and moulds, which cause off-flavours if allowed to infect the products.

The digestive systems of some people lack the lactase enzyme. As a

result, lactose is not broken down in the digestive process into simpler
types of sugars. These people can consume only very small volumes of
ordinary milk. They can, however, consume cultured milk, in which the
lactose is already partly broken down by the bacterial enzymes.
In the production of cultured milk, the best possible growth conditions
must be created for the starter culture. These are achieved by heat
Culture
treatment of the milk to destroy any competing micro-organisms. In
addition, the milk must be held at the optimum temperature for the relevant
Pre-treated
starter culture. When the best possible flavour and aroma have been milk
achieved, the cultured milk must be cooled quickly, to stop the fermentation 1 2 3
process. If the fermentation time is too long or too short, the flavour will be Fig. 11.3 Set yoghurt.
impaired and the consistency wrong. 1 Cup filler
In addition to flavour and aroma, correct appearance and consistency 2 Incubation room
are important features. These are determined by the choice of pre-proces- 3 Rapid cooling room
sing parameters. Adequate heat treatment and homogenisation of the milk,
sometimes combined with methods to increase the MSNF content, as for
milk intended for yoghurt, are essential “ foundation-stones” for the
construction of the coagulum during the incubation period. Culture
Some of the most important cultured milk products are described below.
The production technique for other cultured products has many similarities; Pre-treated 1 2 3
milk
the pre-treatment of the milk, for example, is almost the same. The process
descriptions for other products therefore concentrate primarily on the Fig. 11.4 Stirred yoghurt.
production stages which differ from those in yoghurt production. 1 Incubation tank
2 Cooler
3 Cup filler

Yoghurt
Yoghurt is the best known of all cultured-milk products, and the Culture
most popular worldwide. Consumption of yoghurt is highest in
countries around the Mediterranean, in Asia and in Central Pre-treated 1 2 3 4
Europe. milk
The consistency, flavour and aroma vary from one district to Fig. 11.5 Drinking yoghurt.
another. In some areas, yoghurt is produced in the form of a highly viscous 1 Incubation tank
2 Cooler
liquid, whereas in other countries it is in the form of a softer gel. Yoghurt is
3 Homogeniser
also produced in frozen form as a dessert, or as a drink. The flavour and 4 Filling machine
aroma of yoghurt differ from those of other acidified products, and the
volatile aromatic substances include small quantities of acetic acid and
acetaldehyde. 2
Yoghurt is typically classified as follows:
• Set type; incubated and cooled in the package, Figure 11.3
• Stirred type; incubated in tanks and cooled before packing, Figure 11.4 Culture
• Drinking type; similar to stirred type, but the coagulum is broken down
to a liquid before being packed, Figure 11.5
Pre-treated 1 3 4
• Frozen type; incubated in tanks and frozen like ice cream, Figure 11.6 milk
• Concentrated; incubated in tanks, concentrated and cooled before
Fig. 11.6 Frozen yoghurt.
being packed. This type is sometimes called strained yoghurt,
1 Incubation tank
sometimes labneh or labaneh, Figure 11.7 2 Contiuous freezer
3 Ice cream bar freezer
4 To hardening tunnel
Flavoured yoghurt
Whey

Yoghurt with various flavouring and aroma additives is very popular,

although the trend back towards natural yoghurt is clearly discernible in Culture
some markets. Common additives are fruit and berries in syrup, processed
or as a purée. The proportion of fruit is usually about 15 %, of which about Pre-treated 1 2 3
50 % is sugar. milk
The fruit is mixed with the yoghurt before or in conjunction with packing; Fig. 11.7 Concentrated yoghurt.
it can also be placed in the bottom of the pack, before the latter is filled with 1 Incubation tank
yoghurt. Alternatively, the fruit can be separately packed in a twin cup 2 Separator
integrated with the basic cup. 3 Cup filler

Dairy Processing Handbook/Chapter 11 257

 Sometimes yoghurt is also flavoured with vanilla, honey, coffee essences,
etc. Colouring and sugar in the form of sucrose, glucose or aspartame (a
sugar-free diet sweetener) are often added together, with the flavouring.
When necessary stabilisers may also be added to modify the
consistency.
The additives increase the DM (Dry Matter) content of the finished
yoghurt; a typical composition for fruit yoghurt is:
• Fat 0,5 – 3,0 %
• Lactose 3,0 – 4,5 %
• Milk solids non fat (MSNF) 11,0 – 13,0 %
• Stabiliser (if used) 0,3 – 0,5 %
• Fruit 12,0 – 18,0 %

Factors affecting the quality of

yoghurt
Numerous factors must be carefully controlled during the manufacturing
process in order to produce a high-quality yoghurt with the required flavour,
Milk for yoghurt production aroma, viscosity, consistency, appearance, freedom from whey separation
must: and long shelf life:
• Have a low bacteria count • Choice of milk
• Not contain enzymes and • Milk standardisation
chemical substances which • Milk additives
may slow down the develop- • Deaeration
ment of the yoghurt culture • Homogenisation
• Not contain antibiotics and • Heat treatment
bacteriophages • Choice of culture
• Culture preparation
• Plant design
Pre-treatment of the milk thus includes a number of measures which are all
very important to the quality of the end product. The mechanical treatment
to which yoghurt is subjected during production also affects its quality.

Choice of milk
Milk intended for yoghurt production must be of the highest bacteriological
quality. It must have a low content of bacteria and substances which may
impede the development of the yoghurt culture. The milk must not contain
antibiotics, bacteriophages, residues of CIP solution or sterilising agents.
The dairy should therefore obtain the milk for yoghurt production from
selected, approved producers. The milk must be very carefully analysed at
the dairy.

Milk standardisation
The fat and dry solids contents of the milk are normally standardised
according to the FAO/WHO code and principles described below.

Fat
Yoghurt may have a fat content of 0 to 10 %. A fat content of 0,5 – 3,5 % is,
however, the most typical. Yoghurt can be classified in the following groups
according to the FAO/WHO code and principles:

• Yoghurt Min. milk fat 3 %

• Partially skimmed yoghurt Max. milk fat < 3 %
Min. milk fat > 0,5 %
• Skimmed yoghurt Max. milk fat 0,5 %

Dry matter (DM) content

According to the FAO/WHO code and principles the minimum MSNF is

258 Dairy Processing Handbook/Chapter 11

8,2 %. An increase in the total DM content, particularly the proportion of
casein and whey proteins, will result in a firmer yoghurt coagulum, and the
tendency to whey separation will then be reduced.
The most common ways to standardise the DM content are:
• Evaporation (10 – 20 % of the milk volume is normally evaporated)
• Addition of skim milk- or protein powder, usually 1 – 3 %
• Addition of milk concentrate
• Addition of UF retentate from skim milk

Milk additives
Sugar or sweeteners and stabilisers may be used as additives in yoghurt
production.

Sugar or sweetener
The disaccharide sucrose, or a monosaccharide such as glucose, can be
added alone, or in conjunction with fruit addition. To satisfy dieters, among
whom diabetics are an important category, sweeteners should be used. A
sweetener has no nutritive value, but tastes very sweet, even in very small
doses. Sweeteners cannot be used as preservatives for sweetened
condensed milk.
The fruit in question usually contains about 50 % sugar or a
corresponding amount of sweetener, so the required sweetness can
normally be supplied by adding 12 to 18 % fruit.
It should be noted that adding too much sugar (more than 10 %) to the
milk before the inoculation/incubation period has an adverse effect on
fermentation conditions, because it changes the osmotic pressure of the
milk.

Stabilisers
Hydrophilic colloids can bind water. They increase the viscosity and help to
prevent whey separation in yoghurt. The type of stabiliser and the rate at
which it should be added must be determined experimentally by each
manufacturer. The product may acquire a rubbery, hard consistency if the
wrong stabiliser, or an excess of stabiliser, is used.
Correctly produced, natural yoghurt requires no addition of stabilisers, as
a firm, fine gel with a high viscosity will occur naturally. Stabilisers can be
used in fruit yoghurts and must be used in pasteurised and whipped
yoghurt. Stabilisers (0,1 – 0,5 %) such as gelatin, pectin, starch and agar-
agar are the most commonly used substances.

Table 11.1
Influence of homogenisation and heat treatment
on the viscosity of a cultured milk (Swedish filmjölk).
Pressure Viscosity = flow-off time in seconds at 20 °C
at 60 °C Ordinary past. milk Highly heated milk
MPa (72 °C/20 sec) (95 °C/5 min)
0 5,7 15,0
2,5 5,6 14,6
5,0 7,1 15,8
7,5 8,0 19,0
10,0 8,9 22,1
15,0 10,4 28,7
20,0 11,2 30,2
30,0 13,8 32,7

By courtesy of the Swedish Dairies Association (SMR), dept. C-lab., Malmö/Lund, Sweden.

Dairy Processing Handbook/Chapter 11 259

 Deaeration
The air content of the milk used to make cultured milk products should be
as low as possible. However, some admixture of air is unavoidable if the
MSNF content is increased by addition of milk powder. If this is done, the
milk should be deaerated as part of the subsequent processing.
When the MSNF content is increased by evaporation, deaeration is a
part of that process.
The advantages gained through deaeration are:
• Improved working conditions for the homogeniser
• Less risk of fouling during heat treatment
• Improved stability and viscosity of the yoghurt
• Removal of volatile off-flavours (deodorisation)
• Shortened fermentation time

Homogenisation
The main motives for homogenising milk intended for cultured milk
production are to prevent creaming during the incubation period and to
assure uniform distribution of the milk fat.
Homogenisation also improves the stability and consistency of cultured
milks, even those with low fat contents.
Homogenisation with subsequent heating at high temperature, usually
90 – 95 °C for about five minutes, has a very good influence on the
viscosity.
Table 11.1 illustrates the dual influence on the viscosity of a cultured milk
(Swedish filmjölk; 3 % fat and about 8,7 % MSNF) when it is pre-treated at
various homogenisation pressures and heating temperatures. The
Fig 11.8 The SMR viscosimeter. homogenisation temperature is 60 °C in all cases.
The viscosity is measured with a simple viscosimeter (SMR viscosimeter)
at 20 °C, and the result is given in seconds for 100 ml of product to pass a
nozzle of a certain diameter. Figure 11.8 shows a viscosimeter provided
with exchangeable nozzles, each of a diameter of 2 – 6 mm.
The viscosity of full-stream homogenised milk runs parallel to the
homogenisation pressure, regardless of whether it has been subjected to
ordinary heat treatment or not. The table also shows that high-temperature
heat treatment makes the product more viscous.
As a general recommendation, the milk should be homogenised at 20 –
25 MPa and 65 – 70 °C to obtain optimum physical properties in the
product. Homogenisation is frequently utilised even in production of low-fat
cultured milks.
The question of single- or double-stage homogenisation is sometimes
discussed. Generally speaking, this is a matter of the design of the homo-
genisation system and of the homogeniser head in particular.

Heat treatment
The milk is heat treated before being inoculated with the starter in order to:
• Improve the properties of the milk as a substrate for the bacteria culture
• Ensure that the coagulum of the finished yoghurt will be firm
• Reduce the risk of whey separation in the end product
Optimum results are achieved by heat treatment at 90 – 95 °C and a
holding time of about five minutes. That temperature/time combination
denatures about 70 – 80 % of the whey proteins (99 % of the β-
lactoglobulin). In particular, the β-lactoglobulin, which is the principal whey
protein, interacts with the κ-casein, thereby helping to give the yoghurt a
stable body.
UHT treatment and sterilisation of milk intended for culturing do not,
however, have the same favourable influence on viscosity, for reasons not
yet fully understood.

Choice of culture
Culture laboratories now use advanced techniques to produce customised
yoghurt cultures to satisfy specific flavour and viscosity requirements. Some

260 Dairy Processing Handbook/Chapter 11

examples of end-product properties that can be achieved are:
• High viscosity with low acetaldehyde content and a fairly high final pH
• Low viscosity and medium acetaldehyde content, suitable for drinking
yoghurt, etc.

Culture preparation
The handling of the starter for production of yoghurt (and all other cultured
milks) demands maximum precision and hygiene. The basic methods of
traditional culture preparation and new trends are discussed in Chapter 10,
Cultures and starter manufacture.
However, it should once again be emphasised that concentrated, frozen
and freeze-dried cultures are now available on the market and are being
more and more widely used. This saves the need to invest in a separate
culture room – a saving which must be offset against subscription costs
and the cost of providing adequate storage facilities for the cultures. The
greatest advantage, however, is that direct inoculation of milk with a
concentrated culture minimises the risk of contamination, as the
intermediate stages of propagation are excluded.

Milk/yoghurt
Cooling media
Heating media
Vapour

5 2
4
3

Fig. 11.9 General pre-treatment for cultured milk products.

1 Balance tank
Plant design 2 Plate heat exchanger
The coagulum formed during fermentation is sensitive to mechanical 3 Evaporator
4 Homogeniser
treatment. This makes the selection and dimensioning of pipes, valves,
5 Holding tube
pumps, coolers, etc. very important as well as the plant lay-out.

Production lines
The pre-treatment of the milk is the same, regardless of whether set or
stirred yoghurt is to be produced. It includes standardisation of the fat and
DM contents, heat treatment and homogenisation.
Figure 11.9 shows an example of the design of a process line for yoghurt
production. The milk storage tanks, from which the milk is pumped to the
process line, are not shown in the figure. It is assumed that the milk has
been standardised to the required fat content before entering the line. In the
example, standardisation of the DM content takes place in an evaporator in
the process line. If recombined milk is used, or if the DM content is adjusted
by addition of milk powder, the equipment used is similar to that described
in Chapter 18, Recombined milk. The milk, increased in DM by milk powder
addition, should preferably be deaerated to reduce the risk of whey
separation in the final yoghurt.
Any additives, such as stabilisers, vitamins, etc., can be metered into the
milk before the heat treatment. From the balance tank (1), the milk is
pumped to the heat exchanger (2), where it is pre-heated regeneratively to
about 70 °C and then heated to 90 °C in the second section.

Dairy Processing Handbook/Chapter 11 261

 Evaporation
From the heat exchanger, the hot milk flows to a vacuum vessel (3), where
10 – 20 % of the water in the milk is evaporated. The proportion depends
on the required DM content of the milk. If 10 – 20 % of the milk is
evaporated, the total DM content will be increased by about 1,5 – 3,0 %.
The degree of evaporation is controlled by the temperature of the milk at the
inlet to the vacuum vessel, the circulation rate through the vessel and the
vacuum in the vessel. Some of the water evaporated from the product is
used to pre-heat the incoming milk. This improves the thermal economy of
the plant.
A certain amount of milk must be recirculated through the vacuum vessel
in order to obtain the desired degree of evaporation. Each passage
evaporates 3 – 4 % water, so to obtain 15 % evaporation, the recirculated
flow must be four to five times the capacity of the pasteuriser. The milk
temperature drops from 90 °C to about 70 °C during evaporation.
The evaporation equipment described is designed for capacities up to
about 8 000 l/h. Larger evaporators of the falling-film type are used for
higher capacities – up to 30 000 l/h.
Evaporation of 10 – 20 % of the milk volume increases the DM content in
the milk by 1,5 – 3,0 %.

Homogenisation
After evaporation the milk continues to homogeniser (4) and is
Fig. 11.10 Tubular holding section. homogenised at a pressure of approx. 20 – 25 MPa (200 – 250 bar).

Pasteurisation
The homogenised milk flows back through the regenerative section to the
pasteurisation section of heat exchanger (2) and is reheated to 90 – 95 °C.
The milk then flows to a holding section dimensioned for a holding time of
five minutes.
Other time/temperature programs can be used. The tubular holding
section shown in Figure 11.10 offers a holding efficiency of 90 – 95 %,
which is appreciably higher than when one holding tank is integrated in a
continuously operated plant.

Cooling the milk

After pasteurisation, the milk is cooled, first in the regenerative section and
then with water, to the desired inoculation temperature (typically 40 –
45 °C). Alternatively, if set yoghurt is to be produced, and the pre-treatment
capacity does not match the packing capacity, the milk is cooled to a
temperature below 10 °C (preferably 5 °C).

Pre-treated milk

Set Type Stirred Type Culture Drinking Type

Stabiliser,
Incubation sugar, fruit

Flavouring Incubation Mixing

Packing Cooling
Incubation Flavouring Homogenisation Pasteurisation
UHT treatment
Cooling Packing Cooling Homogenisation
Aseptic packing
Packing Aseptic packing

Fig. 11.11 Block diagram showing

Cold store Ambient storage
production steps for set, stirred and
drinking yoghurt.

262 Dairy Processing Handbook/Chapter 11

Design of the yoghurt plant Frozen yoghurt
When the yoghurt milk has been pre-treated and cooled to inoculation Pre-treated milk/icecream mix
temperature, the procedure for further treatment depends on whether set,
stirred, drink, frozen or concentrated yoghurt is to be produced. The block Culture
diagrams in Figures 11.11 – 11.13 show the various production stages for Incubation
each process.
The quality of the yoghurt in terms of texture and flavour depends on the Freezing
design of the plant, the treatment of the milk and the treatment of the
product. Modern plants are designed to satisfy demands for high Packing
production, continuous treatment and high quality. The level of automation
varies, and complete CIP systems are normally integrated into the plants. Hardening
The level of automation is usually high in large-scale production.
Excessive mechanical treatment of the product must be avoided, as it may Fig. 11.12 Block diagram showing
cause product defects such as thin consistency and whey separation. The production steps for frozen yoghurt.
total amount of treatment to which the product is subjected must be taken
into consideration when the plant is designed. The choice of suitable
equipment and the matching and optimisation of the plant are consequently
a question of achieving a suitable balance between cost and quality. Concentrated yoghurt
In modern plants, stirred and set types of yoghurt are often produced
concurrently. In the production of set yoghurt, the product flow is Pre-treated skim milk
continuously controlled from the point where the milk is accepted in the pre- Culture
treatment section to the packaging of the product. In the production of
stirred yoghurt, the pre-treatment of the milk is continuous up to the point at Incubation
which it is pumped into the incubation tanks, to which the bulk starter is Concentration Whey
added. The continuity is interrupted by the time-consuming incubation,
which must be free from any physical disturbance. Mixing Cream

Stirred yoghurt Packing

A typical plant for continuous production of a relatively large volume of Fig. 11.13 Block diagram showing
stirred yoghurt is shown in Figure 11.14. production steps for concentrated
The pre-treated milk, cooled to incubation temperature, is pumped to yoghurt.
the incubation tanks (7) in succession. Simultaneously, a pre-set volume of
bulk starter (6) or a DVS culture is dosed into the milk stream. After a tank

Fig. 11.14 Production line for stirred

yoghurt. Pre-treatment is shown in
detail in Figure 11.9.
6 Bulk starter tanks
7 Incubation tanks
8 Plate cooler
9 Buffer tanks
10 Fruit/flavour
11 In-line mixer
12 Packaging
7

11
Milk/yoghurt 10
Cooling media 12
Heating media 9
Vapour
Culture
Fruit/flavour

Dairy Processing Handbook/Chapter 11 263

 has been filled, agitation commences and continues for a short time to
assure uniform distribution of the starter culture.
The incubation tanks are insulated, to ensure that the temperature
remains constant during the incubation period. The tanks can be fitted with
pH meters to check the development of acidity.
In typical production of stirred yoghurt the incubation period is 3 to 3,5
hours at 42 – 43 °C, when the ordinary type of bulk starter (2,5 – 3 %
inoculum) is utilised and 4 to 5 hours when e.g. a freeze-dried DVS culture
(about 0,02 % Inoculum) is used. The relative short incubation time
indicates that the multiplication (generation) period is fast. For typical
yoghurt bacteria, the generation period is some 20 – 30 minutes. To attain
optimum quality conditions, cooling to 15 – 22 °C (from 42 – 43 °C) should
be accomplished within 30 minutes after the ideal pH-value has been
reached, to stop further developement of bacteria.

Cooling the coagulum

In the final stage of incubation, when the required pH (normally about 4,2 –
4,5) has been reached, the yoghurt must be cooled to 15 – 22 °C. This
temporarily stops any further increase in acidity. At the same time, the
coagulum must be subjected to gentle mechanical treatment, so that the
final product will have the correct consistency. In some cases a strainer or a
structurising valve is built into the line, prior to the cooler, in order to
optimize the yoghurt structure and appearance.
Cooling takes place in a plate heat exchanger (8) with special platage.
This ensures gentle mechanical treatment of the product. The capacities of
pump and cooler are often dimensioned to empty a tank in 20 – 30 minutes
in order to maintain a uniform product quality. If cultures with other
fermentation curves are utilised, which may have an influence on the
incubation time, the cooling time should be adapted in view of that. You
have e.g. yoghurt cultures having a flat fermentation curve at about pH 4,4
giving a mild taste to the yoghurt. For such yoghurt a longer cooling time
can be accepted.
The cooled yoghurt is pumped to buffer tanks (9) before being routed to
the filling machine(s) (12).

Flavouring
After cooling to 15 – 22 °C, the yoghurt is ready for packing. Fruit and
various flavourings can be added (10) to the yoghurt when it is transferred
from the buffer tanks to the filling machines. This is done continuously with
a variable-speed metering pump, which feeds the ingredients into the
yoghurt in the fruit-blending unit shown in Figure 11.15. The blending unit is
static and hygienically designed to guarantee that the fruit is thoroughly
mixed into the yoghurt. The fruit metering pump and the yoghurt feed pump
operate synchronously.
The fruit additives can be:
• Sweet; normally 50 – 55 % ordinary sugar content
• Natural; unsweetened
The fruit should be as homogeneous as possible. A thickener in the form of
pectin can be added. The proportion of pectin is hardly ever higher than
0,5 %, which corresponds to 0,05 – 0,005 % of pectin in the end product.
Proper heat treatment is an extremely important stage in the pre-
treatment of fruit additives. Scraped-surface heat
exchangers, or tanks with scraper units, can be used for
adequate pasteurisation of whole berries or fruit with solid
particles. The temperature program should be such that all
vegetative micro-organisms are inactivated without impairing
the taste and texture of the fruit. Continuous production, with
rapid heating and cooling, is therefore important with regard to product
quality and economic aspects.
Fig. 11.15 In-line fruit mixer built into the Following the heat treatment, it is important that the fruit is packed in
pipe. sterilised containers under aseptic conditions. Deterioration of cultured milk
products is too often caused by reinfection from inadequately treated fruit.

264 Dairy Processing Handbook/Chapter 11

Packing
Various types of filling machines are used to pack yoghurt. The sizes of the
packages vary from one market to another. In general, the total packing
capacity should match the capacity of the pasteurisation plant, so as to
obtain optimal running conditions for the plant as a whole.
Viscosity

CW B
< 8 °C

43 °C
15 °C

Treatment progression

Fig.11.16 Viscosity development of stirred yoghurt during cooling,

packing and cold storage.
A Optimum plant design B Badly designed plant

Plant design
As mentioned, the plant design is one important factor affecting the quality
of the yoghurt and, of course, all other cultured products.
Figure 11.16 shows curves for the development of viscosity in stirred yog-
hurt from the moment it leaves the incubation tank, via packing and up to
about 24 hours in cold storage.
Curve A represents the ideal situation, when all operations that influence
the structure and viscosity are optimised.
It is inevitable that the product will become less viscous while being
treated, since yoghurt belongs to the class of products with thixotropic flow
behaviour. However, if all parameters and equipment are fully optimised, the
viscosity will be almost fully regenerated, and the likelihood of syneresis
occuring will be minimised.
Curve B shows the result when the product has been maltreated en
route from the incubation tank up to packaging and cold storage. If the
yoghurt coagulum has been treated too hard, the viscosity will be too low,
resulting in a liquid product with high risk for whey separation.

Set yoghurt
In order to reduce installation costs, it is possible to use the same plant for
production of both stirred and set yoghurt. The pre-treatment of the milk
intended for either product is identical up to cooling down to incubation
temperature. Figure 11.17 shows how this kind of production can be
arranged. The starter is metered into the stream of milk as it is pumped
from an intermediate storage tank to the filling machine.

Flavouring/Packaging
Flavouring can be continuously metered into the milk stream prior to the
filling machine. If fruit or additives with particles should be added these have
to be dosed into the packages or cups first before they are filled with
inoculated milk. It is, however, important to remember that additives with
low pH have a negative influence on fermentation.

Dairy Processing Handbook/Chapter 11 265