RESEARCH METHODOLOGY (EEC 280)

This is the systematic approach to conducting research, encompassing the

principles, techniques and procedures used & gather, analyze, and interpret data. The
purpose of this section is to introduce your reader to the chapter and help orient them
in terms of what to expect. This is usually quite short, consisting of just a couple of
paragraphs. Depending on the nature of your project, it’s common to cover the
following in this section:

 A quick reminder of your research problem and consequently, your research

aims.
 A brief explanation of the purpose of the chapter (i.e., to outline your
methodological approach to achieving your research aims)
 A brief overview outlining the structure/layout of the chapter
 Next, you’ll move into the body section of your methodology chapter, where
you’ll outline your methodological approach in detail.
Generally, it’s a good idea to structure your body discussion in an “inverted
pyramid style”, starting with the most high-level, conceptual and strategic choices
and working your way down to the more practical, tactical choices. For example, you
could follow a structure that looks something like the following:
 Research philosophy (e.g., interpretivist, positivist, etc.)
 Research approach (e.g., qualitative, quantitative or mixed)
 Research design (e.g., descriptive, correlational, etc.)
 Sampling strategy (e.g., random stratified sampling, convenience sampling, etc.)
 Data collection and analysis techniques
NOTE: However, this is not set in stone. Depending on your degree programme and
level of study, some of these will be less relevant than others and some may not be
required at all. So, pay close attention to your institution’s guidance documents and
requirements, and if possible, try to review past dissertations/theses from your specific
program to get a feel for the norms.
RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY
Research philosophy refers to the set of beliefs, assumptions, and principles that will
guide your approach to conducting your research. There are several research
philosophies to choose from, including positivism, interpretivism and pragmatism:
 Positivism emphasises the use of scientific methods and seeks to uncover
universal laws and generalisable knowledge. It assumes an objective reality that
can be studied through empirical observation and measurement. Positivists aim
for objectivity, reliability, and replicability in their research.
 Interpretivism, on the other end of the spectrum, focuses on understanding and
interpreting human behaviour and social phenomena through the lens of
subjective meanings and social contexts. It recognises the importance of
individual experiences, values, and interpretations. Interpretivists often use
qualitative methods, such as interviews, observations, and textual analysis, to
explore the richness and complexity of social phenomena.
 Pragmatism sits somewhere in the middle and takes a practical and problem-
solving approach to research. It emphasises the use of mixed methods and
acknowledges the value of both quantitative and qualitative data. Pragmatists are
concerned with finding effective solutions and generating useful knowledge that
can be applied to real-world situations.
It's worth noting that research philosophies are not necessarily mutually exclusive -
researchers sometimes combine elements from different philosophies based on their
research aim and questions. Importantly, your choice of research philosophy should
align with and support your research aims, objectives and questions. So, in this section,
be sure to detail both what philosophy you’ll be adopting and why you’ve chosen to
do so.
RESEARCH APPROACH
Next up, you’ll typically discuss your research approach - in other words, qualitative,
quantitative or mixed methods.
 Qualitative research is focused on understanding and interpreting the meaning,
context, and subjective experiences of individuals or groups. It typically draws
 on text-based data and aims to explore complex social phenomena, often using
open-ended questions, observations, interviews, focus groups, or analysis of
textual or visual data.
 Quantitative research involves the systematic collection and analysis of
numerical data to test hypotheses, examine patterns, and establish relationships
between variables. It aims to quantify and generalise findings to a larger
population. This method uses structured data collection instruments such as
surveys, experiments, or existing datasets.
 mixed methods research combines elements of both qualitative and quantitative
approaches. It involves collecting and analysing both qualitative and quantitative
data in a single study or across multiple phases of research. The purpose is to
gain a more comprehensive understanding of a research problem by integrating
different types of data.
In this section, once again, you’ll need to clearly state which approach you’ve
chosen and why you’ve made that choice specifically. Importantly, your choice should
align with your research philosophy (the previous section). For example, if you
adopted an interpretivist philosophy, you’d likely take a qualitative approach as this
naturally supports interpretivist enquiry.
RESEARCH STRATEGY/DESIGN
Next up is the research strategy, also known as the research design. The research
design refers to the overall plan, structure or strategy that guides a research project,
from its conception to the final data analysis. There are many potential options here,
but for the sake of simplicity, we’ll list the most common ones for both qualitative and
quantitative studies:
Common research designs for qualitative studies:
● Phenomenological design
● Grounded theory
● Ethnographic
● Case study
Common research designs for quantitative studies:
 ● Descriptive
● Correlational
● Experimental
● Quasi-experimental
Again, make sure that your choice here aligns with your previous choices (philosophy
and approach), as well as your overall research aims and research questions.
SAMPLING STRATEGY
Your sampling strategy refers to the process you’ll adopt in terms of selecting a subset
of participants from a larger group of interest. For example, if your research involved
assessing US consumers’ perceptions about a particular brand of laundry detergent,
you wouldn’t be able to collect data from every single person that uses laundry
detergent – but you could potentially collect data from a smaller subset of this group.
There are two overarching approaches to sampling under which all sampling methods
can be classified: probability and non-probability.
Probability sampling - focuses on achieving a random sample that is representative of
the population of interest. Popular sampling methods within this category include:
● Simple random sampling
● Stratified random sampling
● Cluster sampling
● Systematic sampling
Non-probability sampling - is less concerned with achieving a random or
representative sample. Popular sampling methods within this category include:
● Purposive sampling
● Convenience sampling
● Snowball sampling
As with all methodological choices, your sampling strategy needs to firmly align
with your broader research aims. For example, if you want to be able to generalise
your findings to the broader population, you’ll have to adopt one of the probability-
based sampling methods.
DATA COLLECTION METHODS
 Next, you’ll discuss how you’ll go about collecting the data required for your
study. In this section, it’s best to provide as much detail as possible to demonstrate
that you’ve thought through the practical aspects of your study. You’ll also need to
state whether you’ll be taking a cross-sectional or longitudinal approach.
For qualitative studies, data collection methods could include:
● Interviews
● Focus groups
● Observations
● Document analysis
On the quantitative side, collection methods could include:
● Surveys
● Measurements
● Data from lab equipment
● Existing datasets
As always, it’s essential that you explain both the what and the why - i.e., how you’ll
be collecting data and why you chose to take that approach.
DATA ANALYSIS METHOD
Last but not least, you’ll need to discuss how you’ll analyse your data.
Commonly, you’ll use only one analysis method (mono-method), but in some cases, it
may make sense to take a multi-method approach. As usual, you’ll need to state your
approach and justify each choice you make here.
On the qualitative side, common analysis methods include:
- Content analysis
- Thematic analysis
- Discourse analysis
- Narrative analysis

On the quantitative side, you’ll almost always need to start with some descriptive
statistics. Then, depending on your research aims and questions, you may also make
use of various inferential statistical tests, such as:
 ● T-tests
● ANOVA
● Correlation
● Regression
CONCLUSION
In this section, you should aim to concisely summarise what you’ve presented in the
chapter in a paragraph or two maximum. Be careful to include only what you’ve
already discussed in your chapter (i.e., don’t add any new information).
Here’s an example of what this might look like in practice:
This chapter commenced by restating the research objective and question, thereafter
presenting a hypothesis-driven theoretical framework in response to the research
question. A quantitative methodological approach was argued for based on the
correlational nature of the study, access to data, and contextual appropriateness. The
next chapter will apply the chosen methodology to analyse the data and test the
hypotheses.
CONPONENTS OF A SIMPLE SERIES CIRCUIT

Here's a breakdown of the components and their functions:

 Battery: This is the power source. It provides the voltage that drives the current
through the circuit. Batteries have a positive (+) terminal and a negative (-)
terminal. The type of battery (e.g., 9V, 1.5V AA, etc.) determines the voltage it
supplies.
 Resistor: This component resists the flow of current. Resistors are used to
control the amount of current in a circuit. They are measured in ohms (Ω). A
higher resistance value means less current will flow for a given voltage. In this
circuit, the resistor is likely there to limit the current through the LED,
preventing it from burning out.
 LED (Light Emitting Diode): This is a special type of diode that emits light
when current flows through it in the correct direction. LEDs have a longer lead
(the anode, +) and a shorter lead (the cathode, -). They require a certain voltage
to turn on and have a specific current rating. Connecting an LED directly to a
battery without a resistor to limit the current will likely damage the LED.
 Wires (implied): Although you didn't explicitly mention them, wires are
essential to connect the components together. They provide a conductive path
for the current to flow.

How they are connected in series:

In a series circuit, the components are connected one after the other, forming a single
path for the current. The current flows from the positive terminal of the battery,
through the resistor, then through the LED, and finally back to the negative terminal of
the battery. There's only one path for the current to take.
Key takeaway: The battery provides the power, the resistor controls the current, and
the LED emits light when current flows through it. The wires provide the pathway for
the current.

FUNCTIONALITY OF A SCHEMATIC / BLOCK DIAGRAM

A schematic or block diagram serves as a visual representation of a system or project,

providing a high-level overview of its components and their interconnections. It
simplifies complex systems, making them easier to understand and communicate.
Here's a breakdown of its functionality:

1. Visualization and Understanding:

 Simplifies Complexity: Diagrams break down intricate systems into

manageable blocks or symbols, representing individual components or functions.
This allows for a clear understanding of the system's architecture without getting
bogged down in details.
 Illustrates Relationships: Lines or arrows connecting the blocks show how
different components interact and how signals or data flow through the system.
This helps visualize the overall process and dependencies between parts.
 Provides a Bird's-Eye View: Diagrams offer a high-level perspective, allowing
stakeholders to quickly grasp the system's main components and their roles. This
is especially useful for non-technical audiences or when communicating with
different teams.

2. Communication and Collaboration:

 Facilitates Discussion: Diagrams serve as a common language for discussing

system design, functionality, and potential issues. They provide a visual
reference point for all stakeholders, ensuring everyone is on the same page.
  Enhances Collaboration: By visualizing the system, diagrams promote
collaboration among team members. They can be used to brainstorm ideas,
identify potential problems, and develop solutions collectively.
 Improves Documentation: Diagrams serve as valuable documentation for the
project, providing a clear and concise representation of the system's design. This
is useful for future reference, maintenance, and troubleshooting.

3. Design and Planning:

 Aids in System Design: Diagrams help in the initial stages of system design by
allowing engineers to experiment with different configurations and identify
potential bottlenecks or inefficiencies.
 Supports Project Planning: By visualizing the system's components and their
interdependencies, diagrams assist in project planning, resource allocation, and
task scheduling.
 Facilitates Troubleshooting: When problems arise, diagrams can be used to
trace the flow of signals or data and pinpoint the source of the issue.

4. Types of Diagrams:

 Schematic Diagrams: These diagrams use symbols to represent electronic

components and show their connections. They are commonly used in electrical
and electronic projects.
 Block Diagrams: These diagrams use blocks to represent major functional units
of a system and lines to show the flow of signals or data between them. They are
often used in communication systems, control systems, and software
engineering.

In summary, schematic and block diagrams are powerful tools for visualizing,
communicating, and designing complex systems. They simplify complexity, enhance
collaboration, and facilitate problem-solving, making them essential in various fields,
including engineering, computer science, and project management.
PROJECT REPORT WRITING
Project reports are final documents that summarize a research project or study serving
as crucial tools for communication, documentation and evaluation. They are essential
in both academic and professional settings. Understanding the standard format for this
report is vital for effectively conveying research findings and ensuring credibility. The
key component of a well structured project report are; Cover page, title page, approval
page, declaration page, table of content, acknowledgement, abstract, summary, list of
figures/symbols, abbreviations and list of tables. Let’s dive deeper into these project
report sections;

 Cover Page: Think of this as the report's "face." It's designed for quick
identification and protection. It's usually plain and professional, often using the
institution's or organization's logo. Key elements include:
o Project Title: Clear, concise, and descriptive.
o Author(s): Full name(s) of the person(s) who wrote the report.
o Submission Date: The date the report is officially submitted.
o Institution/Organization: Name of the school, company, or other body
the report is for.
o Optional: Sometimes includes a report number or other identifying
information.
 Title Page: This is the more formal introduction to the report's content. It's
similar to the cover page but with more detail.
o Full Project Title: Exactly as it appears on the cover page.
o Author(s) Full Name(s): No abbreviations.
o Department/Institution: The specific department or school within the
larger organization.
o Degree/Qualification (if applicable): e.g., "Submitted in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Science in..."
o Submission Date: Same as the cover page.
o Supervisor's Name (sometimes): Especially in academic settings.
 Approval Page: This page signifies that the project has met the required
standards.
o Signatures: Spaces for supervisors, committee members, or other relevant
authorities to sign.
o Dates: Date of approval.
o Name and Title (printed): So the signatures can be identified.
o (Sometimes) Departmental Seal: Adds formality.
 Declaration Page: This is the author's statement of originality.
o Formal Declaration: A statement like, "I/We hereby declare that this
project report is my/our original work and has not been submitted
previously for any other degree or examination."
o Author(s) Signature(s): The author(s) sign to confirm the declaration.
o Date: Date of declaration.
 Table of Contents: This is your report's navigation system.
o Section Headings: Lists all major sections (Introduction, Literature
Review, Methodology, etc.) and subsections.
o Page Numbers: Indicates where each section begins.
o Consistent Formatting: Uses a consistent style for headings and
subheadings.
o (Sometimes) List of Figures and Tables: If there are many, a separate
list might be helpful.
 Acknowledgement Page: This is a chance to express gratitude.
o Specific Thanks: Mention individuals and organizations by name.
o Types of Support: Briefly describe the help received (e.g., "I would like
to thank Professor Smith for his invaluable guidance," or "This research
was funded by a grant from the XYZ Foundation").
o Tone: Should be sincere and professional.
 Abstract/Summary: This is a highly condensed version of the entire report.
o Purpose: Briefly state the project's aim.
o Methodology: Summarize the research methods used.
 o Key Findings: Highlight the most important results.
o Conclusions: Summarize the main conclusions and recommendations.
o Length: Typically limited to one or two pages.
 List of Symbols/Abbreviations: This is a glossary for technical terms.
o Symbol/Abbreviation: The actual symbol or abbreviation used in the
report.
o Definition: The full meaning of the symbol or abbreviation.
o Alphabetical Order: The list should be alphabetized for easy reference.
 List of Tables: Helps readers find specific data.
o Table Number: Each table should have a unique number (e.g., Table 1,
Table 2).
o Table Title: A brief description of the table's contents.
o Page Number: Where the table can be found.

 List of Figures: Similar to the list of tables, this helps readers find visuals like
graphs, charts, and diagrams. Figures are crucial for presenting data effectively.

Main Body (divided into chapters):

 Introduction: This chapter sets the stage for your research. It provides the
context, explains the problem you're addressing, and states your research
objectives. It's like the "hook" of your story, grabbing the reader's attention.
 Literature Review: This chapter demonstrates your knowledge of the field. You
summarize and analyze existing research relevant to your topic. It shows how
your project fits into the broader academic conversation.
 Methodology: This chapter explains how you conducted your research. It's
crucial for the report's credibility. Readers should be able to replicate your study
based on this chapter. Be specific about your methods.
 Results/Findings: This chapter presents the data you collected and the results of
your analysis. It should be objective and factual. Use tables and figures to
present data clearly.
  Discussion: This chapter is where you interpret your findings. What do they
mean? How do they relate to the literature? What are the implications? This is
where you make your arguments and draw conclusions.

Supplementary Pages:

 References: This is a list of all the sources you cited in your report. It's essential
for avoiding plagiarism and giving credit to other researchers. Use a consistent
citation style.
 Appendices: These contain supporting materials that are not essential for
understanding the main body of the report. They provide additional details for
interested readers. Examples include questionnaires, raw data, or detailed
calculations. They are like the "behind the scenes" of your project.

 By understanding the purpose of each section, you can create a well-structured

and professional project report that effectively communicates your work.

Let's outline the standard format for writing each of the sections you mentioned in a
project report. Keep in mind that specific formatting requirements can vary depending
on your institution or field, so always consult your guidelines. These are general best
practices:

Preliminary Pages:

 Cover Page:
o Placement: Centered on the page.
o Content:
 Project Title (in bold and larger font)
 Your Name(s)
 Institution Name
 Submission Date
 (Optional) Logo of the institution
 Title Page:
o Placement: Centered on the page.
o Content:
 Full Project Title (in bold and larger font)
 Your Full Name(s)
 Department/Faculty
 Institution Name
 Degree Name (if applicable)
 Submission Date
 (Optional) Supervisor's Name
 Approval Page:
o Placement: Usually a separate page.
o Content:
 Heading: "Approval Page" or similar
 Space for signatures and dates for:
 Supervisor(s)
 Department Head/Chair
 Other relevant committee members
 Printed names and titles of those signing
 Declaration Page:
o Placement: Usually a separate page.
o Content:
 Heading: "Declaration" or similar
 Formal statement of originality (e.g., "I/We hereby declare that this
project report is my/our original work...")
 Your Signature(s)
 Date
 Acknowledgement Page:
o Placement: Usually a separate page.
o Content:
  Heading: "Acknowledgements"
 Expressions of gratitude to individuals and organizations,
specifying their contributions. Use a sincere and professional tone.
 Table of Contents:
o Placement: Usually a separate page.
o Content:
 Heading: "Table of Contents"
 List of all sections and subsections with corresponding page
numbers. Use consistent formatting for headings and subheadings.
Include preliminary pages (except the table of contents itself) and
supplementary pages.
 Abstract/Summary:
o Placement: Usually a separate page.
o Content:
 Heading: "Abstract" or "Summary"
 A concise overview of the project (typically 150-300 words).
Should include:
 Brief statement of the problem/objective
 Summary of the methodology
 Key findings
 Main conclusions
 List of Symbols/Abbreviations:
o Placement: Usually a separate page.
o Content:
 Heading: "List of Symbols and Abbreviations" or similar
 A table with two columns: Symbol/Abbreviation and Definition.
List alphabetically.
 List of Tables:
o Placement: Usually a separate page.
o Content:
  Heading: "List of Tables"
 Table number, table title, and page number for each table.
 List of Figures:
o Placement: Usually a separate page.
o Content:
 Heading: "List of Figures"
 Figure number, figure caption, and page number for each figure.

Main Body (divided into chapters):

 Introduction:
o Content:
 Background of the research problem.
 Statement of the research problem/question.
 Research objectives.
 Significance of the study.
 Scope and limitations.
 Literature Review:
o Content:
 Summary and analysis of relevant existing research.
 Theoretical and/or conceptual framework.
 Identification of gaps in the literature.
 Methodology:
o Content:
 Research design.
 Data collection methods.
 Sampling techniques (if applicable).
 Data analysis methods.
 Ethical considerations.
 Results/Findings:
 o Content:
 Presentation of data and findings.
 Use tables and figures effectively.
 Focus on presenting results objectively.
 Discussion:
o Content:
 Interpretation of results.
 Relationship of findings to the literature.
 Implications of the study.
 Limitations.
 Recommendations.

Supplementary Pages:

 References:
o Content:
 Complete list of all sources cited in the report.
 Use a consistent citation style (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.).
 Appendices:
o Content:
 Supplementary materials (questionnaires, raw data, transcripts,
etc.).
 Label each appendix (Appendix A, Appendix B, etc.).

Remember to maintain consistent formatting throughout the report, including font,

spacing, margins, and heading styles. Always refer to your institution's specific
guidelines for any variations in these standard formats.