EDWARD CARES

Forces in nature,
Electrostatics (electric charge and its properties, methods of charging).
Coulomb’s law and superposition
Electric field and potential.

Gauss’s law.
Capacitance.
Electric dipoles.
Energy in electric fields.

Conductors and insulators.

DC circuits (current, voltage and resistance).
Ohm’s law.
Resistor combinations.
Analysis of DC circuits.

Magnetic fields.
Lorentz force.
Biot-Savart and Ampère’s laws.

Magnetic dipoles. Dielectrics.

Energy in magnetic fields.
Electromotive force.

Electromagnetic induction.
Self and mutual inductances.
Faraday and Lenz’slaws.

Step up and step down transformers.

Maxwell's equations.
Electromagnetic oscillations and waves.
AC voltages and currents applied to inductors, capacitors, and resistance.
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EDWARD CARES

PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism I 3 Credits

Coulomb’s law. Gauss’s theorem. Capacitors. Ohm’s

law, Kirchoff’s laws, electrical energy, D.C. bridges,
potentiometer. Magnetic effect of current,
electromagnetic induction, moving coil and ballistic
galvanometers, multimeters, D.C. and A.C. meters
and generators. Magnetism, Hysteresis. Power in
A.C. circuits, semiconductors, conductivity and
mobility, rectification.

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 2

Coulomb’s law
Objectives

By the end of this note, you should be able to:

· write the mathematical expression for Coulomb’s law;

· derive the net force a point charge will experience due to two or more
point charges;
· write the expression for Electric field at a point due to a point charge
and total field at a point due to two or more charges ;
· derive the expression for electric field at a point due to distribution of
charges;

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 3

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EDWARD CARES

Coulomb’s Law: Force due to point Charges

Coulomb’s law is given as:

The sign on the force is only to show whether it is attractive (-)

or repulsive (+).

The vector form is

where

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 4

Coulomb’s Law: Force due to point Charges

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 5

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EDWARD CARES

Coulomb’s Law: Force due to point Charges

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 6

Coulomb’s Law: Superposition Principle

The force on charge q0 due a number of charges is given by

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 7

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EDWARD CARES

Coulomb’s Law: Superposition Principle

Example:

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 8

Coulomb’s Law: Superposition Principle

Solution

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 9

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EDWARD CARES

Coulomb’s Law: Superposition Principle

Resultant force on q1 is

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 10

Electric Field due to a Point Charge

A charged particle will have a field round it..

The direction of E: The direction of the field lines can also be

indicated using a positive test charge.

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 11

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EDWARD CARES

Electric Field due to a Point Charge

The magnitude of E can be explained in terms of the force a test
charge qo will experience due to charge q.

The field E is

For a continuous charge distribution the expression is:

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 12

Electric Field due to a Point Charge

Example

The figure above shows three particles Q1 = +2Q, Q2= -2Q and Q3 = -4Q
each a distance d from the origin. What net electric field is produced at the
origin if Q = 6.0 x 10-8 C and d = 30 cm.

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 13

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Electric Field due to to Electric Dipole

A dipole consists of a pair of equal but opposite charges separated by a
distance r. The electric field calculation is also easy as only point
charges are involved in the calculations.

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 14

Electric Field due to to Electric Dipole

Consider an electric dipole shown in the figure above with charges
and separated by a distance , the total field due to this dipole can be
estimated at point P and point S as indicated in the figure.

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 15

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Electric Field due to to Electric Dipole

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 16

Electric Field due to to Electric Dipole

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 17

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The field of a dipole in any direction

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 18

The field of a dipole in any direction

Question:

Solution: The figure below depicts the question

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 19

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Charge Distributions

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 20

Charge Distributions

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Charge Distributions
For a line charge, a surface charge, and a volume charge, the summation in the
definition of an Electric field discussed previously becomes an integral. The we have

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 22

The field due to a plane distribution of charges

The first information from this problem is that we are considering a plane, that is
defined by the circumference of a circle (line distribution of charges), so that we shall
be considering the linear charge density (λ) of the plane.

The electric field intensity E at p

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 23

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The field due to a plane distribution of

charges

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 24

Electric potential energy U:

This is defined as the potential energy on a charge q1 when placed
in the vicinity of charge q2 . OR Electric potential energy is the
energy that is needed to move a charge q1 against the electric field q2
and is given as
kq1q2
U  FE  r 
r

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 25

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Electric potential (V)

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 26

Electric Field (E) and Eletric Potential (V)

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 27

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Electric flux density

Electric flux density: Electric flux density is the
amount of flux passing through a defined area
that is perpendicular to the direction of the flux.

The Electric Flux Density (D) is related to the

Electric Field (E) by:

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 28

Electric flux density

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 29

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Gauss' Law
The total of the electric flux (ΦE) out of a closed surface
(i.e. hypothetical Gaussian surface) is equal to the charge
enclosed divided by the permittivity. Gaussian
Surface
Qenc
E 
Gaussian o
Surface Qenc=0

+Qenc When Qenc = 0,

ΦE =0, because number of
field lines entering is equal
to the one leaving the
surface
Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 30

Gauss' Law
Though Gauss' law is not about electric field E, the law is useful
in determining the expresions for electric fiels. In the diagram
below, electric field along the Gaussian surface can be obtained
as:

The above expression, since dot

product of two vectors E and A
can be written as can EAcosθ.
is the angle between the field
line and the normal to the
surface.
Qenc
EA cos  
o
Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 31

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Gauss' Law: Applications

Qenc
The implications of EA cos   are as follows:
o

1. If θ=0, E is equal to zero

2. ff the surface is of known symmetry the expression for E can be

obtained directly as

Q enc
E 
oA

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 32

Gauss' Law: Applications

1. Electric field due to uniformly charged spherical shell

Case (i) At a point outside the shell

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 33

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Gauss' Law: Applications

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 34

Gauss' Law: Electric Field of Line

Charge
The electric field is perpendicular to
the cylindrical side and parallel to the
planar end caps of the surface. The
flux through the cylindrical part is

The flux through the cylindrical part, since that

through the caps are zero, is

The Field is:

Qenc L 
E (2rL)   ,E
0 o 2 o r
Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 35

17
CAPACITANCE AND DIELECTRICS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
4.0 Concluding remark

1.0 Introduction
This unit focus on capacitors, their capacitance and the effect of a dielectric on the capacitance
of a capacitor. Capacitors are electronic devices that are used to store electric charges in a circuit.
Capacitors are made from two conductors, usually of equal area separated vacuum. A voltage is
then applied across the two conductors in other to charge the capacitor so that one plate acquires
a positive charge while the other acquires a negative charge. Often, the space between the
capacitor is filled with either air or an insulator called a dielectric in other to alter the properties
of the capacitor.
The two conductors of a capacitor have charges with equal magnitude and opposite sign, and the
net charge on the capacitor as a whole remains zero. Hence, it should be noted from here on that
when we say that a capacitor has a charge of magnitude , we simply mean that the conductor at
a higher potential carries a charge of magnitude , while the conductor at a lower potential
carries a charge of magnitude .
There are different types of capacitors such as the parallel plate capacitor, the cylindrical
capacitor and the spherical capacitor. However, for this module, our discussion will be limited to
the parallel-plate capacitor.
The SI unit of capacitance of a capacitor is called the farad (F).
In a circuit diagram a capacitor is represented by the symbol in figure 1.1 below.

Figure 1.1: Symbol for a capacitor in a circuit

2.0 Objectives
By the end of this module, you should be able to:
i. Calculate the capacitance of a capacitor.
ii. List the factors affecting the capacitance of a capacitor and their effects on the
capacitance.
iii. Calculate the dielectric constant.
 iv. Calculate the effective capacitance in series and parallel arrangement of a capacitor in a
circuit.

3.0 Main content

3.6 Capacitance of a capacitor
The capacitance of a capacitor is the magnitude of charge carried by either of the conductors
(plates) of a capacitor per the potential difference across the two conductors.

The unit of capacitance, can therefore be defined as one Coulomb per volt .
3.2 Parallel-plate capacitor in vacuum
Figure 3.1 below shows a typical parallel-plate capacitor in vacuum.

Figure 3.1: Parallel plate capacitor

From equation 3.1 above

Since
Where:
= the electric field between two charges
= distance between two charges
= cross-sectional area of a conductor
= the permittivity of free space (vacuum) =
(Permittivity is a measure of how freely a charged body can move through an object).
Substituting (3.2) and (3.3) into (3.1) we have

(3.6) gives the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor in a vacuum.

Solved examples
1. The parallel plates of a 1.0-F capacitor are 1.0 mm apart. What is their area?
Solution
From (3.6) it is easy to show that

2. The plates of a parallel-plate capacitor in vacuum are apart and in area.

A 10.0 kV potential difference is applied across the capacitor. Compute (a) the
capacitance; (b) the charge on each plate; and (c) the magnitude of the electric field
between the plates.
Solution
(a)
(b) From (3.1),
(c) From (3.5),
3. The potential difference between two large metal plates is 120V. The plate separation is
3.0 mm. find the electric field between the plates.
Solution
From (3.2),
 4. Determine the charge on each plate of capacitor when the potential difference
between the plates is .
Solution

3.3 Factors affecting the capacitance of a capacitor

There are three factors that affects the capacitance of a capacitor. These are the cross-sectional
area of the capacitor, the separation of the conductors that make up the capacitor and the material
present between the conductors.
i. As seen from (3.6), as the cross-sectional area (A) increases, the capacitance of the
capacitor increases. That is, the larger the capacitor, the larger its capacitance.
ii. The capacitance of a capacitor is inversely proportional to the distance (d) between the
two conductors. The capacitance of a capacitor decreases as the separation between the
two conductors increases and vise-versa.
iii. The effect of a dielectric between the two conductors making up a capacitor will be
discussed in the next section.
3.4 Dielectrics
Any material such as air, rubber, or any other insulator that is present between the two
conductors of a capacitor is called a dielectric. Placing a solid dielectric between the plates of a
capacitor serves three functions.

Figure 3.2: Capacitor with Dielectric

First, it solves the mechanical problem of maintaining two large metal sheets at a very small
separation without actual contact.
Second, using a dielectric increases the maximum possible potential difference between the
capacitor plates. An insulating material, when subjected to a sufficiently large electric field,
experiences a partial ionization that permits conduction through it. This is called dielectric
breakdown. Many dielectric materials can tolerate stronger electric fields without breakdown
than can air. Thus using a dielectric allows a capacitor to sustain a higher potential difference
and so store greater amounts of charge and energy. Third, the capacitance of a capacitor of given
dimensions is greater when there is a dielectric material between the plates than when there is
vacuum.
When a dielectric is used in a capacitor, the capacitance is given as:

Where K is the dielectric constant and is the permittivity of the dielectric.

From (3.7) above it is not difficult to show that is we consider the capacitance with
vacuum and the capacitance with dielectric . Similarly, we can show that .

The dielectric constant of air is approximately 1, hence the capacitance of a capacitor can be
calculated using (3.6). Table 3.1 below shows the dielectric constant K of some materials at
while table 3.2 shows the dielectric constant and the dielectric strength of some materials.
Table 3.1: Dielectric constant K of some materials at
Material K Material K
Vacuum 1 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) 3.18
Air (1 atm) 1.00059 Plexiglas 3.40
Air (100 atm) 1.0548 Glass 5-10
Teflon 2.1 Neoprene 6.70
Polyethene 2.25 Germanium 16
Benzene 2.28 Glycerin 42.5
Mica 3-6 Water 80.4
Mylar 3.1 Strontium titanate 310

Table 3.1: Dielectric constant and the dielectric strength of some materials
Material Dielectric constant, K Dielectric strength E (V/m)
Polycarbonate 2.8
Polyester 3.3
Polypropene 2.2
Polystyrene 2.6
Pyrex glass 4.7

3.5 Energy stored in a capacitor

The potential energy U stored in a capacitor is defined as the amount of work done to fully
charge the capacitor. The potential energy U of a charged capacitor can be calculated as follows:

and
point to another is given by . Then,

The potential energy U is the total work done in taking a capacitor from to i.e

(3.11) gives the formulas for calculating the energy stored in a capacitor.

The energy density of a capacitor ( )

The energy density of a capacitor is defined at the potential energy stored in a capacitor per
unit volume.

From (3.11) , can be calculated as

Where is the cross-sectional area and

is the separation between the capacitors.
From (3.11a) above, it is easy to show that

Since .

3.6 Capacitors in series and in parallel

The arrangement of capacitors in a circuit can either be in series or in parallel or a combination
of both. The effective or equivalent capacitance in the circuit can be calculated.
3.6.1 Capacitors in series
Things to know about capacitors in series:
i. The same charge flows through all the capacitors
ii. The voltage in the circuit is the sum of all the voltage drop across each capacitor.
iii. The equivalent capacitance is smaller than the smallest capacitance in the circuit.

Figure 3.3 below shows capacitors in series. Note that the positive end of one capacitor is
connected to the negative end of the other.

Figure 3.3: Capacitors in series

From the figure above, can be found as follows:

and , and

A more general equation to calculate the equivalent capacitance of any number of capacitor in
series is given by

3.6.2 Capacitors in parallel

Two or more capacitors are said to be connected in parallel if the positive terminal of one is
connected to the positive terminal of another, and the negative terminal of one is connected to
the negative terminal of another as shown in figure 3.4 below.

Figure 3.4: Capacitors in parallel

Things to know about capacitors in parallel
i. The voltage drop across the capacitors is the same.
ii. The total charge in the circuit is the sum of the charges flowing through individual
capacitors.
iii. The equivalent capacitance is larger than the largest individual capacitance in the
circuit.
From figure 3.4 above, can be calculated as follows

The more general equation to calculate the capacitance of n number of capacitors in parallel is

Solved example on dielectrics, energy stored in a capacitors and series and parallel
arrangements of capacitors
1. A parallel-plate capacitor has capacitance when there is air between the
plates. The separation between the plates is 1.50 mm (a) What is the maximum
magnitude of charge that can be placed on each plate if the electric field in the region
between the plates is not to exceed (b) A dielectric with is
inserted between the plates of the capacitor, completely filling the volume between the
 plates. Now what is the maximum magnitude of charge on each plate if the electric field
between the plates is not to exceed .
Solution
(a)

(b) Recall that

Then

2. Calculate the equivalent capacitance in the figure below.

Solution
The capacitors are in parallel, hence their equivalence is . Then we
now have in series, their equivalent can be found using (3.13) to
give .
3. (a) Calculate the capacitance of a capacitor consisting of two parallel plates separated by
a layer of paraffin wax thick, the area of each plate being . The dielectric
constant for wax is 2.0. (b) if the capacitor is connected to a source, calculate the
charge and energy stored in the capacitor.
Solution
(a)

(b)
4.0 Summary
In this module, we have studied the parallel-plate capacitor, the capacitance of a capacitor, the
factors affecting the capacitance of a capacitor and how to calculate the energy stored in a
capacitor.

Further reading
1. University Physics by Young and Freedman (13th edition).
th
2. edtion).
3. Fundamentals of Physics by Halliday and Resnick (9th edition).
4. Advanced level Physics by Nelkon and Parker (3rd edition).
5. Electrical and electronics principles by John Bird.
Current, continuity equation, resistance, Ohm's law
Electric current: basic notions
The term “electric current” is used to describe the
charge per unit time that flows through a region.

In SI units, current is measured in Coulombs/sec,

which is given the name Ampere (or amp).

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 40

 Electric current: basic notions
Suppose we have a swarm of charges, all with the same
charge q. The number density of these charges is some value
n (i.e., there are n charges per unit volume). Suppose further
that all of these charges are moving with velocity u (i.e.
vector u). How much current is flowing through an area A?

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 41

Electric current: basic notions

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 42

Electric current: basic notions

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 43

Ohm’s Law
Device
The ratio V/I is a constant, where
V is the voltage applied across a
Electron flow
piece of material (device) such as
I
+ _ a wire and I is the resulting
V
current through the material.
V
I
 R  cons tan t or V  IR
R is the resistance of the piece of material and the
unit is in ohm (). This implies that a wire or an
electrical device (called resistor) offers resistance
to the flow of charges.
Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 44
Ohm’s Law
Symbol
In an electrical circuit, straight line ( - ) represents an ideal
conducting wire, or one with a negligible resistance.

Resistance and Resistivity

Resistance R of a piece of material is proportional to its
length (L) and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional
area (A)
R
L  is the proportionality constant known as
A the resistivity of the material.
 is an inherent property of a material just like density. R depends
on resistivity and geometry of the material.
Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 45
 Parallel and Series Arrangement of Resistors
Parallel Arrangement:
I I

E I1 R1 I2 R2 I3 R3 E Req. I

For resistors in parallel, the same voltage drops across them (or passes
through them) i.e. Total current I  I1  I 2  I3
V V V 1 1 1
I   V(   )
R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3
V 1 1 1 1
I ,   
n REq. REq. R1 R2 R3
1
REq.
  R1 , for n resistors in parallel
j 1 j

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 46

Parallel and Series Arrangement of Resistors
Series Arrangement:
When a potential difference V is applied across resistors connected in series,
the resistors have identical current I. The sum of the potential differences
across the resistors is equal to the applied V.
I R1
I

E R2 I E Req. I
R3

I
V  I  R1  I  R2  I  R3  I ( R1  R2  R3 )
V V
I 
R1  R2  R3 REq.
n
REq.  Rj, for n resistors in series
j 1
Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 47
 Examples
Q1. Two resistors, 16.0 Ω and 8.0 Ω, are connected in series across a
12.0V battery. What is the voltage across each resistor.
Ans: V across 16  = 8V, V across 8  = 4 V

Q2. Determine the power dissipated in the 2.0 Ω resistor in

the circuit above (Resistive dissipation)
Ans: power dissipated = 3.56 W
Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 48
 Variation of Resistance with Temperature
The ions in a metal lattice vibrate more quickly as the
temperature increases. This makes it more likely that
an electron will interact with an ion and loses energy.

Therefore, the resistance of a metallic conductor increases,

and for pure metals it increases linearly with temperature.

R  Ro (1   R (T  To ))
where
R – R at temp. T ()
Ro – R at temp. To ()
αR – is the temp. coefficient of resistance (°C-1)
Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 49
Variation of Resistivity with Temperature

Similarly
  o (1    (T  To ))
Conductivity
1
 (.m) 1

The unit is written ad mhos per meter

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 50

 Examples:
•A copper wire and aluminum wire have the same length. Obtain the ratio of diameter
of aluminum to that of copper if the resistance of copper is twice that of aluminum and
the resistivity of copper c = 1.72 x 10-8 m and that of aluminum a = 1.72 x 10-8 m.
Ans: 9:5
•Calculate the resistance per meter length of constantan wire of diameter 0.4 mm. What
length of constantan would be required to make a resistor of resistance of 1.5 .
constantan = 4.70 x 10-5 m
Ans: R/L = 374.0 m-1 Length = 0.004 m
•A wire 4.0 m long and 6.00 mm diameter has a resistance of 15.0 m. A potential
difference of 23.0 V is applied between the ends of the wire, (a) what is the current
through the wire. (b) calculate the rsistivity of the wire material.
Ans: a = 1.53 x103 A b = 1.06 x 10-7 m
•A coil is formed by winding 250 turns of insulated 16-gauge copper wire (diameter =
1.3 mm) in a single layer on a cylindrical form of radius 12 cm. What is the resistance
of the coil? (Neglect the thickness of the insulation and c = 1.72 x 10-8 m)
Ans: 2.4 
Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 51
Examples
1. A digital thermometer uses a thermistor as the temperature sensing
element. A thermistor is a kind of semiconductor and has a large negative
temp. coefficient of resistivity . Suppose  = -0.06 (°C-1) for the
thermistor in a digital Thermometer used to measure the temp. of a sick
patient. The resistance of the thermistor decreases by 15% relative to its
value at the normal body temp. of 37.0 °C. What is the patient’s temp.?
Ans: 39.5 °C

2. A wire has a resistance of 21 . It is then melted down, and from the

metal a new wire is mode that is three times as long as the original wire.
What is the resistance of the new wire?
Ans: 189 

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 52

 Kirchhoff’s Rules
Electric circuit is the path through which charge can flow.
I

E R I

Two basic rules that apply in all electric circuit are called Kirchhoff’s laws:

Kirchhoff’s 1st law (Junction Rule)

Total current arriving at a junction in a circuit must equal to the total current leaving the
junction.
I1 I3

I2
I1  I 2  I3

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 53

 Kirchhoff’s Rules
Second Law (Loop Rule / Voltage law):
The sum of potential difference round any closed loop in a circuit must
be zero (or the sum of pd rise equal the sum of pd drop)

E
I V E V  0

Resistance Rule: For a move through a resistor in the direction of current, the change
in potential is –I.R, in the opposite direction it is +I.R.

EMF Rule: For a move through an ideal emf device in the direction of emf arrow, the
change in potential is +E; in the opposite direction it is –E.

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 54

 Kirchhoff’s Rules: Examples
E1
+
V1 E1  E2  E3  V1  V2  0

I
E1  E2  E3  I  R1  I  R2
E2
+
E1  E2  E3
E3 +
V2 I
R1  R2

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 55

 Kirchhoff’s Rules: Examples
Q1. E1 = 3.0V, E2 = 1.00V, R1 = 5.0 Ω, R2 = 2.0 Ω, R3 = 4.0 Ω and both
batteries are ideal. What is the rate at which energy is dissipated in (a)
R1 (b) R2 (c) R3
Ans: P1 = 0.35 W P2 =0.05 W & P3 = 0.71 W

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 56

 Solution

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 57

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 58
Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 59
 Kirchhoff’s Rules: Examples
Q3. Determine what the ammeter will read, assuming E = 5.0V (for the
ideal battery), R1= 2.0 Ω, R2 = 4.0 Ω and R3 = 6.0 Ω. Ans: 0.454 A

Q4. R1 = 20 Ω, R2 = 20 Ω, R3 = 30 Ω,
R4 = 8 Ω and E = 12V. What is the
current through R1.

Ans: 0.3 A

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 60

 Electrical Energy & Power
A battery can deliver power to an electric circuit. Power is the amount
of work exerted over an interval of time.
W
P
t W  PE  qV
Work is equal to the change of potential energy V
Pq
t

If we have a current of charges q across a voltage difference V, we can re-write

V q
P  q  V  V  I
t t
P  I  V or P  I  V
Power is measured in Watt (W). 1W = A.V

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 61

 Electrical Energy & Power
Using Ohm’s law, V2
2
PI R
R
The power delivered to a conductor of resistance R is often referred to as
an I2R loss.
Electrical Energy E = P . t = IVt

Ohmic device: a device that follows Ohm’s law for all voltages across it is
called an Ohmic device (i.e. the resistance of the device is independent of
the magnitude and polarity of the applied potential difference), and the
resistance is said to have a constant value (static resistance).
Examples are wire, electric stove heating element or a resistor,
incandescent light bulb etc.

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 62

 Electrical Energy & Power
Non-Ohmic device: a device that behaves in a way that is not
described by Ohm’s law (i.e. the resistance is not constant but changes
in a way that depends on the voltage across it).

Examples are tungsten filament (bulb), diode, thermistor etc

Physics Dept. Unilorin PHY 152: Electricity and Magnetism 63