KIoT

SECE

Chapter Four
TRANSIENT CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
 Topics to be covered
4.1 First Order Transient Circuits:
• RL and RC Transient Characteristics
4.3 Second Order Transient Circuits:
• RLC Transient Circuits,
• Series RLC
• Parallel RLC
4.5 Higher Order Circuits and Approximations

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 4. TRANSIENT CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
Introduction
 Now we have considered the three passive elements (R, C, and L)
and we are prepared to consider circuits that contain various
combinations of two or three of the passive elements.
 In this topic, we will examine three types of simple circuits:
a circuit comprising R and C, a circuit comprising R and L and a
circuit consist of R, L, and C.
 These are called RC and RL circuits, RLC circuits respectively.
 These circuits used in electronics, communications, and control
systems.
 Whenever the electrical power supplied to a circuit changes
momentarily over a short duration of time, it is called
transients. Transients invariably affect the voltage and
current. 3
 Cont.…
 We carry out the analysis of RC and RL circuits by
applying Kirchhoff’s laws, as we did for resistive
circuits.
 The only difference is that applying Kirchhoff’s laws to
purely resistive circuits’ results in algebraic equations.
 while applying the laws to RC and RL circuits produces
differential equations, which are more difficult to solve
than algebraic equations.
 The differential equations resulting from analyzing RC
and RL circuits are of the first order.
 Hence, the circuits are collectively known as first-order
circuits. 4
 4.1 First Order Transient Circuits
 A First-order circuit is characterized by a first-
order differential equation.
 There are two types of first-order circuits (RC and
RL), there are two ways to excite the circuits.
 The first way is by initial conditions of the
storage elements in the circuits.
 These circuits are called source-free circuits, we
assume that energy is initially stored in the
capacitive or inductive element.
5
 Cont.…
The energy causes current to flow in the circuit and
is gradually dissipated in the resistors.
 Although source free circuits are by definition free
of independent sources, they may have dependent
sources.
 The applications of RC and RL circuits:
 Relay circuits,
 Photoflash unit, and
 An automobile ignition circuit.
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 Source-Free RC Circuit
 A source-free RC circuit occurs when its dc source is suddenly
disconnected.
 The energy already stored in the capacitor is released to the
resistors.

Figure 4.1 A source-free RC circuit

 Consider a series combination of a resistor and an initially charged

capacitor, as shown in Fig. 4.1. 7

 Cont.…
 Our objective is to determine the circuit response, we
assume to be the voltage V(t) across the capacitor.
 Since the capacitor is initially charged, at time t=0sec,
the initial voltage is:w can assume that at time t = 0, the
initial voltage is

8
 Cont.…

or
 This is a first-order differential equation, since only the first
o
derivative of V is involved.
 To solve it, we rearrange the terms as

Integrating both sides,

⇨
9
 Cont.…

 This shows that the voltage response of the RC circuit is

an exponential decay of the initial voltage.
 Since the response is due to the initial energy stored and
the physical characteristics of the circuit and not due to
some external voltage or current source, it is called the
natural response of the circuit.
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 Cont.…
 The natural response of a circuit refers to the behavior (in
terms of voltages and currents) of the circuit itself, with no
external sources of excitation.
The natural response is illustrated graphically in Fig. 4.2.
Note that at t = 0, we have the correct initial condition as
The natural response of a circuit refers to the
V(0) = V0.
behavior (in terms of voltages and currents) of
As t increases, the voltage decreases toward zero.
the circuit itself, with no external sources of
The rapidity with which the voltage decreases is expressed in
excitation.
terms of the time constant, denoted by the lower case Greek
letter tau, τ = RC

Figure 4.2 The voltage response of

the RC circuit
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 Cont.…
 The time constant of a circuit is the time required for the
response to decay by a factor of 1/e or 36.8 percent of its
initial value.

 Observe from the above equation that the smaller the

time constant, the more rapidly the voltage decreases,
that is, the faster the response.
• This is illustrated in Fig. 4.3 below.
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 Cont.…
 A circuit with a small time constant gives a fast response
and it reaches the steady state (or final state) quickly due
to quick dissipation of energy stored,
 whereas a circuit with a large time constant gives a slow
response because it takes longer to reach steady state.
 At any rate, whether the time constant is small or large,
the circuit reaches steady state in five time constants.

Figure 4. 3 Plot of V/V0 = e−t/τ for

various values of the time constant

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Cont.…

14
Cont.…

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 Cont.…
 Once the capacitor voltage is first obtained, other
variables (capacitor current iC, resistor voltage VR,
and resistor current iR) can be determined.
 In finding the time constant τ = RC, R is often the
Thevenin equivalent resistance at the terminals of
the capacitor; that is, we take out the capacitor C
and find R = RTh at its terminals.
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 Example 4.1
In Fig. 4.4 below, let VC (0) = 15 V. Find VC, Vx , and ix for
t > 0.

Fig.4.4. RC circuit of example 4.1

Solution
 We first need to make the
circuit in Fig. 4.5 conform
with the standard RC circuit
in Fig. 4.1. Figure 4.5 Equivalent circuit
for the circuit in Fig. 4.4.
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Solution

18
Cont.…

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 Source-Free RL Circuit
 Consider the series connection of a resistor and an inductor,
as shown in Fig. 4.6.
 Our goal is to determine the circuit response, which we will
assume to be the current i(t) through the inductor.
 We select the inductor current as the response in order to
take advantage of the idea that the inductor current cannot
change instantaneously.
 At t = 0, we assume that the inductor has an initial current I0,
or
 with the corresponding energy stored in the inductor as

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 Cont.…

Fig.4.6. A source free RL circuit

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 Cont.…
 Rearranging terms and integrating gives

 This shows that the natural response of the RL circuit is

an exponential decay of the initial current.
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 Cont.…
 The current response is shown in Fig. 4.7.
 It is evident from the above equation that the time
constant for the RL circuit is

Figure 4.7 The current response of the RL circuit

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Cont.…

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Cont.…

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 Example 4.2
Assuming that i(0) = 10 A, calculate i(t) and ix (t) in the
circuit in Fig.4.7.

Solution: Figure 4.7 For Example 4.9

 There are two ways we can solve this problem.
 One way is to obtain the equivalent resistance at the
inductor terminals and then use the equation i(t).
 The other way is to start from scratch by using
Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
 Whichever approach is taken, it is always better to first
obtain the inductor current
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 METHOD 1
 The equivalent resistance is the same as the Thevenin
resistance at the inductor terminals.

Figure 4.8 Solving the circuit in Fig. 4.7

Because of the dependent source, we insert a voltage
source with Vo= 1 V at the inductor terminals a-b, as in Fig.
4.8(a). (We could also insert a 1-A current source at the
terminals). Applying KVL to the two loops results in
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28
Method 2

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30
4.3 Second Order Transient Circuits
 In the previous topic we considered circuits with a single
storage element (a capacitor or an inductor).
 Such circuits are first-order because the differential
equations describing them are first-order.
 In this topic we will consider circuits containing two
storage elements.
 These are known as second-order circuits because their
responses are described by differential equations that
contain second derivatives. 31
 Cont.…
 A second-order circuit may have two storage
elements of different type or the same type
(provided elements of the same type cannot be
represented by an equivalent single element).
 A second-order circuit is characterized by a
second-order differential equation.
 It consists of resistors and the equivalent of two
energy storage elements.
 Typical examples of second-order circuits are
RLC circuits, in which the three kinds of passive
elements are present. 32
 Cont.…
 Examples of such circuits are shown in Fig. 4.9(a)
and (b).
 Other examples are RC and RL circuits, as shown
in Fig. 4.9(c) and (d).
 An op amp circuit with two storage elements
may also be a second-order circuit.
 As with first-order circuits, a second-order circuit
may contain several resistors and dependent and
independent sources.

33
 Cont.…

Figure 4.9Typical examples of second-order circuits: (a) series RLC

circuit, (b) parallel RLC circuit, (c) RL circuit, (d) RC circuit

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 Finding Initial and Final Values
 Students are usually comfortable getting the initial and
final values of V and i but often have difficulty in finding
the initial values of their derivatives: dv/dt and di/dt.
 For this reason, this section is clearly devoted to the
subtleties of getting V(0), i(0), dV(0)/dt , di(0)/dt , i(∞),
and V(∞).
 Unless otherwise stated in this chapter,
V denotes capacitor voltage, while
i is the inductor current.
 There are two key points to keep in mind in determining
the initial conditions.
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 Cont.…
 First, as always in circuit analysis, we must carefully
handle the polarity of voltage V(t) across the capacitor
and the direction of the current i(t) through the inductor.
 Second, keep in mind that the capacitor voltage is
always continuous so that
……………………(1a)
 And the inductor current is always continuous so that
……………………(1b)
 Where t = 0− denotes the time just before a switching
event
 t = 0+ is the time just after the switching event, assuming
that the switching event takes place at t = 0.
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Example 4.3
The switch in Fig. 4.10 has been closed for a long time. It
is open at t = 0. Find: (a) i(0+), v(0+), (b) di(0+)/dt ,
dv(0+)/dt , (c) i(∞), v(∞).

Solution Figure 4-10 circuit for example 4-3

(a) If the switch is closed a long time before t = 0, it means that the
circuit has reached dc steady state at t = 0.
(b) At dc steady state, the inductor acts like a short circuit, while the
capacitor acts like an open circuit, so we have the circuit in Fig. 4-
11 (a) at t = 0−.
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 Figure 4.11 Equivalent circuit of that in Fig. 4.10 for: (a) t = 0−, (b) t = 0+, (c) t →∞.

Thus,
As the inductor current and the capacitor voltage cannot change
abruptly,
(a) At t = 0+, the switch is open; the equivalent circuit is as shown in
Fig. 4.11(b).
(b) The same current flows through both the inductor and capacitor.
Hence,

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 Since C dv/dt = iC, dv/dt = iC/C, and
 Similarly, since Ldi/dt = VL, di/dt = VL/L. We now obtain VL by
applying KVL to the loop in Fig. 4.11(b).
 The result is
or

Thus,
(c) Fort > 0, the circuit undergoes transience. But as t →∞, the
circuit reaches steady state again. The inductor acts like a short
circuit and the capacitor like an open circuit, so that the circuit
becomes that shown in Fig. 4.11(c), from which we have
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 Source-Free Series RLC Circuit
 An understanding of the natural response of the series
RLC circuit is a necessary background for future
studies in filter design and communications networks.
 Consider the series RLC circuit shown in Fig. 4.12.

Figure 4.12 A source-free series RLC circuit

 The circuit is being excited by the energy initially stored
in the capacitor and inductor.
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 Cont.…

Applying KVL around the loop in Fig. 4.18,

 To eliminate the integral, we differentiate with respect to t

and rearrange terms. We get
………………(1)

 This is a second-order differential equation; our goal is to solve

this equation
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 or

From the first-order circuits we suggest that the solution is

of exponential form. So we let

Where A and s are constants to be determined. Substituting

the above Eq. into Eq. 1 and carrying out the necessary
differentiations, we obtain

or

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 Cont.…
Since i = Aest is the assumed solution we are trying to find;
only the expression in parentheses can be zero:

 This quadratic equation is known as the characteristic

equation of the second order differential equation, since
the roots of the equation dictate the character of i.
 The two roots of the above equations are

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 A more compact way of expressing the roots is
………………(2)

Were

 The roots S1 and S2 are called natural frequencies,

measured in nepers per second (Np/s), because they
are associated with the natural response of the circuit;
 ω0 is known as the resonant frequency or strictly as
the undamped natural frequency, expressed in (rad/s)
 α is the neper frequency or the damping factor,
expressed in nepers per second.
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 Cont.…

 The two values of s indicate that there are two possible

solutions for i, each of which is of the form of the
assumed solution; that is,

 Thus, the natural response of the series RLC circuit is

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 Cont.…
Where the constants A1 and A2 are determined from the
initial values i(0)and di(0)/dt. From Eq. 2, we can infer that
there are three types of solutions:
1. If α > ω0, we have the over damped case.
2. If α = ω0, we have the critically damped case.
3. If α < ω0, we have the under damped case.
We will consider each of these cases separately.

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 1. Over damped Case (α > ω0)
 α > ω0 when C > 4L/R2. When this happens, both roots s1
and s2 are negative and real. The response is
 This decays and approaches zero as t increases.
 Figure 4.13(a) illustrates a typical over damped response.
2. Critically Damped Case (α = ω0)
When α = ω0, C = 4L/R2 and

A typical critically damped response is shown in Fig. 4.13(b).

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 3. Under damped Case (α < ω0)
For α < ω0, C < 4L/R2. The roots may be written as

48
 Cont.…
The natural response is

Using Euler’s identities,

We get

 Replacing constants (A1 + A2) and j (A1 − A2) with constants B1

and B2, we write

• A typical under damped response is shown in Fig. 4.13(c).

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Figure 4.13 (a) Over damped response, (b) critically damped response,
(c) under damped response.

50
 Cont.…
 Once the inductor current i(t) is found for the RLC
series circuit as shown above, other circuit quantities
such as individual element voltages can easily be found.
 For example, the resistor voltage is VR = Ri, and the
inductor voltage is VL = L di/dt.
 The inductor current i(t) is selected as the key variable
to be determined first in order to take advantage.
 By adjusting the value of R, the response may be made
un-damped, over-damped, critically damped, or under-
damped.
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 Example 4-4
In Fig. 4-14 below, R = 40 Ω, L = 4 H, and C = 1/4 F.
Calculate the characteristic roots of the circuit. Is the
natural response over damped, under damped, or critically
damped?

Figure 4-14
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 Solution
We first calculate

 Since α > ω0, we conclude that the response is over

damped.
 This is also evident from the fact that the roots are real
and negative.

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 Source Free Parallel RLC Circuits
Consider the parallel RLC circuit shown in Fig. 4.15. Assume initial
inductor current I0 and initial capacitor voltage V0,

Figure 4-15 A source-free parallel RLC circuit

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 Cont.…
 Since the three elements are in parallel, they have the
same voltage v across them.
 According to passive sign convention, the current is
entering each element; that is, the current through each
element is leaving the top node.
 Thus, applying KCL at the top node gives

Taking the derivative with respect to t and dividing by C results in

55
 Cont.…

The roots of the characteristic equation are

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 Cont.…
----------------------(*)

 The names of these terms remain the same as in the

preceding section, as they play the same role in the
solution.
 Again, there are three possible solutions, depending on
whether α > ω0, α = ω0, or α < ω0.
 Let us consider these cases separately.
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 A) Over damped Case (α > ω0)
 From Eq. (*), above α > ω0 when L > 4R2C.
 The roots of the characteristic equation are real and
negative. The response is

B) Critically Damped Case (α = ω0)

For α = ω, L = 4R2C. The roots are real and equal so that
the response is

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 C) Under damped Case (α < ω0)
 When α < ω0, L < 4R2C, in this case the roots are
complex and may be expressed as

 The constants A1 and A2 in each case can be determined

from the initial conditions.
 We need V(0) and dV(0)/dt . We find the second term by

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 Cont.…
 The voltage waveforms are similar to those shown in Fig.
4.13 and will depend on whether the circuit is over damped,
under damped, or critically damped.
 Having found the capacitor voltage V (t) for the parallel RLC
circuit as shown above, we can readily obtain other circuit
quantities such as individual element currents.
 For example, the resistor current is iR = V/R and the capacitor
voltage is VC = Cdv/dt.
 We have selected the capacitor voltage V (t) as the key
variable to be determined first in order to take advantage.
 Notice that we first found the inductor current i(t) for the
RLC series circuit, whereas we first found the capacitor
voltage V(t) for the parallel RLC circuit.
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Example 4-5.
In the parallel circuit of Fig. 4-16, find V (t) for t > 0,
assuming V (0) = 5 V, i(0) = 0, L = 1 H, and C = 10 mF.
Consider these cases: R = 1.923 Ω, R = 5 Ω and R = 6.25Ω.

Figure 4-16

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Solution:
Case1. If R = 1.923 Ω

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Case2. If R = 5 Ω

While ω0 = 10 remains the same. Since α = ω0 = 10, the

response is critically damped. Hence,
S1 = S2 = −10, and

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64
Case3. If R = 6.25 Ω
While ω0 = 10 remains the same. As α < ω0 in this case,
the response is under damped. The roots of the
characteristic equation are

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 Notice that by increasing the value of R, the degree of
damping decreases and the responses differ. Figure 4.17
plots the three cases.

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Figure 4-17 For Example 4.5 responses for three degrees of
damping
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Reading Assignment
Higher Order Circuits

68