilities that you yourself seem to lack. Why does the other have
these abilities and you do not?
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_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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Activity
3

Name: _______________________________ Score: ______________________

Course/Year/Section: _______________ Date: _______________________

Cite examples or situations in the Philippine context of the following topics discussed:

A. Dialect, Sociolect, and Idiolect

B. Code Switching and Mixing
C. Language Registers

Instructions:

1. Make a case analysis showing the relationship of the topics above that affect the goal and
purpose of communication and how they are used in a society.
2. Consider the following parts of the paper:
I. Background of the Case
II. Objectives of the Paper
III. Framework Analysis (Theoretical/Conceptual Framework)
IV. Methodology of Analysis
V. Highlight of the Case
VI. Presentation, Analysis, and Discussion
VII. Implications to Society
VIII. References
3. You may use figures/tables to present your analyses.
4. Consider the following format:
I. Font Style: Cambria
II. Font Size: 12
III. Normal Spacing
5. Deadline of submission: After Mid-Term Exam (to be announced)

34 | P a g e
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Referenc
es
Altman, R. 1990. Giving and Taking Advice without Offence. New York: Newburry House.

Austin, J. L. 1962. How to Do Things with Words. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Bach, K. and R. M. Harnish. 1979. Linguistic Communication and Speech Acts, Cambridge, Mass:
MIT
Press.

Blum-Kulka, S., House, J., & Kasper, G. 1989. Cross Cultural Pragmatics: Request and Apologies.
Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Buck, R and Vanlear C. Arthur. 2002. Verbal and Nonverbal Communication: Distinguishing
Symbolic,
Spontaneous, and Pseudo-Spontaneous Nonverbal Behavior. Journal of Communication.
15, 522-528. Retrieved November12, 2012

Chaer, Abdul and Leony Agustina Leony, Sosiolinguistik, Perkenalan awal,Rineka cipta, Jakarta,
2004.

Cook, V. Second Language Learning and Language Teaching. Edward Arnold/ Hodder

Cutting, J. 2002. Pragmatics and Discourse. London: Routledge.

Fujimori. John. 2004. Practical Criteria for Teaching Speech Acts. Tokyo: JALT Publications.

Headline Group: Melbourne, 1991. Hudson, R.A, Sociolinguistics Cambridge University Press,
Melbourne Sydney, 1980.

Hidayat, A. 2016. Speech Acts: Force Behind Words. English Education: Jurnal Tadris Bahasa
Inggris
p-ISSN 2086-6003. Vol 9 (1), 2016, 1-12. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.24042/ee-
jtbi.v9i1.415

Hymes, D. 1974. Foundations of Sociolinguistics: An Ethnographic Approach. Philadelphia

Isnaniah .2015. An Analysis of Speech Acts by Woody Pride in the movie Toy Story 3. English
Education Department. Faculty of Tarbiyah and Teachers Training. Unpublished Thesis

Leech, G. 1996. Principles of Pragmatics. New York: Longman.

Morgan, Marcyliena H. 2014. What are speech communities? Cambridge University Press
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139151269.002. pp 1-17. Retrieved from:
https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/speech-communities/what-are-speech-
communities/CAA954EA73F2A1B66D6447D95725CA53#:~:text=Speech
%20communities%20are%20groups%20that,language%20use%2C%20varieties
35 | P a g e
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 %20and%20practices.&text=While%20we%20are%20born%20with,how%20to
%20talk%20to%20others.

Numan, D. and Carter, D. Teaching English to Speakers of Other Language Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. The Internet TESL Journal. (http: //iteslj. org /Articles/Sert Code
Switching. html, 2001.

Nursjam, Indonesian-English Code Mixing in Tourism Context. Hasanuddin University, 2004.

Searle, J. R. 2005. Expression and Meaning: Studies in the Theory of Speech Acts. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.

Tari, Sri subyakto and Nababan, Psikolinguistik Suatu Pengantar, PT. Gramedia Pustaka Utama,
Jakarta, 1992.

Waris, Ahmad Mustamir. 2012. Code switching and mixing (Communication in Learning
Language).
Jurnal Dakwah Tabligh, Vol. 13, No. 1, Juni 2012: 123 – 135. Retrieved from:
https://media.neliti.com/media/publications/77106-EN-code-switching-and-
mixing
communication.pdf

Yule, G. 1996. Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press

ONLINE SOURCES:

http://iteslj.org/Articles/Skiba-CodeSwitching.html. Retrieved on May 28, 2009.

http://Journal.com/ Nourdic.Journal/. Adobe reader. Retrieved on May 30, 2009.

http://AEAA Conference/ Xola Mati 29/Adobe reader. Retrieved on June 01, 2009.

http://iteslj.org/Articles/Sert-Code Switching. html. Retrieved on May 28, 2009.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code-switching. Retrieved on May 28

http://www.enciclopedia.com/doc/1029-Code-switching.html. Retrieved on May 30, 2009.

https://www.uni-due.de/ELE/LanguageAndSociety.pdf

http://faculty.wwu.edu/sngynan/slx5.html#:~:text=A%20speech%20community%20is
%20a,is%20known%20as%20communicative%20isolation.
http://www.ello.uos.de/field.php/Pragmatics/PragmaticsSpeechActsandEvents#:~:text=speaking
%20a%20language%20is%20performing,deal%20of%20actions%20through%20language.

http://www.rdillman.com/HFCL/TUTOR/Relation/relate2.html

https://cristinazammit.wordpress.com/2016/05/27/language-dialects-sociolects-and-idiolects/
https://www.brainscape.com/flashcards/dialects-sociolects-idiolects-3939245/packs/4809903
http://www.ello.uos.de/field.php/Sociolinguistics/Registerandstyle#:~:text=There%20is
%20a%20terminological%20distinction,Kortmann%202005%3A%20255ff).
https://www.thoughtco.com/register-language-style-1692038

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http://ridhamardhatillah94.blogspot.com/2013/08/code-mixing-and-code-
switching.html

http://eprints.undip.ac.id/2704/2/
ANALYSIS_OF_CODE_SWITCHING_AND_CODE_MIXING_IN_THE_TEENLIT_CANTING_CANTI
Q_BY_DYAN_NURANINDYA.pdf

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