AEN 104: ART OF WRITING

LECTURE NOTES
Lecturer: Okoth Beatrice

This are part of the lecture notes”

@2024
bokoth:maseno.ac.ke
MASENO UNIVERSITY
AEN 104: ART OF WRITING LECTURE NOTES
BY: OKOTH BEATRICE

Table of content
THE WRITING PROCESS ............................................................................................................................. 2
Prewriting ................................................................................................................................................. 3
What do you do to focus your topic? ................................................................................................... 3
What do you need to know about your audience? .............................................................................. 3
How do you determine the purpose of your writing? .......................................................................... 4
How do you determine the tone of your writing? ............................................................................... 4
Point-of-view is the perspective from which you write an essay. ........................................................ 4
What tense do you use? ....................................................................................................................... 5
Planning your writing ................................................................................................................................ 5
How to make a plan for your draft. .......................................................................................................... 5
Drafting: .................................................................................................................................................... 6
Revising ..................................................................................................................................................... 9
Editing and proofreading ....................................................................................................................... 10
Publishing: .............................................................................................................................................. 10
PRE-WRITING ...................................................................................................................................... 10
FOCUSING A TOPIC ................................................................................................................................. 10
2. GATHERING /GENERATING IDEAS FOR THE WRITING PROCESS ......................................................... 10
ORGANIZING IDEAS FOR A WRITING PROJECT ....................................................................................... 11
PARAGRAPH CONSTRUCTION ................................................................................................................. 11
Basic Paragraph Structure: How to Layout a Paragraph ................................................................... 12
The purpose of a topic sentence in a paragraph is to: ...................................................................... 12
STRATEGIES FOR WRITING A STRONG TOPIC SENTENCE .................................................................. 12
COHESION AND COHERENCE IN WRITING ............................................................................................. 14
COHESION IN WRITING .......................................................................................................................... 14

1
MASENO UNIVERSITY
AEN 104: ART OF WRITING LECTURE NOTES
BY: OKOTH BEATRICE
AEN 104 THE ART OF WRITING.

THE WRITING PROCESS

The writing process is a series of steps that writers follow to produce a written work. The process can
vary depending on the writer and the type of writing, but it generally involves the following steps:

2
MASENO UNIVERSITY
AEN 104: ART OF WRITING LECTURE NOTES
BY: OKOTH BEATRICE

Prewriting:
This is the first stage of the writing process.

Here the writer should

o Choose/narrow your topic

o Determine your

 Audience

 Purpose

 Tone

 Point-of-view

 Tense

 The next step should be to:

i. Explore your topic

ii. Make a plan

Let us look at each of the considerations of the prewriting stage

What do you do to focus your topic?

 Your topic should pass the 3-question test:

1. Does it interest me?

2. Do I have something to say about it?

3. Is it specific?

What do you need to know about your audience?

 Your Audience is composed of those who will read your writing.

 Ask yourself:

 Who are my readers?

 What do my readers know about my topic?

 What do my readers need to know about my topic?

 How do my readers feel about my topic?

 What do my readers expect?

 Standard Written English

3
MASENO UNIVERSITY
AEN 104: ART OF WRITING LECTURE NOTES
BY: OKOTH BEATRICE
 Correct grammar and spelling

 Accurate information

 Logical presentation of ideas

 Followed directions of the assignment!!!

 What are my length requirements?

 What is my time limit?

 What does the assignment consist of?

 Is research required?

 What format should be used?

How do you determine the purpose of your writing?

 Purpose is the reason you are writing.

 Whenever you write, you always have a purpose. Most writing fits into one of 3 categories:

 Expressive Writing

 Informative Writing

 Persuasive Writing

 More than one of these may be used, but one will be primary.

How do you determine the tone of your writing?

 Tone is the mood or attitude you adopt as you write.

 Serious or frivolous/humorous?

 Intimate or detached?

4. What is your point of view?

Point-of-view is the perspective from which you write an essay.

 There are 3 points-of-view:

 First person—”I, we”

 Second person—”you”

 Third person—”he, she, they”

4
MASENO UNIVERSITY
AEN 104: ART OF WRITING LECTURE NOTES
BY: OKOTH BEATRICE
 One of the most common errors in writing occurs when the writer shifts point-of-view
unnecessarily!

What tense do you use?

 Tense is the voice you use to designate the time of the action or state of being.

 Present tense

 Past tense

 Future tense

Planning your writing

 The following are Pre-writing Techniques you may use to generate ideas for your writing:

 Brainstorming/Listing

 Freewriting

 Clustering/Mapping

 Questioning

 Discussing

 Outlining

How to make a plan for your draft.

 Before you begin drafting your essay, you should make a plan (a roadmap).

 Review, evaluate, and organize ideas written in your pre-writing; then make a plan for
your essay’s

 Thesis statement

 Support

 Order

 Structure

 Thesis statement: The thesis statement expresses the MAIN IDEA of your essay, the central
point that your essay develops/supports. Your thesis SHOULD:

o Accurately predict your essay’s direction, emphasis, and scope

o Make no promises that the essay will not fulfill

o Be direct and straightforward

o NOT be an announcement, statement of opinion, or statement of fact.

 Support to your thesis: Be sure to evaluate the information in your prewriting carefully in order
to choose the best support for your topic.

5
MASENO UNIVERSITY
AEN 104: ART OF WRITING LECTURE NOTES
BY: OKOTH BEATRICE
o Primary Support—major ideas or examples that back up your main points

o Secondary Support—details which further explain your primary support

 Basics of good support

o Relates to main point

o Considers readers, i.e. provides enough information

o Is detailed and specific

 Order

The Order is the sequence in which you present your ideas.

 There are 3 types of order:

o Time (chronological) order

o Space order
o Emphatic order (order of importance: least-to-most, most-to-least)

 Structure and Organization

Consider how your essay will be organized; then create an Outline.

Sample Outline of standard 5-paragraph essay:

o Introduction

o Body Paragraph 1

o Body Paragraph 2

o Body Paragraph 3

o Conclusion

Drafting: This is the stage where the writer begins to write the first draft of their work. The focus is on
getting the ideas down on paper, rather than worrying about grammar, spelling, or other details. It is
writer centred. You should therefore:

 Compose a draft

 A Draft is the first whole version of all your ideas put together; it’s a
“dress rehearsal.”

 You should plan to revise your Draft several times throughout the
writing process.

6
MASENO UNIVERSITY
AEN 104: ART OF WRITING LECTURE NOTES
BY: OKOTH BEATRICE
 Basics of a good draft:
 Has a fully developed introduction and conclusion
 Has fully developed body paragraphs, each containing a topic sentence, at least
two examples, and detailed support
 Follows standard structure and uses complete sentences
 Create your title:

Your essay’s title should:

 Be original

 Be a reasonable length

 Reflect your topic

 Be lively and attention-getting

 Your title should NOT:

 Be generic/repeat the assignment

 Be in ALL CAPS

 Be in boldface, “quotation marks,” underlined, or italicized

 Be followed by a period

 Capitalization Rules for Titles:

 Always capitalize the first letter of the first word and the last word.

 Capitalize the first letter of each “important” word in between the first and last words.

 Do not capitalize articles (a, an, the)

 Do not capitalize coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, etc.)
 Do not capitalize prepositions (on, at, in, off, etc.)
 Examples of effective/ineffective titles

Topic: Cheating in College

 Effective Titles:

 Cheaters Never Win!

 Cheating in Higher Education

 Why Do Students Cheat?

 Ineffective Titles:

 Don’t Do It!

 Cheating

7
MASENO UNIVERSITY
AEN 104: ART OF WRITING LECTURE NOTES
BY: OKOTH BEATRICE
 Students Cheat for Many Different Reasons.

 Basics of a good draft:

 Has a fully developed introduction and conclusion

 Has fully developed body paragraphs, each containing a topic sentence, at least two
examples, and detailed support

 Follows standard structure and uses complete sentences

 Writing your introduction:

Your introductory paragraph should do the following:

 Be a minimum of 4-6 sentences

 Tell the audience what to expect from your discussion (thesis)

 Move from general to specific, with the thesis as the last sentence in the intro

 Get the reader’s attention

 Set the tone for the rest of the essay

 Strategies for developing an Introduction include:

 Providing background information

 Telling a personal anecdote

 Beginning with a quotation

 Using an opposite

 Asking a questions.

 The body paragraph

Each body paragraph should develop one of the specific points mentioned in the thesis.

 Each BP should contain:

 Topic Sentence—main idea of BP

 Primary Support—examples

 Secondary Support—details

 A Topic Sentence expresses the main idea of the body paragraph.

Begin each body paragraph with a Topic Sentence that

 Narrows the focus of the paragraph

 Accurately predicts the direction of the paragraph

8
MASENO UNIVERSITY
AEN 104: ART OF WRITING LECTURE NOTES
BY: OKOTH BEATRICE
 Refers back to the Thesis statement

 Body paragraph
Body paragraphs must have
 Unity—everything refers back to main point
 Support—examples and details
 Coherence—all points connect to form a whole; one point leads to another

Body paragraph Unity:

Unity is achieved when everything refers back to the main point

ALL SENTENCES SHOULD RELATE BACK TO TOPIC SENTENCE & THESIS.

Do not include any ideas that are irrelevant or off-topic.

Body paragraph: Support

Support is achieved through adequate examples and details.

Each body paragraph should include at least two examples to support the main idea of
the paragraph.

Each example should include at least one specific detail that further illustrates the point.

Body paragraph: Coherence

Coherence is achieved when all points connect to form a whole; one point leads to another.

Coherence is mainly achieved through the use of transitions.

Transitions—words & phrases which connect your sentences so that your writing flows
smoothly.

Body paragraph: Conclusion

The concluding paragraph should

o Contain a minimum of 4 sentences

o Refer back to the main point, but not simply repeat the thesis
o Make an observation on what is written
o NOT introduce any new ideas
o Create a sense of closure
o

Revising:
In this stage, the writer reviews their first draft and makes changes to improve the work. This can
involve rewriting sections, adding or removing content, and making other changes to improve the
clarity, coherence, and overall quality of the work.

9
MASENO UNIVERSITY
AEN 104: ART OF WRITING LECTURE NOTES
BY: OKOTH BEATRICE
Editing and proofreading: This is the final stage of the writing process, where the writer reviews the
work for errors in grammar, spelling, punctuation, and other details. The goal is to produce a polished,
error-free final draft.

Publishing: This entails availing the written text to your audience for reading.

PRE-WRITING
FOCUSING A TOPIC
Focusing a topic for a writing project can be a challenging task. Here are some ways to help you focus
your topic:

Brainstorming: Start by brainstorming ideas related to your topic. Write down everything that comes to
your mind, even if it seems unrelated to the topic. This can help you to generate new ideas and think
creatively.

Listing: When you have several broad ideas to contend with, sometimes it’s best to just get them onto
the page and out of your system. Listing allows you to categorize your ideas before committing to one 1.

Be more specific: To narrow your topic, think of ways to make your topic more specific by focusing on a
smaller aspect of the topic, one key component of the topic, a specific time period, or perhaps a specific
location 2.

Consider your audience: Think about who your audience is and what they might be interested in. This
can help you to tailor your topic to their interests and needs.

Research: Conduct research on your topic to gain a deeper understanding of the subject matter. This
can help you to identify areas that have not been explored and to develop a unique perspective on the
topic.

Consult with others: Talk to others who have knowledge or experience related to the topic. This can
help you to gain insights and perspectives that you may not have considered otherwise.

Remember that the writing process is iterative, and you may need to revisit and refine your topic as you
go along. I hope this helps!

2. GATHERING /GENERATING IDEAS FOR THE WRITING PROCESS

There are several ways to gather material for writing. Here are some of them:

1. Brainstorming: This is a technique where you write down all the ideas that come to your mind
about a topic. It can help you to generate new ideas and think creatively.
2. Freewriting: This is a technique where you write continuously for a set period of time, without
worrying about grammar, spelling, or punctuation. The goal is to write down everything that
comes to your mind, even if it seems unrelated to the topic.

10
MASENO UNIVERSITY
AEN 104: ART OF WRITING LECTURE NOTES
BY: OKOTH BEATRICE
3. Research: This involves gathering information from various sources such as books, articles, and
websites. It can help you to gain a deeper understanding of the topic and provide evidence to
support your arguments.
4. Interviews: This involves talking to people who have knowledge or experience related to the
topic. It can help you to gain insights and perspectives that you may not have considered
otherwise.
5. Observation: This involves observing people, places, or events related to the topic. It can help
you to gather information and details that you may not have found through other methods.
6. Personal experience: This involves drawing on your own experiences and knowledge related to
the topic. It can help you to provide a unique perspective and add authenticity to your writing.

ORGANIZING IDEAS FOR A WRITING PROJECT

There are several ways to order ideas for a writing project. Here are some of them:

i. Chronological Order: This is a very common way to organize ideas as a writer or storyteller that
basically involves dishing out ideas or details in order of time, first to last. It is often used in
expository writing (narrative that informs or explains) – particularly when describing an event or
series of events.
ii. Logical Order: This framework is used to avoid confusion in the reader. You should organize
ideas in this framework if your reader needs to understand one point before being capable of
understanding the next.
iii. Climactic Order: In this framework, you generally keep the most important or exciting point until
the last of the piece. Use this framework when you want to build excitement in a piece or really
emphasize one point as the pinnacle of the piece.
iv. Listing: Listing allows you to categorize your ideas before committing to one. When you have
several broad ideas to contend with, sometimes it’s best to just get them onto the page and out
of your system.
v. Mind Mapping: Mind mapping is a visual way of organizing ideas. It involves creating a diagram
that shows the relationships between different ideas. This can help you to see how different
ideas are connected and to identify patterns and themes 2.

PARAGRAPH CONSTRUCTION
What is a paragraph?

A paragraph is a unit of writing that expresses a certain topic or theme. It is a component of fictional
prose and non-fiction writings. When writing essays, research papers, books, etc., new paragraphs are
indented to show their beginnings. Each new paragraph begins with a new indentation. The purpose of a
paragraph is to express a speaker’s thoughts on a particular point in a clear way that is unique and
specific to that paragraph. A good paragraph should have the following features.

Unity: The ideas in a paragraph should logically fit together.

Coherence: The ideas in a paragraph should flow from one idea to the next.

Adequate Development: The paragraph should be well-developed and include enough evidence to
support its topic sentence.

11
MASENO UNIVERSITY
AEN 104: ART OF WRITING LECTURE NOTES
BY: OKOTH BEATRICE
Transitions: Good paragraphs have transitions between preceding and proceeding paragraphs. These
transitions are logical and verbal.

Basic Paragraph Structure: How to Layout a Paragraph

In non-fiction writing, a body paragraph is any paragraph that comes between the introduction and the
conclusion.

A good body paragraph will have the following:

The structure of a paragraph typically consists of three main parts:

Topic Sentence (TS): The first sentence of the paragraph, which introduces the main idea or topic of the
paragraph. It should be clear, concise, and engaging, providing a roadmap for the rest of the paragraph.

Supporting Sentences (SS): The subsequent sentences in the paragraph, which provide evidence,
examples, or explanations to support the topic sentence. These sentences should be related to the main
idea and help develop the topic sentence.

Concluding Sentence (CS): The final sentence of the paragraph, which summarizes the main idea or
provides a transition to the next paragraph. It should wrap up the discussion and leave a lasting
impression on the reader.

A well-structured paragraph should have unity, coherence, and adequate development. Unity refers to
the focus on a single topic or idea throughout the paragraph. Coherence ensures that the sentences
flow logically and smoothly, while adequate development means that the paragraph contains enough
evidence and explanation to support the topic sentence

The purpose of a topic sentence in a paragraph is to:

 Introduce the main idea: The topic sentence sets the tone and introduces the main idea or focus
of the paragraph, providing a clear and concise statement of what the paragraph will discuss
 Unify the content: A well-crafted topic sentence helps to unify the content of the paragraph by
ensuring that all subsequent sentences support or expand upon the main idea
 Direct the order of sentences: The topic sentence guides the order of the sentences in the
paragraph, indicating the logical flow of ideas
 Engage the reader: By signalling what to expect in the paragraph, the topic sentence engages
the reader and helps them understand the subject and how the paragraph will discuss it
 Relate back to the thesis statement: A good topic sentence should be general enough to express
the paragraph's overall subject, but specific enough that the reader understands the main idea
of the paragraph. It should also relate back to the thesis statement of the essay, providing a
clear connection between the paragraph and the overall argument

In summary, the purpose of a topic sentence in a paragraph is to introduce the main idea, unify the
content, direct the order of sentences, engage the reader, and relate back to the thesis statement.

STRATEGIES FOR WRITING A STRONG TOPIC SENTENCE

Here are some strategies for writing a strong topic sentence:

12
MASENO UNIVERSITY
AEN 104: ART OF WRITING LECTURE NOTES
BY: OKOTH BEATRICE
 Get the reader interested: Use a hook to grab the reader's attention, such as a surprising fact, an
interesting statistic, or a thought-provoking question.
 Find a middle ground between general and specific: Make sure the topic sentence is specific
enough to give a clear sense of what to expect from the paragraph, but general enough that it
doesn't give everything away.
 Be clear: Ensure that the topic sentence is clear and easy to understand, as it sets the tone for
the rest of the paragraph.
 Relate back to the thesis statement: A good topic sentence should be general enough to express
the paragraph's overall subject, but specific enough that the reader understands the main idea
of the paragraph. It should also relate back to the thesis statement of the essay, providing a
clear connection between the paragraph and the overall argument.
 Use evidence: After the topic sentence, expand on the point with evidence and examples to
support your argument
 Create a sense of direction: A good topic sentence should tell the reader which direction your
argument is going in, helping to maintain the flow of the overall piece of writing
 Use transitions: If necessary, use transition sentences to create continuity between topics and
paragraphs.

By following these strategies, you can write strong topic sentences that effectively introduce the
main idea of your paragraph and engage your readers.

Example of a good topic sentence:

Topic Sentence: "The use of technology in education has revolutionized the way students learn and
interact with their peers and teachers."

This topic sentence effectively introduces the main idea of the paragraph, which is the impact of
technology on education. It is clear, concise, and engaging, providing a roadmap for the rest of the
paragraph. The sentence also sets the tone for the discussion, indicating that the paragraph will
discuss the positive aspects of technology in education.

Another example of a topic sentence in paragraph construction could be:

"The implementation of project-based learning in classrooms has significantly improved students'

critical thinking skills and their ability to apply knowledge to real-world situations."

This topic sentence is clear, concise, and directly states the main idea of the paragraph. The
supporting sentences in the paragraph would provide evidence and examples to support this main
idea, such as:

 Project-based learning encourages students to work collaboratively and develop problem-

solving skills.
 Students who participate in project-based learning show increased motivation and
engagement in their learning.
 Research has shown that project-based learning leads to higher academic achievement and
better retention of knowledge.

13
MASENO UNIVERSITY
AEN 104: ART OF WRITING LECTURE NOTES
BY: OKOTH BEATRICE
 Teachers who implement project-based learning report that their students are more
confident in their ability to apply knowledge to real-world situations.
 Project-based learning has been successfully implemented in various educational settings,
from elementary schools to universities.

This paragraph follows the structure of a well-organized paragraph, with a clear topic sentence,
supporting sentences that provide evidence and examples, and a coherent focus on the main idea.
The sentences in the paragraph are connected to the topic sentence, and the paragraph as a whole
contributes to the overall argument or discussion.

COHESION AND COHERENCE IN WRITING

Cohesion and coherence are essential elements of effective writing. Cohesion refers to how parts of
a text are connected together, achieved through repeated words, reference words, transition
signals, substitution, and ellipsis. It ensures that the writing coheres or 'sticks together', making it
easier for the reader to follow the main ideas in the text.

On the other hand, coherence is the quality of being logical, consistent, and able to be understood.
It is created when correct vocabulary and grammar are used to connect ideas, allowing the text to
form a whole unit. In summary, cohesion focuses on the connections between sentences, while
coherence focuses on the connections between ideas, both of which are crucial for creating well-
structured and understandable writing.

COHESION IN WRITING
Cohesion in writing is achieved through various methods, including repetition, reference words,
transition signals, substitution, and ellipsis. Here are some illustrations of how these methods are
used to create cohesion in writing:

Repetition: Repeating words or ideas using different words (synonyms) enhances cohesion. For
example, instead of using the word "happy" multiple times in a paragraph, a writer might use
synonyms like "joyful," "content," or "pleased" to avoid repetition

Example

Cohesion is an important feature of academic writing. It can help ensure that

your writing coheres or 'sticks together', which will make it easier for the reader to follow the main
ideas in your essay or report. You can achieve good cohesion by paying attention to five important
features. The first of these is repeated words. The second key feature is reference words. The third
one is transition signals. The fourth is substitution. The final important aspect is ellipsis.

In this example, the word cohesion is used several times, including as a verb (coheres). It is
important, in academic writing, to avoid too much repetition, so using different word forms or
synonyms is common. The word writing is also used several times, including the phrase essay or
report, which is a synonym for writing. The words important features are also repeated, again using
synonyms: key feature, important aspect.

14
MASENO UNIVERSITY
AEN 104: ART OF WRITING LECTURE NOTES
BY: OKOTH BEATRICE
Reference Words: Using words like "it," "which," and "these" to refer back to previously mentioned
ideas or concepts helps maintain cohesion in the text.

Example

Cohesion is an important feature of academic writing. It can help ensure that your writing coheres or
'sticks together', which will make it easier for the reader to follow the main ideas in your essay or
report. You can achieve good cohesion by paying attention to five important features. The first
of these is repeated words. The second key feature is reference words. The third one is transition
signals. The fourth is substitution. The final important aspect is ellipsis.

Transition Signals: Words and phrases like "however," "furthermore," and "in addition" act as
signposts, guiding the reader through the text and signaling the relationships between different
ideas or paragraphs

Some examples of transition words or phrases that can be used to achieve cohesion in writing
include:

Additive Transitions: furthermore, moreover, in addition, also, similarly, likewise.

Order of Importance Transitions: above all, first and foremost, more importantly, significantly,
primarily, the most important.

Contrastive Transitions: however, nevertheless, in contrast, on the other hand, but, yet, although,
even though, whereas, while, despite, in spite of.

Comparative Transitions: likewise, similarly, at the same time, by comparison, in much the same
way.

Cause and Effect Transitions: as a result, consequently, therefore, thus, because, since, so, due to,
given that.

These transition words and phrases show the relationships between the parts of a sentence,
between the sentences in a paragraph, or between the paragraphs in a longer piece of writing. They
are essential for enhancing the flow o

Substitution: This involves replacing a word with a pronoun to avoid repetition. For instance,
instead of repeating "John" multiple times, a writer might use "he" as a substitute.

Grammatically, it is similar to reference words, the main difference being that substitution is usually
limited to the clause which follows the word(s) being substituted, whereas reference words can refer to
something far back in the text. The most common words used for substitution are one, so, and auxiliary
verbs such as do, have and be. The following is an example.
• Drinking alcohol before driving is illegal in many countries, since doing so can seriously impair
one's ability to drive safely.

15
MASENO UNIVERSITY
AEN 104: ART OF WRITING LECTURE NOTES
BY: OKOTH BEATRICE
In this sentence, the phrase 'doing so' substitutes for the phrase 'drinking alcohol before driving' which
appears at the beginning of the sentence.

Below is the example used throughout this section.

There is just one example of substitution: the word one, which substitutes for the phrase 'important
features'.

Cohesion is an important feature of academic writing. It can help ensure that your writing
coheres or 'sticks together', which will make it easier for the reader to follow the main ideas in
your essay or report. You can achieve good cohesion by paying attention to five important
features. The first of these is repeated words. The second key feature is reference words. The
third one is transition signals. The fourth is substitution. The final important aspect is ellipsis.

Ellipsis: This involves omitting words that are implied in the context. For example, instead of saying
"Mary went to the store, and then Mary bought some milk," a writer might say "Mary went to the
store, and then bought some milk," with the second "Mary" omitted through ellipsis

Below is the example passage again. There is one example of ellipsis: the phrase 'The fourth is',
which means 'The fourth [important feature] is', so the words 'important feature' have been
omitted.

Cohesion is an important feature of academic writing. It can help ensure that your writing coheres or
'sticks together', which will make it easier for the reader to follow the main ideas in your essay or
report. You can achieve good cohesion by paying attention to five important features. The first of
these is repeated words. The second key feature is reference words. The third one is transition
signals. The fourth is substitution. The final important aspect is ellipsis.

Shell nouns

Shell nouns are abstract nouns which summarise the meaning of preceding or succeeding information.
This summarising helps to generate cohesion. Shell nouns may also be called carrier nouns, signalling
nouns, or anaphoric nouns. Examples are: approach, aspect, category, challenge, change, characteristics,
class, difficulty, effect, event, fact, factor, feature, form, issue, manner, method, problem, process,
purpose, reason, result, stage, subject, system, task, tendency, trend, and type. They are often used with
pronouns 'this', 'these', 'that' or 'those', or with the definite article 'the'. For example:

Virus transmission can be reduced via frequent washing of hands, use of face masks, and isolation of
infected individuals. These methods, however, are not completely effective and transmission may still
occur, especially among health workers who have close contact with infected individuals.

16
MASENO UNIVERSITY
AEN 104: ART OF WRITING LECTURE NOTES
BY: OKOTH BEATRICE
An increasing number of overseas students are attending university in the UK. This trend has led to
increased support networks for overseas students.

In the example passage used throughout this section, the word features serves as a shell noun,
summarising the information later in the passage.

Cohesion is an important feature of academic writing. It can help ensure that your writing coheres or
'sticks together', which will make it easier for the reader to follow the main ideas in your essay or report.
You can achieve good cohesion by paying attention to five important features. The first of these is
repeated words. The second key feature is reference words. The third one is transition signals. The
fourth is substitution. The final important aspect is ellipsis.

These methods help create a sense of connection and flow within the text, allowing the reader to
follow the main ideas and understand the relationships between different parts of the writing

Question: Use any three ways to demonstrate how cohesion can be achieved in writing.

Read the passage below:

Use the essay below to demonstrate how 4 different cohesive strategies have been used.

History shows that human beings have come a long way from where they started. They have developed
new technologies which means that everybody can enjoy luxuries they never previously
imagined. However, the technologies that are temporarily making this world a better place to live could
well prove to be an ultimate disaster due to, among other things, the creation of nuclear
weapons, increasing pollution, and loss of animal species.

The biggest threat to the earth caused by modern human activity comes from the creation of nuclear
weapons. Although it cannot be denied that countries have to defend themselves, the kind
of weapons that some of them currently possess are far in excess of what is needed for defence.
If these (nuclear ) weapons were used, they could lead to the destruction of the entire planet.

Another harm caused by human activity to this earth is pollution. People have become reliant on modern
technology, which can have adverse effects on the environment. For example, reliance on cars causes air
and noise pollution. Even seemingly innocent devices, such as computers and mobile phones, use
electricity, most of which is produced from coal-burning power stations, which further adds
to environmental pollution. If we do not curb our direct and indirect use of fossil fuels, the harm to
the environment may be catastrophic.

Animals are an important feature of this earth and the past decades have witnessed the extinction of a
considerable number of animal species. This is the consequence of human encroachment on wildlife
habitats, for example deforestation to expand cities. Some may argue that such loss of (animal)
species is natural and has occurred throughout earth's history. However, the current rate
of(animal )species loss far exceeds normal levels(animal species loss), and is threatening to become a
mass extinction event.

In summary, there is no doubt that current human activities such as the creation of nuclear

17
MASENO UNIVERSITY
AEN 104: ART OF WRITING LECTURE NOTES
BY: OKOTH BEATRICE
weapons, pollution, and destruction of wildlife, are harmful to the earth. It is important for us to see not
only the short-term effects of our actions, but their long-term ones as well. Otherwise, human
activities will be just another step towards destruction.

Answers:

Use the key below:

Grey – Ellipsis

Red- Substitution

Yellow- Repeated words /ideas

Blue- Transition signals

Green-Reference words

Reference: Cohesion & coherence (eapfoundation.com)

COHERENCE

Coherence in writing refers to the logical and consistent connection between ideas within a piece of
writing. When a piece of writing is coherent, it means that the ideas flow smoothly from one to the next,
and the reader can easily follow the writer's line of thought. Coherence is essential for effectively
communicating the intended message to the reader.

There are several elements that contribute to coherence in writing:

1. Logical organization: A coherent piece of writing follows a logical structure, such as an introduction,
body, and conclusion in an essay. Each paragraph should have a clear topic sentence and support the
main idea of the piece.

2. Clear transitions: Transitions are words or phrases that link ideas and paragraphs together, such as
"however," "in addition," "furthermore," and "on the other hand." Using these transitions helps to guide
the reader through the progression of ideas.

3. Consistent point of view: Maintaining a consistent point of view throughout the writing helps to ensure
coherence. Shifting between first person, second person, and third person can confuse the reader and
disrupt the flow of the writing.

18
MASENO UNIVERSITY
AEN 104: ART OF WRITING LECTURE NOTES
BY: OKOTH BEATRICE
4. Use of cohesive devices: Cohesive devices, such as pronouns, conjunctions, and transitional
expressions, help to connect ideas and create coherence. For example, using pronouns like "it" and "this"
to refer back to previously mentioned concepts can help maintain continuity.

5. Clear and concise language: Using clear and concise language avoids ambiguity and helps the reader
to understand the writer's intended meaning. Avoiding excessive jargon, convoluted sentence structures,
and unnecessary repetition contributes to coherence.

In summary, coherence in writing is achieved when ideas are presented in a clear, logical, and
interconnected manner, allowing the reader to easily follow the progression of the writer's thoughts. This
results in a more effective and engaging piece of writing.

TYPES OF ESSAYS
Introduction:

An essay is a written piece of work that presents and supports a particular topic or argument. It is a
common form of academic writing that allows the author to express their ideas, opinions, and analysis
on a specific subject. Essays typically include an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion, and
they are often used to demonstrate a deep understanding of a topic, develop critical thinking skills, and
communicate complex ideas effectively. The structure and format of an essay can vary depending on the
type and purpose, such as argumentative, expository, persuasive, or narrative essays.

There are several types of essays, each with its own unique characteristics and purposes. Some of the
common types of essays include:

1. Narrative Essays: These essays tell a story and are often personal and anecdotal in nature.

2. Descriptive Essays: They aim to create a vivid picture of a person, place, object, or experience.

3. Expository Essays: These essays present a balanced and objective analysis of a subject based on facts.

4. Argumentative Essays: They present a claim and support it with evidence, aiming to convince the
reader of a particular stance.

5. Persuasive Essays: Similar to argumentative essays, they aim to persuade the reader, but they may
rely more on emotional appeals.

6. Compare and Contrast Essays: These essays identify the similarities and differences between two or
more subjects.

7. Cause and Effect Essays: They examine the reasons for an event or situation and the consequences
that result from it.

19
MASENO UNIVERSITY
AEN 104: ART OF WRITING LECTURE NOTES
BY: OKOTH BEATRICE
8. Definition Essays: These essays explain the meaning of a term or concept.

9. Process Essays: They explain how to do something or how something works.

10. Reflective Essays: These essays require the writer to reflect on a personal experience and its impact.

11 .Analytical Essays: They analyze a topic in detail and present the results of the analysis.

12. Critical Essays: These essays critically evaluate a subject, typically an artistic work or a scholarly
article.

13. College (Application) Essays: These essays are used in the college application process to assess a
student's writing and communication skills.

14. Political Essays: They discuss societal and governance issues, often proposing solutions or advocating
for specific positions.

These are just a few examples of the many types of essays that exist, each serving a unique purpose and
requiring different writing skills and approaches.

1. DESCRIPTIVE ESSAYS

What are the basic elements of a descriptive essay?

A descriptive essay describes an object, person, place, or event that the writer has experienced. Writers
use illustrative language to "show" the reader that topic that is described in the essay. Through the use
of imagery, figurative language, and precise language, a writer can create effective descriptions that
create images in the reader's mind while also conveying a certain mood, or feeling, about the essay's
subject.

What is the Purpose of a Descriptive Essay?

A descriptive essay is meant to show the reader, through the use of illustrative language, something that
the writer has experienced. Writing teachers often instruct their students: "Show, don't tell." This means
that writers should strive to create a picture in the minds of their readers rather than simply telling their
readers about the setting, the characters, etc. For example, a writer could directly tell the reader that it
was raining, but it would be more effective to show the reader that it was raining by using specific
details and descriptive language. Good writers are able to create such effective descriptions that their
readers feel like they are experiencing the subject matter firsthand.

Telling: I got caught in the rain.

Showing: My wet hair clung to my face, cold water dripped from my sodden clothes, and my feet
sloshed and squeaked in my shoes.

Example of a descriptive essay:

Here is an example of a descriptive paragraph about a party:

20
MASENO UNIVERSITY
AEN 104: ART OF WRITING LECTURE NOTES
BY: OKOTH BEATRICE
"Pop music blared from the speakers near the dance floor, making it difficult to have a discussion with
anyone. Colored lights that had been strategically placed around the large room flashed randomly,
giving glimpses of the dancers in various poses. The rich, savory smell of the dinner that would soon be
served invaded my nose and my stomach grumbled in response."

Format of a descriptive essay

A descriptive essay should have three parts: beginning (introduction), middle (body), and end
(conclusion). The total number of paragraphs may vary.

Introduction:

Get the reader's attention through the use of an attention getter or hook sentence.

Identify the subject to be described.

Include a thesis statement, which illustrates the main impression of, or feeling about, the paper's
subject based on the details that will be provided in the body paragraphs.

Body Paragraphs:

Begin each paragraph with a topic sentence, which states the topic of the paragraph.

Use transitions (next to, another, on top of, below, around) to guide the reader to "see" the subject of
the paper.

Use imagery, figurative language, and precise language to describe the subject.

End each body paragraph with a closing sentence, which concludes the current paragraph and hints at
what will be described in the next.

Conclusion:

Restate the thesis by reiterating or echoing the main impression of the subject that was given in the
introduction.

Leave the reader with a final thought about the subject.

A Summary of the features of descriptive essays include:

1. Expressive Writing: Descriptive essays use expressive language to create a vivid and detailed portrayal
of the subject, including descriptions, opinions, comparisons, personal perceptions, and sensory
perceptions.

2. Vivid Descriptions: They provide specific and detailed information about the subject being described,
aiming to paint a comprehensive picture for the reader

3. Appeal to the Senses: Descriptive essays make use of the five senses, using sensory details to appeal
to the reader's imagination and create a vibrant reading experience.

4. Organized Structure: They typically have an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion, with the
details arranged logically.

21
MASENO UNIVERSITY
AEN 104: ART OF WRITING LECTURE NOTES
BY: OKOTH BEATRICE
5. Illustrative Language: Descriptive essays "show" readers what the writer has experienced by using
illustrative language such as imagery, figurative language, and precise language.

6. Purposeful Writing: The goal of a descriptive essay is to create a vivid reading experience and to show,
rather than tell, the reader about the subject being described.

7. Emotional Connection: Descriptive essays can also describe emotions or feelings related to the topic,
aiming to connect with the reader on a deeper level.

8. Artistic Freedom: This genre allows for a great deal of artistic freedom, aiming to paint an image that
is vivid and moving in the mind of the reader.

These features collectively contribute to the unique and engaging nature of descriptive essays, allowing
the reader to form a clear and vivid impression of the subject being described.

2. EXPOSITORY ESSAY

What’s an expository essay?

An expository essay is an academic paper that exposes facts, explaining a topic to a reader. A writer
shares the info to educate the audience, not entertain or persuade them.

What’s its purpose?

The purpose of an expository essay is to present information and explain a topic. No personal opinions
or biased statements are here, just facts with evidence.

The main focus is logic and coherence.

Structure of the expository essay

The features of expository essays include:

1. Factual and Objective: Expository essays communicate factual information and maintain an objective
tone. They do not include personal opinions or biased statements.

2. Clear and Concise Thesis Statement: They have a clear, concise, and defined thesis statement
that occurs in the first paragraph of the essay.

22
MASENO UNIVERSITY
AEN 104: ART OF WRITING LECTURE NOTES
BY: OKOTH BEATRICE
3. Organized Structure: Expository essays have a well-organized structure, including an
introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. The details described in the body of the essay
should be arranged logically.

4. Evidence-Based Writing: They rely on evidence-based writing, using facts, statistics, expert
quotes, and examples to support the thesis statement.

5. Informative Purpose: The purpose of an expository essay is to present information and

explain a topic. No personal opinions or biased statements are included, just facts with
evidence.

6. Variety of Organizational Patterns: They can use a variety of organizational patterns, such as
cause and effect, comparison and contrast, and problem and solution.

7. Informative Introduction: Expository essays need an introduction that grabs the reader’s
attention. The introduction should show why the ideas are worth considering and provide a
brief overview of the topic.

8. Strong Conclusion: The final paragraph restates the thesis, given the evidence provided in the
essay. It summarizes the topic but doesn’t introduce any new information.

These features collectively contribute to the unique and informative nature of expository essays,
allowing the reader to gain a clear understanding of the subject being discussed.

Examples of topics for expository essay:

i. Explain how the invention of the printing press changed European society in the 15th
century.
ii. Define the term “free speech” and explore how it is used today.

In many ways, the invention of the printing press marked the end of the Middle Ages. The
medieval period in Europe is often remembered as a time of intellectual and political stagnation.
Prior to the Renaissance, the average person had very limited access to books and was unlikely
to be literate. The invention of the printing press in the 15th century allowed for much less
restricted circulation of information in Europe, paving the way for the Reformation.
This first sentence acts as a “hook,” catching the reader’s attention with a strong statement that
the essay goes on to justify.
The introduction ( 2nd and 3rd sentence) continues by filling in the background. Relevant
background details are presented that give context to both the hook and the thesis statement to
follow
4th sentence: In an expository essay, your thesis statement is simply the central point that you
want to make about the topic. It keeps your essay focused and coherent.
The invention of the printing press in 1440 changed this situation dramatically. Johannes
Gutenberg, who had worked as a goldsmith, used his knowledge of metals in the design of the
press. He made his type from an alloy of lead, tin, and antimony, whose durability allowed for

23
MASENO UNIVERSITY
AEN 104: ART OF WRITING LECTURE NOTES
BY: OKOTH BEATRICE
the reliable production of high-quality books. This new technology allowed texts to be
reproduced and disseminated on a much larger scale than was previously possible. The
Gutenberg Bible appeared in the 1450s, and a large number of printing presses sprang up across
the continent in the following decades. Gutenberg’s invention rapidly transformed cultural
production in Europe; among other things, it would lead to the Protestant Reformation.

NARRATIVE ESSAY
A narrative essay tells a story. In most cases, this is a story about a personal experience you had.
This type of essay, along with the descriptive essay, allows you to get personal and creative,
unlike most academic writing.

A narrative essay is a form of writing that tells a story. Unlike most academic writing, it allows you to get
personal and creative. Topics for narrative essays can range from the important to the trivial. Usually
the point is not so much the story itself, but the way you tell it. Narratives test your ability to tell a
story in a clear and interesting way. You’re expected to think about where your story begins and ends,
and how to convey it with eye-catching language and a satisfying pace. Here is an example of a topic for
a narrative essay: Write about an achievement you are proud of. What did you accomplish, and how?

Here are some key features of a narrative essay:

1. Personal Experience: A narrative essay typically revolves around a personal experience you’ve
had. It could be an event, a moment, or a series of events that impacted you.
2. Clear Narrative Structure: A well-constructed narrative essay follows a clear structure:
o Introduction: Sets the stage by introducing the main characters, setting, and context.
o Plot: Describes the sequence of events, including rising action, climax, and resolution.
o Characters: Develops characters through their actions, dialogue, and thoughts.
o Setting: Provides details about the time and place where the story unfolds.
o Climax: The turning point or most intense moment in the story.
o Conclusion: Wraps up the narrative, reflecting on the experience or offering a lesson.
3. First-Person Perspective: In a narrative essay, using the first person (“I”) is encouraged. It allows
you to convey your emotions and thoughts directly.
4. Figurative Language: Narrative essays often employ figurative language, such as metaphors,
similes, and descriptive imagery. This adds depth and vividness to the storytelling.
5. Dialogue: Including dialogue between characters makes the narrative more engaging. It brings
conversations to life and reveals character traits.
6. Suspense: Effective narratives create suspense by withholding information or building
anticipation. Readers should be curious about what happens next.

Remember, a narrative essay isn’t just about the story itself; it’s about how you tell it—using eye-
catching language, pacing, and creativity. So go ahead, share your experiences and craft compelling
narratives! 📖✨

For more examples and tips, you can explore resources like Scribbr and MasterClass12. Background:
These initial
24 sentences set the
background for
the story: the
author’s previous
MASENO UNIVERSITY
AEN 104: ART OF WRITING LECTURE NOTES
BY: OKOTH BEATRICE
Example
Since elementary school, I have always favored subjects like science and math over the
humanities. My instinct was always to think of these subjects as more solid and serious than
classes like English. If there was no right answer, I thought, why bother? But recently I had an
experience that taught me my academic interests are more flexible than I had thought: I took
my first philosophy class.
Before I entered the classroom, I was skeptical. I waited outside with the other students and
wondered what exactly philosophy would involve—I really had no idea. I imagined something
pretty abstract: long, stilted conversations pondering the meaning of life. But what I got was
something quite different.
This paragraph expands on the author’s skepticism by showing how it played out in the situation itself.
The use of the words “stilted” and “pondering” evoke the author’s preconception that philosophy would
be boring.
A young man in jeans, Mr. Jones—“but you can call me Rob”—was far from the white-haired, buttoned-
up old man I had half-expected.
This sentence introduces a character, the teacher of the class, and emphasizes how far he was from the
author’s expectations with a snippet of dialogue and a description of his real appearance versus what the
author imagined.
And rather than pulling us into pedantic arguments about obscure philosophical points, Rob engaged us
on our level. To talk free will, we looked at our own choices. To talk ethics, we looked at dilemmas we had
faced ourselves. By the end of class, I’d discovered that questions with no right answer can turn out to be
the most interesting ones.
These sentences express in more detail how the class differed from the author’s expectations. The two
sentences beginning with “To talk” are similarly constructed, creating a rhetorical effect through
repetition. The final sentence summarizes the effect this had on the author.
The experience has taught me to look at things a little more “philosophically”—and not just because it
was a philosophy class! I learned that if I let go of my preconceptions, I can actually get a lot out of
subjects I was previously dismissive of. The class taught me—in more ways than one—to look at things
with an open mind.
The concluding paragraph expresses what the author learned from their experience in an appealing way.
The first sentence plays with the meaning of the word “philosophically,” while the final sentence closes
the essay with a memorable statement.

25