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 EC 8551 – Communication Networks

UNIT – 1
Fundamentals and Link Layers

Department : Electronics and Communication Engineering

Batch/Year : 2018 Batch / III ECE
Created by : Mr. S. Jai Ganesh / Assistant Professor - ECE
Date :19.07.2020
Table of Contents
 Table of Contents

S. Contents Page No
No
1 Course Objectives 08

2 Pre Requisites (Course Names with Code) 10

3 Syllabus 12

4 Course Outcomes 14

5 CO - PO / PSO Mapping 16

UNIT - I - FUNDAMENTALS AND LINK LAYER

LECTURE NOTES
6 Lecture Plan 18

7 Activity Based Learning 20

8 1.1 INTRODUCTION 23

1.1.1 Overview of data communication

1.1.2 Fundamental characteristics of networks
1.1.3 Components of data communication
1.1.4 Representation of data and Transmission modes
1.2 BUILDING A NETWORK AND ITS TYPES 28
1.2.1 Building a network
1.2.2 Network types
1.2.3 Based on connection
1.2.4 Based on topology
1.2.5 Based on size
1.2.6 Based on switching
1.3. OVERVIEW OF INTERNET 39

1.3.1 Internet architecture

1.3.2 History of internet
 Table of Contents

S. Contents Page No
No
1.4. NETWORK MODELS 44
1.4.1 Protocol layering
1.4.2 OSI Model
1.5. PHYSICAL LAYER AND ITS FUNCTIONS 54
1.6. OVERVIEW OF DATA AND SIGNALS 56
1.7. DATA LINK LAYER 60
1.7.1 Nodes and links
1.7.2 Functions of data link layer
1.7.3 Link layer addressing
1.7.4 IP address and link layer addressing on internet
1.8. ERROR DETECTION AND ERROR CORRECTION 69
CODES
1.8.1 Types of errors
1.8.2 Types of coding
1.8.3 Parity check codes
1.8.4 Cyclic redundancy check codes
1.8.5 Check sum
1.8.6 Error correction codes
9 Links for online Lecture Videos and Lecture PPTs 81
10 Assignments 83
11 Part- A Q & A (With K Level and CO) 86
12 Part- B Q 's (With K Level and CO) 92
13 Supportive Online Certification Courses 95
14 Real Time Applications 97
15 Content Beyond the Syllabus 99
16 Assessment Schedule 102
17 Text Books and Reference Books 103
18 Mini Project Ideas 105
Course Objectives
 Course Objectives
The student should be made to:

❖ Understand the division of network functionalities into layers.

❖ Be familiar with the components required to build different types of networks

❖ Be exposed to the required functionality at each layer

❖ Learn the flow control and congestion control algorithms

Pre Requisites (Course Names with Code)
 Pre Requisites
S.No Course Course Name
Code
1 EC8392 DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

2 EC8491 COMMUNICATION THEORY

3 VAC INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKS

Syllabus
 SYLLABUS
EC 8551 - COMMUNICATION NETWORKS
L T P C
3 0 0 3

UNIT I FUNDAMENTALS & LINK LAYER 9

Overview of Data Communications- Networks – Building Network and its types–
Overview of Internet - Protocol Layering - OSI Model – Physical Layer – Overview of
Data and Signals - introduction to Data Link Layer - Link layer Addressing- Error
Detection and Correction

UNIT II MEDIA ACCESS & INTERNETWORKING 9

Overview of Data link Control and Media access control - Ethernet (802.3) - Wireless
LANs – Available Protocols – Bluetooth – Bluetooth Low Energy – WiFi – 6LowPAN–
Zigbee - Network layer services – Packet Switching – IPV4 Address – Network layer
protocols ( IP, ICMP, Mobile IP)

UNIT III ROUTING 9

Routing - Unicast Routing – Algorithms – Protocols – Multicast Routing and its basics
– Overview of Intradomain and interdomain protocols – Overview of IPv6 Addressing
– Transition from IPv4 to IPv6

UNIT IV TRANSPORT LAYER 9

Introduction to Transport layer –Protocols- User Datagram Protocols (UDP) and
Transmission Control Protocols (TCP) –Services – Features – TCP Connection – State
Transition Diagram – Flow, Error and Congestion Control - Congestion avoidance
(DEC bit, RED) – QoS – Application requirements

UNIT V APPLICATION LAYER 9

Application Layer Paradigms – Client Server Programming – World Wide Web and
HTTP - DNS- -Electronic Mail (SMTP, POP3, IMAP, MIME) – Introduction to Peer to
Peer Networks – Need for Cryptography and Network Security – Firewalls.

TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
Course Outcomes
 Course Outcomes for
EC8551 – Communication Networks

Highest
# Course Outcomes Cognitive
Level
CO1 Describe the Internet architecture and link layer services K2
CO2 Compare various media access and internetworking protocols K3
Apply various routing protocols and algorithms for a given
CO3 K3
network along with IP addresses
Demonstrate the flow of information from one process to another
CO4 K2
process in the network
Summarize the various congestion control and avoidance
CO5 K2
mechanisms
CO6 Discuss the various application layer protocols K2
CO - PO / PSO Mapping
 CO – PO – PSO – Mapping

Outcomes
Program
Specific
Course Out Comes

Program Outcomes
Level of CO

K3,
K3 K4 K4 K5 K5, A3 A2 A3 A3 A3 A3 A2 K5 K5 K3
K6
PO- PO- PO- PO- PO- PO- PO- PO- PO- PO- PO- PO- PSO PSO PSO
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 -1 -2 -3

C304.1 K2 2 1 - - - - - - - 2 - - 1 - 1

C304.2 K3 3 2 - - - - - - - 3 - - - - 2

C304.3 K3 3 2 2 2 2 - - - - 2 - - - - 2

C304.4 K2 2 1 - - - - - - - 2 - - - - 1

C304.5 K2 2 1 1 1 - - - - - 2 - - - - 1

C304.6 K2 2 2 - - - - - - - 2 - - - 1 1
CO Avg
3 2 2 2 2 - - - - 3 - - 1 1 2
C304
Lecture Plan – Unit 1
 Lecture Plan – Unit 1
UNIT 1 –FUNDAMENTALS AND LINK LAYERS

Planned Date

Mapping CO
Actual Date

Reason for
Taxonomy

Deviation
Delivery
Mode of
Periods
No. of

Level
Topics
No
Si

Overview of data
1 1 CO1 K2
communication

Building Network and

2 1 CO1 K2
its types

Overview of Internet -
3 1 CO1 K2
Protocol Layering

4 OSI Architecture 2 CO1 K2

5 Physical Layer 1 CO1 K2

Overview of Data and

6 1 CO1 K2
Signals

Introduction to Data
7 Link Layer-Link layer 1 CO1 K2
Addressing

8 Error Detection and

1 CO1 K2
Correction

Signature of Staff In charge Signature of HOD

Activity Based Learning
Activity Used: Surf and Brief
 Surf and Brief

Readers are requested to surf the internet and mentioned link to answer the
questions given below.
Links:
https://he.net/3d-map/
https://www.submarinecablemap.com/#/
Questions:

S.NO Question Pertaining CO K Level

Brief How India is getting

1. CO1 K3
connected to the whole world
What is Landing Station, How
many Landing Station are
2. CO1 K3
there in India? Where are
they Located?
A Curfew in Jabalpur, made
Internet to shutdown for six
3. CO1 K2
hours in Bhopal, on December
20, 2019. Explore Why?

Instructions:
• Students must go through the given links and also the other sources of internet to
answer the questions.
• Answers must be in descriptive type and should express the individual views on
the questions.
• For Question #3: Students are requested to do a case study on the problem
mentioned and submit a detailed report on the issue from starting to ending of
the issue.
Lecture Notes
Section 1.1
INTRODUCTION
1.1.1 – Overview of Data Communication
1.1.2 – Fundamental Characteristics of networks
1.1.3 – Components of Data Communication
1.1.4 – Representation of Data and Transmission Modes
 INTRODUCTION
Communication and networks and their development have changed the way we
interact, learn, and live. The latest advancements in the field of data communication
and networking provide greater support for education, games, business, and
lifestyle. The ability of the communication networks to scale up to any size and
meeting the diversified requirements of any individual or community makes the
future internet dependent.
Viewing a network in a bird’s eye view involves quite a lot of concepts and they are
briefly discussed in the following chapters. Firstly, we will see the overview of data
communication and networks, what are the basic requirements for building a
network, and an overview of the internet and its evolution. Secondly, we will discuss
various models in the network and how is it addressing the various requirements of
different communities.

1.1.1 Overview Of Data Communications And Networks

Data communication, which is referred to as transmission of digital data from one
point to another point through a network. Here the point may represent any
computer or device that handles the information. Data communication acts as a key
to the development or invention of networks. Before the invention of networks, the
data has to be transferred physically from one device to another device (Using
floppy Disks, CDs, DVDs, Flash Drives, Etc.,). With the digital data communication
and networks, the process of transferring the information has become not only
easier but also faster. This ability has driven almost all the industries to make use of
the internet by connecting more and more devices to the network.
The following figure depicts the tremendous growth in the population of devices
connected to the internet and its future.

Figure1.1: Growth of population of devices - stats

Data Communication – the word Data refers to the information which can be
represented in any form such as Audio, Video, Image, Text, Etc., and the work
Communication refers to the transfer of information from one place to another place
or in other words we can also say the exchange of information between two devices.
For a successful exchange of information from one device to another device all the
participating devices should be a part of a network connected by any transmission
medium. The effectiveness of the network depends on four fundamental
characteristics.
1.1.2 Fundamental Characteristics of Networks:
1.Delivery – The system must deliver the message only to the intended
destination. Correct delivery of message plays an important role in deciding the
security and reliability of the network.
2.Accuracy – The system must deliver the message without any alteration in it.
This is also referred to as error-free communication.
3.Timeliness – The system must deliver the message at the right time. Timely
delivery plays an important role in audio and video communications. Delivering the
message instantaneously without delay in the same order as they produced is
referred to as Real-Time Transmission.
4.Jitter – Jitter in the field of telecommunication refers to the variation in the delay
of receiving the packets. These delays in the packets greatly affect the quality of
real-time communications such as video conferencing.
The importance given to each of the above-mentioned characteristics will vary as the
application varies. For example, in video conferencing, Timeliness and Jitter have a
greater impact and on the other hand, applications such as Banking will have a
greater impact on accuracy than the timeliness.
Even though there are lots of concepts involved in setting up a network, we will first
consider the basic components required for establishing a network.
1.1.3 Components of Data Communication:
A typical data communication system will have five basic components as shown in
the figure.

Figure1.2: Basic Components of a Data Communication

The five basic components are First we need a Message, next a device to send it
called as Sender, and a device to receive the message called as Receiver. Secondly, a
transmission medium to transfer the message from sender to receiver. Finally, a
Protocol which is nothing but a set of rules to be followed for the successful delivery
of a message from sender to receiver.
1.Message – The message is the information or data to be communicated which
may take any form such as Text, Image, Audio, and Video.
2.Sender – Any device that sends a message which can be a computer, telephone,
workstation, Video Camera, Etc.,
3.Receiver – Any device that receives the message sent by the sender which can
be a computer, Television, Workstation, Etc.,
4.Transmission Medium – This is the physical path over which the message travels
from sender to receiver. This medium can either be wired or wireless. Examples of
wired mediums are Coaxial Cables, Ethernet, Etc., Examples of wireless mediums are
Radio Waves (Bluetooth, WIFI, WiMAX Etc,)
5.Protocol – This is the set of rules that governs successful data communication
between the devices. Both the sender and receiver must agree upon the rules
defined by the protocol for enabling communication. For Example, A person whose
mother tongue is French and another person whose mother tongue is Tamil need to
exchange information and so that they both agree to use a Common language, Say
English, for effective communication (Exchange of Information).
1.1.4 Representation of Data and its Transmission Modes:
As discussed earlier the information or data in the network can be represented in
various forms as discussed below.
1.Text – Any alphabetical characters are referred to as text and they are
represented in bit pattern, i.e. sequence of 0’s and 1’s. A different sequence of bit
patterns represents different Text symbols. This process of representing the text
symbols as a sequence of bit patterns (Code) is called coding. The widely used
coding scheme for text data is the American Standard Code for Information
Interchange (ASCII)
2.Numbers – Any Numerical Characters are referred to as numbers and they are
also represented by a bit pattern. ASCII scheme is not used to represent the
Numbers to simplify the mathematical operations. Numbers are directly converted to
binary form.
3.Images – Pictorial representation of data is referred to as images. An image is
composed of many small dots where each dot is called Pixels. The density of pixels
defines the resolution and thereby the quality of the image. An image that has
10,000 pixels will have high quality than an image that has 1000 pixels.
4.Audio – Any recorded voice or music is referred to as Audio. Audio information is
distinct from other forms of information since they are continuous by nature. These
signals are to be first digitized to represent using Binary sequences.
5.Video – Any recorded picture or Movie is referred to as Video. Videos can either
be captured continuously or a sequence of multiple images can be arranged to
depict the motion.
Based on the direction of information flow the transmission modes can be classified
into 3 types. They are Simplex, Half Duplex, and Full Duplex.

Figure1.3 : Information Transmission Modes

i. Simplex mode: In this mode of communication the information transfer is
unidirectional. i.e. the information will flow only in one direction. For example, the
connection between the CPU and KEYBOARD is simplex.
ii. Half Duplex mode: In this mode, the communication the information can flow in
both the direction (Bi-directional) but only one direction at a time is possible. i.e.
when one device is transmitting, the other device should listen or receive, once the
first device finished its transmission the second device can start transmitting. In the
case of half-duplex, the channel capacity is completely utilized for both directions.
Example – Walkie-Talkies.
iii. Full Duplex: In this mode the communication is bidirectional. I.e. Both the
devices can send and receive the data simultaneously. In the case of the full-duplex,
the entire channel capacity is divided or shared by both sender and receiver.
Example – Mobile Communications.

Figure1.4: Transmission Modes

Section 1.2
BUILDING A NETWORK AND ITS
TYPES
1.2.1 – Building a Network
1.2.2 – Types of Networks
1.2.2.1 – Based on Connection
1.2.2.2 – Based on Topology
1.2.2.3 – Based on Size
1.2.2.4 – Based on Switching
 BUILDING A NETWORK AND ITS TYPES

1.2.1 BUILDING A NETWORK

Before we talk about the internet, lets quickly brief about the Networks. Networks
are the interconnection of a set of devices that can transfer or share the information
to another device. Here in this definition the devices can be any end device such as
Laptop, desktop, workstation, mobile phone or any security systems (CCTV’s)
otherwise it can be any Connecting devices such as Router, Switches, Modem, etc.,
All the above-mentioned devices can be connected using a wired or wireless medium
such as Cable or air.
A simple example of a network is that when we are connecting our laptop and a
printer in a home Wi-Fi can be termed as a network, but eventually a very small
network. When the network is to be scaled over a bigger size then that requires lots
of parameters to be considered. The following stages can be kept as a reference in
building a larger network.
i. Exploring the requirements of different applications and different communities.
The requirements of an application and the users that are present on the internet
will vary according to the purpose they use the internet.
ii. Understanding the idea of Network Architecture to be followed so that
most of the users and applications can be supported by the network. This point
deals with the common architecture to be followed across the various manufactures
to maintain interoperability.
iii. Implementing the network architecture that was developed in the previous
stage and testing the effectiveness and functionality of the network.
iv. Evaluating the performance of the computer network.
These are the various stages that are required or considered for building the
network. Among all these points the evaluation of network performance plays an
important role. The Efficiency of the network is evaluated using 3 important criteria
such as
a. Performance: The performance of a network can be measured in many different
ways, such as Transit time and response time. Transit time is the amount of time
required for a message to travel from one device to another. Response time is the
elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.
However, the performance of a network depends on several other factors, such as
the number of users, the type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the
hardware, and the software.
Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics: Throughput and Delay.
We often need more throughput and less delay. However, these two criteria are
often contradictory. If we try to send more data to the network, we may increase
throughput but we increase the delay because of traffic congestion in the network.
b. Reliability: In addition to accurate delivery of data, network reliability is also an
important factor to be measured. Network reliability is the measure of the frequency
of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network’s
robustness in a disaster.
c. Security: The data sent over the network must be secured. The word secure also
includes protecting the data from unauthorized access, protecting data from
Damage, implementing policies, and procedure for data recovery in case of
unexpected network failures.
1.2.2 TYPES OF NETWORKS
Network types can be classified based on several parameters. We will discuss the
network types briefly.
1.2.2.1. Based on Connection:
A network is a connection of two or more devices through links. A link is a
communication pathway that transfers data from one device to another. For
communication to happen, two devices must be connected in some way to the same
link at the same time. There are two possible types of connections:
a. Point-to-Point: A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between
two devices or nodes. The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission
between those two devices only. Connections such as microwave or satellite links
are also termed as Point to Point Connection.
b. Multipoint: A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more
than two specific devices share a single link. In a multipoint environment, the
capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially or temporally. If several devices
can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared connection. If users must
take turns, it is a time-shared connection.

Figure2.1: Point to point and Multipoint Connection

1.2.2.2. Based on Topology:
The term physical topology refers to how a network is laid out physically. Two or
more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. The topology of a
network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and
linking devices (usually called nodes) to one another. There are four basic topologies
possible:
a. Bus Topology:
➢ One long cable act as a backbone to link all the devices in a network. Nodes are
connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps.
➢ A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures the
sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the metallic core.
➢ A drop line is a connection running between the device and the main cable.

Figure2.2: Bus Topology

Advantages of Bus Topology:
✓ Ease of installation.
✓ Less cabling is required when compared to other topologies
Disadvantages of Bus Topology:
✓ Difficult for reconnection and Fault Isolation
✓ Adding of new devices is tedious
✓ Degradation of signal quality due to taps
✓ Cable termination is needed to avoid signal reflection.
b. Star Topology:
➢ In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central
controller, usually called a hub.
➢ The devices are not directly linked to one another. Star topology does not allow
direct traffic between devices.
➢ The controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send data to another,
it sends the data to the controller, which then relays the data to the other
connected device.
 Figure2.3: Star Topology
Advantages of Star Topology:
✓ Less expensive.
✓ Each device needs only one link and one I/O port to connect it to a network.
✓ Easy to install and reconfigure.
✓ Less cabling is required
✓ Robustness is high. If one link fails, only that link is affected. All other links
remain active.
Disadvantages of Star Topology:
✓ The whole Topology depends on HUB. If the HUB goes down then the entire
network is down.
c. Ring Topology:
➢ In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with
only the two devices on either side of it.
➢ A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device, until it
reaches its destination.
➢ Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater.
➢ When a device receives a signal intended for another device, its repeater
regenerates the bits and passes them along.

Figure2.4: Ring Topology

Advantages of Ring Topology:
✓ Easy to install and reconfigure
✓ Addition or deletion of a system in topology only requires alteration at 2 points
✓ Fault Identification is easier
Disadvantages of Ring Topology:
✓ Supports only Unidirectional Traffic
✓ Any break in the ring can disable the entire network.
d. Mesh Topology:
➢ In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every
other device.
➢ The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two
devices it connects.
➢ The number of physical links in a fully connected mesh network with n nodes, we
need n (n – 1) physical links (Simplex Links).
➢ However, if each physical link allows communication in both directions (duplex
mode), we need n (n – 1) / 2 duplex-mode links.
➢ To accommodate that many links, every device on the network must have n – 1
input/output (I/O) ports to be connected to the other n – 1 station.

Figure2.5: Mesh Topology

Advantages of Mesh Topology:
✓ Dedicated Links can carry their load, Sharing reduces the link capacity
✓ Robust – Data is still delivered even if one link is down.
✓ Privacy and Security – No eavesdropping
✓ Fault Identification is easier
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology:
✓ Installation is difficult due to complex wiring
✓ Requires more IO Ports to connect the systems.
1.2.2.3. Based on Size:
The types of networks are based on a few criteria such as size, geographical
coverage, and ownership.

Figure2.6: Types of Networks based on Size

a. Personal Area Network [PAN]: A personal area network (PAN) is a computer
network for interconnecting electronic devices centered on a person's workspace. A
PAN provides data transmission among devices such as computers, smartphones,
tablets, and personal digital assistants.
b. Local Area Network [LAN]: A local area network (LAN) is usually privately
owned and connects some hosts in a single office, building, or campus. Depending
on the needs of an organization, a LAN can be as simple as two PCs and a printer in
someone’s home office, or it can extend throughout a company and include audio
and video devices. Each host in a LAN has an identifier, an address, that uniquely
defines the host in the LAN. A packet sent by a host to another host carries both the
source hosts and the destination host’s addresses.

Figure2.7: Types of Networks based on Size

c. A wide area network [WAN]: is also interconnection of devices capable of
communication. However, there are some differences between a LAN and a WAN. A
LAN is normally limited in size, spanning an office, a building, or a campus; a WAN
has a wider geographical span, spanning a town, a state, a country, or even the
world. A LAN interconnects hosts; a WAN interconnects connecting devices such as
switches, routers, or modems. A LAN is normally privately owned by the organization
that uses it; a WAN is normally created and run by communication companies and
leased by an organization that uses it. We see two distinct examples of WANs today:
point-to-point WANs and switched WANs.
Point-to-Point WAN: A point-to-point WAN is a network that connects two
communicating devices through a transmission media (cable or air).

Figure2.8: point to point WAN

Switched WAN: A switched WAN is a network with more than two ends. A switched
WAN is used in the backbone of global communication today. We can say that a
switched WAN is a combination of several point-to-point WANs that are connected
by switches.

Figure2.9: Switched WAN

Internetwork
Today, it is very rare to see a LAN or a WAN in isolation; they are connected. When
two or more networks are connected, they make an internetwork or internet. As an
example, assume that an organization has two offices, one on the east coast and
the other on the west coast. Each office has a LAN that allows all employees in the
office to communicate with each other. To make the communication between
employees at different offices possible, the management leases a point-to-point
dedicated WAN from a service provider, such as a telephone company, and connects
the two LANs. Now the company has an internetwork, or a private internet (with
lowercase i). Communication between offices is now possible. The figure shows this
internet.
 FIGURE2.10: An internetwork made of two LANs and one point-to-point WAN
When a host in the west coast office sends a message to another host in the same
office, the router blocks the message, but the switch directs the message to the
destination. On the other hand, when a host on the west coast sends a message to
a host on the east coast, router R1 routes the packet to router R2, and the packet
reaches the destination. Figure 1.12 shows another internet with several LANs and
WANs connected. One of the WANs is a switched WAN with four switches.

Figure2.11: A heterogeneous network made of four WANs and three LANs

1.2.2.4. Based on Switching
The Internet is a switched network in which a switch connects at least two links. A
switch needs to forward data from a network to another network when required.
The two most common types of switched networks are
a) Circuit-switched networks
b) Packet-switched networks.
a. Circuit-Switched Network:
In a circuit-switched network, a dedicated connection, called a circuit, is always
available between the two end systems; the switch can only make it active or
inactive. The figure shows a very simple switched network that connects four
telephones to each end. We have used telephone sets instead of computers as an
end system because circuit switching was very common in telephone networks in
the past, although part of the telephone network today is a packet-switched
network.
In Figure, the four telephones at each side are connected to a switch. The switch
connects a telephone set at one side to a telephone set at the other side. The thick
line connecting two switches is a high-capacity communication line that can handle
four-voice communications at the same time; the capacity can be shared between all
pairs of telephone sets. The switches used in this example have forwarding tasks but
no storing capability.
Let us look at two cases. In the first case, all telephone sets are busy; four people a
tone site is talking with four people at the other site; the capacity of the thick line is
fully used. In the second case, only one telephone set at one side is connected to a
telephone set on the other side; only one-fourth of the capacity of the thick line is
used. This means that a circuit-switched network is efficient only when it is working
at its full capacity; most of the time, it is inefficient because it is working at partial
capacity. The reason that we need to make the capacity of the thick line four times
the capacity of each voice line is that we do not want communication to fail when all
telephone sets atone side want to be connected with all telephone sets at the other
side.

Figure2.12: Circuit Switched Network

b. Packet-Switched Network:
In a computer network, the communication between the two ends is done in blocks
of data called packets. In other words, instead of the continuous communication we
see between two telephone sets when they are being used, we see the exchange of
individual data packets between the two computers. This allows us to make the
switches function for both storing and forwarding because a packet is an
independent entity that can be stored and sent later. The figure shows a small
packet-switched network that connects four computers at one site to four computers
at the other site.
 Figure2.13 : Packet Switched Network
A router in a packet-switched network has a queue that can store and forward the
packet. Now assume that the capacity of the thick line is only twice the capacity of
the data line connecting the computers to the routers. If only two computers (one at
each site) need to communicate with each other, there is no waiting for the packets.
However, if packets arrive at one router when the thick line is already working at its
full capacity, the packets should be stored and forwarded in the order they arrived.
The two simple examples show that a packet-switched network is more efficient
than a circuit-switched network, but the packets may encounter some delays.
Section 1.3
OVERVIEW OF INTERNET
1.3.1 – Internet Architecture
1.3.2 – History of Internet
 OVERVIEW OF INTERNET
An internet (note the lowercase i) is two or more networks that can communicate
with each other. The most notable internet is called the Internet (uppercase I) and is
composed of thousands of interconnected networks. The figure shows a conceptual
(not geographical) view of the Internet. The figure shows the Internet as several
backbones, provider networks, and customer networks.
1.3.1 Internet Architecture
At the top level, the backbones are large networks owned by some communication
companies such as Sprint, Verizon (MCI), AT&T, and NTT. The backbone networks
are connected through some complex switching systems, called peering points.
At the second level, there are smaller networks, called provider networks, that use
the services of the backbones for a fee. The provider networks are connected to
backbones and sometimes to other provider networks. The customer networks are
networks at the edge of the Internet that use the services provided by the Internet.
They pay fees to provider networks for receiving services. Backbones and provider
networks are also called Internet Service Providers (ISPs). The backbones are often
referred to as international ISPs; the provider networks are often referred to as
national or regional ISPs.

Figure3.1: Architecture of internet

Accessing the Internet
1. Using Telephone Networks
Since most telephone networks have already connected themselves to the Internet,
one option for residences and small businesses to connect to the Internet is to
change the voice line between the residence or business and the telephone centre
to a point-to-point WAN. This can be done into ways.
a. Dial-up service
The first solution is to add to the telephone line a modem that converts data to
voice. The software installed on the computer dials the ISP and imitates making a
telephone connection.
b. DSL Service.
The DSL service also allows the line to be used simultaneously for voice and data
communication.
2. Using Cable Networks
The cable companies have been upgrading their cable networks and connecting to
the Internet. A residence or a small business can be connected to the Internet by
using this service.
3. Using Wireless Networks
A household or a small business can use a combination of wireless and wired
connections to access the Internet.
4. Direct Connection to the Internet
A large organization or a large corporation can itself become a local ISP and be
connected to the Internet. This can be done if the organization or the corporation
leases a high-speed WAN from a carrier provider and connects itself to a regional
ISP.
1.3.2 HISTORY OF INTERNET
There were some communication networks, such as telegraph and telephone
networks, before 1960. These networks were suitable for constant-rate
communication at that time, which means that after a connection was made
between two users, the encoded message(telegraphy) or voice (telephony) could be
exchanged. A computer network, on the other hand, should be able to handle burst
data, which means data received at variable rates at different times. The world
needed to wait for the packet-switched network to be invented.
Birth of Packet-Switched Networks
The theory of packet switching for burst traffic was first presented by Leonard
Kleinrock in 1961 at MIT. At the same time, two other researchers, Paul Baran at
Ran Institute and Donald Davies at National Physical Laboratory in England,
published some papers about packet-switched networks.
ARPANET
In the mid-1960s, mainframe computers in research organizations were stand-alone
devices. Computers from different manufacturers were unable to communicate with
one another. The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in the Department of
Défense (DOD) was interested in finding a way to connect computers so that the
researchers they funded could share their findings, thereby reducing costs and
eliminating duplication of effort. In 1967, at an Association for Computing Machinery
(ACM) meeting, ARPA presented its ideas for the Advanced Research Projects
Agency Network (ARPANET), a small network of connected computers. The idea was
that each host computer (not necessarily from the same manufacturer) would be
attached to a specialized computer, called an interface message processor (IMP).
The IMPs, in turn, would be connected teach other. Each IMP had to be able to
communicate with other IMPs as well as with its own attached host. Software called
the Network Control Protocol (NCP) provided communication between the hosts.
Birth of the Internet
In 1972, Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn, both of whom were part of the core ARPANET
group, collaborated on what they called the Internetting Project. They wanted to link
dissimilar networks so that a host on one network could communicate with a host on
another. There were many problems to overcome: diverse packet sizes, diverse
interfaces, and diverse transmission rates, as well as differing reliability
requirements. Cerfand Kahn devised the idea of a device called a gateway to serve
as the intermediary hardware to transfer data from one network to another.
TCP/IP
Cerf and Kahn’s landmark 1973 paper outlined the protocols to achieve end-to-end
delivery of data. This was a new version of NCP. This paper on transmission control
protocol (TCP) included concepts such as encapsulation, the datagram, and the
functions of a gateway. A radical idea was the transfer of responsibility for error
correction from the IMP to the host machine. In October 1977, an internet consisting
of three different networks (ARPANET, packet radio, and packet satellite) was
successfully demonstrated. Communication between networks was now possible.
Shortly thereafter, authorities decided to split TCP into two protocols: Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP). IP would handle datagram
routing while TCP would be responsible for higher level functions such as
segmentation, reassembly, and error detection. The new combination became
known as TCP/IP.
MILNET
In 1983, ARPANET split into two networks: Military Network (MILNET) for military
users and ARPANET for non-military users.
CSNET
Another milestone in Internet history was the creation of CSNET in 1981. Computer
Science Network (CSNET) was a network sponsored by the National Science
Foundation (NSF). CSNET was a less expensive network; there were no redundant
links and the transmission rate was slower. By the mid-1980s, most U.S. universities
with computer science departments were part of CSNET. The term Internet,
originally associated with government-funded connected networks, now referred to
the connected networks using TCP/IP protocols.
NSFNET
With the success of CSNET, the NSF in 1986 sponsored the National Science
Foundation Network (NSFNET), a backbone that connected five supercomputer
centres located throughout the United States. In 1990, ARPANET was officially
retired and replaced by NSFNET. In 1995, NSFNET reverted to its original concept of
a research network.
ANSNET
In 1991, the U.S. government decided that NSFNET was not capable of supporting
the rapidly increasing Internet traffic. Three companies, IBM, Merit, and Verizon,
filled the void by forming a non-profit organization called Advanced Network &
Services (ANS)to build a new, high-speed Internet backbone called Advanced
Network Services Network (ANSNET).
Internet Today
Today, we witness a rapid growth both in the infrastructure and new applications.
The Internet today is a set of pier networks that provide services to the whole
world. What has made the Internet so popular is the invention of new applications.
a. World Wide Web
The 1990s saw the explosion of Internet applications due to the emergence of the
World Wide Web (WWW). The Web was invented at CERN by Tim Berners-Lee. This
invention has added the commercial applications to the Internet.
b. Multimedia
Recent developments in the multimedia applications such as voice over IP
(telephony), video over IP (Skype), view sharing (YouTube), and television over IP
(PPLive) has increased the number of users and the amount of time each user
spends on the network.
c. Peer-to-Peer Applications
Peer-to-peer networking is also a new area of communication with a lot of potential.
Section 1.4
NETWORK MODELS
1.4.1 – Protocol Layering
1.4.2 – OSI Model
 NETWORK MODELS
NETWORK MODELS
In data communication and networking, a protocol defines the rules that both the
sender and receiver and all intermediate devices need to follow to be able to
communicate effectively. When communication is simple, we may need only one
simple protocol; when the communication is complex, we may need to divide the
task between different layers, in which case we need a protocol at each layer, or
protocol layering.
1.4.1 PROTOCOL LAYERING
First Scenario
In the first scenario, communication is so simple that it can occur in only one layer.
Assume Maria and Ann are neighbours with a lot of common ideas. Communication
between Maria and Ann takes place in one layer, face to face, in the same language,
as shown in Figure

Figure4.1: Single layer protocol

Second Scenario
The sender of the letter encrypts it to make it unreadable by an intruder; the
receiver of the letter decrypts it to get the original letter. Let us assume that Maria
sends the first letter to Ann. Maria talks to the machine at the third layer as though
the machine is Ann and is listening to her. The third layer machine listens to what
Maria says and creates the plaintext (a letter in English), which is passed to the
second layer machine. The second layer machine takes the plaintext, encrypts it,
and creates the ciphertext, which is passed to the first layer machine. The
first layer machine, presumably a robot, takes the ciphertext, puts it in an envelope,
adds the sender and receiver addresses, and mails it.
At Ann’s side, the first layer machine picks up the letter from Ann’s mail box,
recognizing the letter from Maria by the sender address. The machine takes out the
cyphertext the envelope and delivers it to the second layer machine. The second
layer machine decrypts the message, creates the plaintext, and passes the plaintext
to the third-layer machine. The third layer machine takes the plaintext and reads it
as though Maria is speaking.
 Figure4.2: Multilayer Protocol
PRINCIPLES OF PROTOCOL LAYERING:
First Principle
The first principle dictates that if we want bidirectional communication, we need to
make each layer so that it can perform two opposite tasks, one in each direction.
Second Principle
The second principle that we need to follow in protocol layering is that the two
objects under each layer at both sites should be identical.
Logical Connections
After following the above two principles, we can think about logical connection
between each layer as shown in Figure. This means that we have layer-to-layer
communication. Maria and Ann can think that there is a logical (imaginary)
connection at each layer through which they can send the object created from that
layer.

Figure4.3: Logical Connection between peer layers

Protocol layering enables us to divide a complex task into several smaller and
simpler tasks. A layer (module) can be defined as a black box with inputs and
outputs, without concern about how inputs are changed to outputs. If two machines
provide the same outputs when given the same inputs, they can replace each other.
Advantages of protocol layering
1. It allows us to separate the services from the implementation. A layer needs to be
able to receive a set of services from the lower layer and to give the services to the
upper layer; we don’t care about how the layer is implemented.
2. Communication does not always use only two end systems; there are
intermediate systems that need only some layers, but not all layers. If we did not
use protocol layering, we would have to make each intermediate system as complex
as the end systems, which makes the whole system more expensive.
1.4.2 OSI MODEL
An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications is the Open
Systems Interconnection model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s. An open
system is a set of protocols that allows any two different systems to communicate
regardless of their underlying architecture. The purpose of the OSI model is to show
how to facilitate communication between different systems without requiring
changes to the logic of the underlying hardware and software. The OSI model is not
a protocol; it is a model for understanding and designing a network architecture that
is flexible, robust, and interoperable.
The OSI model is composed of seven ordered layers:
Physical (layer 1)
Data link (layer 2)
Network (layer 3)
Transport (layer 4)
Session (layer 5 )
Presentation (layer 6
Application (layer 7).
Figure shows the layers involved when a message is sent from device A to device B.
As the message travels from A to B, it may pass through many intermediate nodes.
These intermediate nodes usually involve only the first three layers of the OSI
model.
Within a single machine, each layer calls upon the services of the layer just below it.
Layer 3, for example, uses the services provided by layer 2 and provides services for
layer 4. Between machines, layer x on one machine communicates with layer x on
another machine. This communication is governed by an agreed-upon series of rules
and conventions called protocols. The processes on each machine that communicate
at a given layer are called peer-to-peer processes. Communication between
machines is therefore a peer-to-peer process using the protocols appropriate to a
given layer.
 Figure4.4: interaction between layers in OSI model
Encapsulation
In other words, the data portion of a packet at level N - 1 carries the whole packet
(data and header and maybe trailer) from level N. The concept is called
encapsulation; level N - 1 is not aware of which part of the encapsulated packet is
data and which part is the header or trailer. For level N - 1, the whole packet coming
from level N is treated as one integral unit.
PHYSICAL LAYER
1.Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium. The physical layer
defines the characteristics of the interface between the devices and the transmission
medium. It also defines the type of transmission medium

Figure4.5: Physical Layer

2. Representation of bits. The physical layer data consists of a stream of bits
(sequence of Os or 1s) with no interpretation. To be transmitted, bits must be
encoded into signals--electrical or optical. The physical layer defines the type of
encoding (how Os and I s are changed to signals).
3. Data rate. The transmission rate-the number of bits sent each second-is also
defined by the physical layer. In other words, the physical layer defines the duration
of a bit, which is how long it lasts.
4.Synchronization of bits. The sender and receiver not only must use the same
bit rate but also must be synchronized at the bit level. In other words, the sender
and the receiver clocks must be synchronized.
5.Line configuration. The physical layer is concerned with the connection of
devices to the media. In a point-to-point configuration, two devices are connected
through a dedicated link. In a multipoint configuration, a link is shared among
several devices.
6.Physical topology. The physical topology defines how devices are connected to
make a network. Devices can be connected by using a mesh, a star topology, a ring
topology, a bus topology or a hybrid topology (this is a combination of two or more
topologies).
7.Transmission mode. The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission
between two devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex. In simplex mode, only
one device can send; the other can only receive. The simplex mode is a one-way
communication. In the half-duplex mode, two devices can send and receive, but not
at the same time. In a full-duplex (or simply duplex) mode, two devices can send
and receive at the same time.
THE DATA LINK LAYER
This layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a reliable link.
It makes the physical layer appear error-free to the upper layer (network layer).

Figure4.6: Data Link Layer

1. Framing. The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the
network layer into manageable data units called frames.
2. Physical addressing. If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the
network, the data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender
and/or receiver of the frame. If the frame is intended for a system outside the
sender's network, the receiver address is the address of the device that connects
the network to the next one.
3.Flow control. If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less
than the rate at which data are produced in the sender, the data link layer imposes a
flow control mechanism to avoid overwhelming the receiver.
4.Error control. The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding
mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also uses a
mechanism to recognize duplicate frames. Error control is normally achieved through
a trailer added to the end of the frame.
5.Access control. When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data
link layer protocols are necessary to determine which device has control over the
link at any given time.
NETWORK LAYER
The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet,
possibly across multiple networks (links). Whereas the data link layer oversees the
delivery of the packet between two systems on the same network (links), the
network layer ensures that each packet gets from its point of origin to its final
destination.

Figure4.7: Network Layer

1.Logical addressing. If a packet passes the network boundary, we need another
addressing system to help distinguish the source and destination systems. The
network layer adds a header to the packet coming from the upper layer that, among
other things, includes the logical addresses of the sender and receiver.
2.Routing. When independent networks or links are connected to create
internetworks (network of networks) or a large network, the connecting devices
(called routers or switches) route or switch the packets to their final destination.
One of the functions of the network layer is to provide this mechanism.
TRANSPORT LAYER
The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire
message. A process is an application program running on a host. Whereas the
network layer oversees source-to-destination delivery of individual packets, it does
not recognize any relationship between those packets.

Figure4.8: Transport Layer

1. Service-point addressing. Computers often run several programs at the same
time. The transport layer header must therefore include a type of address called a
service-point address (or port address). The network layer gets each packet to the
correct computer; the transport layer gets the entire message to the correct process
on that computer.
2. Segmentation and reassembly. A message is divided into transmittable
segments, with each segment containing a sequence number. These numbers
enable the transport layer to reassemble the message correctly upon arriving at the
destination and to identify and replace packets that were lost in transmission.
3. Connection control. The transport layer can be either connectionless or
connection oriented.
4. Flow control. Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for flow
control. However, flow control at this layer is performed end to end rather than
across a single link.
SESSION LAYER
The services provided by the first three layers (physical, data link, and network) are
not sufficient for some processes. The session layer is the network dialog controller.
It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction among communicating
systems.

Figure4.9: Session Layer

1. Dialog control. The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog. It
allows the communication between two processes to take place in either half duplex
(one way at a time) or full-duplex (two ways at a time) mode.
2. Synchronization. The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints, for
synchronization points, to a stream of data.
PRESENTATION LAYER
The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between two systems.

Figure4.10: Presentation Layer

1. Translation. The processes (running programs) in two systems are usually
exchanging information in the form of character strings, numbers, and so on. The
presentation layer at the sender changes the information from its sender-dependent
format into a common format. The presentation layer at the receiving machine
changes the common format into its receiver-dependent format.
2. Encryption. To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to ensure
privacy. Encryption means that the sender transforms the original information to
another form and sends the resulting message out over the network. Decryption
reverses the original process to transform the message back to its original form.
3. Compression. Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the
information. Data compression becomes particularly important in the transmission of
multimedia such as text, audio, and video.

APPLICATION LAYER
The application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access the
network. It provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail,
remote file access and transfer, shared database management, and other types of
distributed information services.
 Figure4.11: Application Layer

1. Network virtual terminal. A network virtual terminal is a software version of a

physical terminal, and it allows a user to log on to a remote host.
2. File transfer, access, and management. This application allows a user to
access files in a remote host (to make changes or read data), to retrieve files from a
remote computer for use in the local computer, and to manage or control files in a
remote computer locally.
3. Mail services. This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and
storage.
4. Directory services. This application provides distributed database sources and
access for global information about various objects and services.
Section 1.5
Functions of
Physical Layer
 PHYSICAL LAYER AND ITS FUNCTIONS

PHYSICAL LAYER
We can say that the physical layer is responsible for carrying individual bits in a
frame across the link. Although the physical layer is the lowest level in the TCP/IP
protocol suite, the communication between two devices at the physical layer is still
logical because there is another, hidden layer, the transmission media, under the
physical layer. Two devices are connected by a transmission medium (cable or air).
We need to know that the transmission medium does not carry bits; it carries
electrical or optical signals. So, the bits received in a frame from the data-link layer
are transformed and sent through the transmission media, but we can think that the
logical unit between two physical layers in two devices is a bit. Several protocols
transform a bit to a signal.

FUNCTIONS OF PHYSICAL LAYER

1. Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium. The physical layer
defines the characteristics of the interface between the devices and the transmission
medium. It also defines the type of transmission medium
2. Representation of bits. The physical layer data consists of a stream of bits
(sequence of Os or 1s) with no interpretation. To be transmitted, bits must be
encoded into signals--electrical or optical. The physical layer defines the type of
encoding (how Os and I s are changed to signals).
3. Data rate. The transmission rate-the number of bits sent each second-is also
defined by the physical layer. In other words, the physical layer defines the duration
of a bit, which is how long it lasts.
4. Synchronization of bits. The sender and receiver not only must use the same
bit rate but also must be synchronized at the bit level. In other words, the sender
and the receiver clocks must be synchronized.
5. Line configuration. The physical layer is concerned with the connection of
devices to the media. In a point-to-point configuration, two devices are connected
through a dedicated link. In a multipoint configuration, a link is shared among
several devices.
6. Physical topology. The physical topology defines how devices are connected to
make a network. Devices can be connected by using a mesh, a star topology, a ring
topology, a bus topology or a hybrid topology (this is a combination of two or more
topologies).
7. Transmission mode. The physical layer also defines the direction of
transmission between two devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex. In simplex
mode, only one device can send; the other can only receive. The simplex mode is a
one-way communication. In the half-duplex mode, two devices can send and
receive, but not at the same time. In a full-duplex (or simply duplex) mode, two
devices can send and receive at the same time.
Section 1.6
Overview of Data and Signals
1.3.1 – Internet Architecture
1.3.2 – History of Internet
OVERVIEW OF DATA AND SIGNALS
Data need to be transmitted and received, but the media have to change data to
signals. Both data and the signals that represent them can be either analog or digital
in form.
Analog and Digital Data
Data can be analog or digital. The term analog data refers to continuous
information; digital data refers to information that has discrete states.
Analog and Digital Signals
An analog signal has infinitely many levels of intensity over some time. A digital
signal, on the other hand, can have only a limited number of defined values.
Although each value can be any number, it is often as simple as 1 and 0.

Figure6.1: Analog and Digital Signal

Periodic and Nonperiodic
A periodic signal completes a pattern within a measurable time frame, called a
period, and repeats that pattern over subsequent identical periods. The completion
of one full pattern is called a cycle. A nonperiodic signal changes without exhibiting
a pattern or cycle that repeats over time. Both analog and digital signals can be
periodic or nonperiodic. In data communications, we commonly use periodic analog
signals and nonperiodic digital signals,
PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS
Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or composite. A simple periodic
analog signal, a sine wave, cannot be decomposed into simpler signals. A composite
periodic analog signal is composed of multiple sine waves.
Amplitude: It is the value of the signal at different instants of time. It is measured
in volts.
Frequency: It is inverse of the time period, i.e. f = 1/T. The unit of frequency is
Hertz(Hz) or cycles per second.
Phase: It gives a measure of the relative position in time of two signals within a
single period. It is represented by φ in degrees or radians
Sine Wave
The sine wave is the most fundamental form of a periodic analog signal. When we
visualize it as a simple oscillating curve, its change over the course of a cycle is
smooth and consistent, a continuous, rolling flow. A sine wave can be represented
by three parameters: the peak amplitude, the frequency, and the phase. These
three parameters fully describe a sine wave.
Wavelength
The wavelength is the distance a simple signal can travel in one period.

Figure6.2: Example signals with various Amplitude, Frequency and Phase

Composite Signals
A single-frequency sine wave is not useful in data communications; we need to send
a composite signal, a signal made of many simple sine waves. According to Fourier
analysis, any composite signal is a combination of simple sine waves with different
frequencies, amplitudes, and phases. If the composite signal is periodic, the
decomposition gives a series of signals with discrete frequencies; if the composite
signal is nonperiodic, the decomposition gives a combination of sine waves with
continuous frequencies.
Bandwidth
The bandwidth of a composite signal is the difference between the highest and the
lowest frequencies contained in that signal.
DIGITAL SIGNALS
In addition to being represented by an analog signal, information can also be
represented by a digital signal. For example, a 1 can be encoded as a positive
voltage and a0 as zero voltage. A digital signal can have more than two levels. In
this case, we can send more than 1 bit for each level.
Bit Rate
The bit rate is the number of bits sent in 1s, expressed in bits per second (bps).
Bit Length
The bit length is the distance one bit occupies on the transmission medium.

NOTE:
1.A digital signal is a composite analog signal with an infinite bandwidth.
2. In baseband transmission, the required bandwidth is proportional to the bit rate;
if we need to send bits faster, we need more bandwidth.
3. If the available channel is a bandpass channel, we cannot send the digital signal
directly to the channel; we need to convert the digital signal to an analog signal
before transmission.
Section 1.7
Data Link Layer
1.7.1 – Nodes and Links
1.7.2 – Functions of Data Link Layer
1.7.3 – Link Layer Addressing
1.7.4 – IP Address and Link Layer Address on Internet
 DATA LINK LAYER
Communication at the data-link layer is made up of five separate logical connections
between the data-link layers in the path.
The data-link layer at Alice’s computer communicates with the data-link layer at
routerR2. The data-link layer at router R2 communicates with the data-link layer at
router R4, and so on. Finally, the data-link layer at router R7 communicates with the
data-link layer at Bob’s computer. Only one data-link layer is involved at the source
or the destination, but two data-link layers are involved at each router. The reason is
that Alice’s and Bob’s computers are each connected to a single network, but each
router takes input from one network and sends output to another network.

Figure7.1: Example of Data Link Layer

1.7.1 Nodes and Links
Communication at the data-link layer is node-to-node. A data unit from one point in
the Internet needs to pass through many networks (LANs and WANs) to reach
another point. Theses LANs and WANs are connected by routers. It is customary to
refer to the two end hosts and the routers as nodes and the networks in between as
links. The first node is the source host; the last node is the destination host. The
other four nodes are four routers. The first, the third, and the fifth links represent
the three LANs; the second and the fourth links represent the two WANs.

Figure7.2: Nodes and Links

Two Categories of Links
We can have a point-to-point link or a broadcast link. In a point-to-point link, the link
is dedicated to the two devices; in a broadcast link, the link is shared between
several pairs of devices.
Two Sublayers
The services provided by the link layer, we can divide the data-link layer into two
sublayers: data link control (DLC) and media access control (MAC). The data link
control sublayer deals with all issues common to both point-to-point and broadcast
links; the media access control sublayer deals only with issues specific to broadcast
links.

Figure7.3: Sublayers of Data Link Layer

1.7.2 FUNCTIONS OF DATA LINK LAYER
The data-link layer is located between the physical and the network layers. The
datalink layer provides services to the network layer; it receives services from the
physical layer the duty scope of the data-link layer is node-to-node. When a packet
is traveling in the Internet, the data-link layer of a node (host or router) is
responsible for delivering datagram to the next node in the path. For this purpose,
the data-link layer of the sending node needs to encapsulate the datagram received
from the network in a frame, and the data-link layer of the receiving node needs to
decapsulate the datagram from the frame. In other words, the data-link layer of the
source host needs only to encapsulate, the data-link layer of the destination host
needs to decapsulate, but each intermediate node needs to both encapsulate and
decapsulate.
a. Framing
The first service provided by the data-link layer is framing. The data-link layer at
each node needs to encapsulate the datagram (packet received from the network
layer) in a frame before sending it to the next node.
b. Flow Control
If the rate of produced frames is higher than the rate of consumed frames, frames
at the receiving end need to be buffered while waiting to be consumed Different
data-link-layer protocols use different strategies for flow control.
c. Error Control
At the sending node, a frame in a data-link layer needs to be changed to bits,
transformed to electromagnetic signals, and transmitted through the transmission
media. At the receiving node, electromagnetic signals are received, transformed to
bits, and put together to create a frame. Since electromagnetic signals are
susceptible to error, a frame is susceptible to error. The error needs first to be
detected. After detection, it needs to be either corrected at the receiver node or
discarded and retransmitted by the sending node.
d. Congestion Control
Although a link may be congested with frames, which may result in frame loss, most
data-link-layer protocols do not directly use a congestion control to alleviate
congestion, although some wide-area networks do.
1.7.3 LINK LAYER ADDRESSING
Each datagram in the Internet, from the same source host to the same destination
host, may take a different path. The source and destination IP addresses define the
two ends but cannot
define which links the datagram should pass through. we need another addressing
mechanism in a connectionless internetwork: the link-layer addresses of the two
nodes. A link-layer address is sometimes called a link address, sometimes a physical
address, and sometimes a MAC address.
In the internet in Figure, we have three links and two routers. We also
have shown only two hosts: Alice (source) and Bob (destination). For each host, we
have shown two addresses, the IP addresses (N) and the link-layer addresses (L).
Note that a router has as many pairs of addresses as the number of links the router
is connected to. We have shown three frames, one in each link. Each frame carries
the same datagram with the same source and destination addresses (N1 and N8),
but the link-layer addresses of the frame change from link to link. In link 1, the link-
layer addresses are L1 and L2. In link 2, they are L4 and L5. In link 3, they are L7
and L8.
Note that the IP addresses and the link-layer addresses are not in the same order.
For IP addresses, the source address comes before the destination address; for link-
layer addresses, the destination address comes before the source. The datagrams
and frames are designed in this way, and we follow the design.
Three Types of addresses
The three types of addresses: unicast, multicast, and broadcast.
1. Unicast Address
Each host or each interface of a router is assigned a unicast address. Unicasting
means one-to-one communication. A frame with a unicast address destination is
destined only for one entity in the link.
Example
The unicast link-layer addresses in the most common LAN, Ethernet are 48 bits (six
bytes) that are presented as 12 hexadecimal digits separated by colons; for
example, the following is a link-layer address of a computer.
A3:34:45:11:92:F1
2. Multicast Address
Some link-layer protocols define multicast addresses. Multicasting means one-to-
many communication. However, the jurisdiction is local (inside the link).
Example
The multicast link-layer addresses in the most common LAN, Ethernet, are 48 bits
(six bytes) that are presented as 12 hexadecimal digits separated by colons. The
second digit, however, needs to be an even number in hexadecimal. The following
shows a multicast address:
A2:34:45:11:92:F1
3. Broadcast Address
Some link-layer protocols define a broadcast address. Broadcasting means one-to-all
communication. A frame with a destination broadcast address is sent to all entities in
the link.
Example
The broadcast link-layer addresses in the most common LAN, Ethernet, are 48 bits,
all 1s, that are presented as 12 hexadecimal digits separated by colons. The
following shows a broadcast address:
FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF

Figure7.3: Representation of Unicast, Broadcast and Multicast

1.7.4 IP Address and Link Layer Address on Internet

Figure 7.4: IP addresses and link-layer addresses in a small internet

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
Anytime a node has an IP datagram to send to another node in a link, it has the IP
address of the receiving node. The source host knows the IP address of the default
router. Each router except the last one in the path gets the IP address of the next
router by using its forwarding table. The last router knows the IP address of the
destination host. However, the IP address of the next node does not help move a
frame through a link; we need the link-layer address of the next node. This is the
time when the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) becomes helpful. ARP accepts an
IP address from the IP protocol, maps the address to the corresponding link-layer
address, and passes it to the data-link layer.

Figure7.5: Address Resolution Protocol

Anytime a host or a router needs to find the link-layer address of another host or
router in its network, it sends an ARP request packet. The packet includes the link-
layer and IP addresses of the sender and the IP address of the receiver. Because the
sender does not know the link-layer address of the receiver, the query is broadcast
over the link using the link-layer broadcast address,

Figure7.6: ARP Request and Reply

Every host or router on the network receives and processes the ARP request packet,
but only the intended recipient recognizes its IP address and sends back an ARP
response packet. The response packet contains the recipient’s IP and link-layer
addresses. The packet is unicast directly to the node that sent the request packet. In
Figure a. the system on the left (A) has a packet that needs to be delivered to
another system (B) with IP address N2. System A needs to pass the packet to its
data-link layer for the actual delivery, but it does not know the physical address of
the recipient. It uses the services of ARP by asking the ARP protocol to send a
broadcast ARP request packet to ask for the physical address of a system with an IP
address of N2.
This packet is received by every system on the physical network, but only system B
will answer it, as shown in Figure b. System B sends an ARP reply packet that
includes its physical address. Now system A can send all the packets it has for this
destination using the physical address it received.
Packet Format
The hardware type field defines the type of the link-layer protocol; Ethernet is given
the type 1. The protocol type field defines the network-layer protocol: IPv4 protocol
is (0800)16. The source hardware and source protocol addresses are variable-length
fields defining the link-layer and network-layer addresses of the sender. The
destination hardware address and destination protocol address fields define the
receiver link-layer and network-layer addresses. An ARP packet is encapsulated
directly into a data-link frame. The frame needs to have a field to show that the
payload belongs to the ARP and not to the network-layer datagram.

Figure7.7: ARP Packet Format

Section 1.8
Error Detection and Error
Correction Codes
1.8.1 – Types of Errors
1.8.2 – Types of Codes
1.8.3 – Parity Check Codes
1.8.4 – Cyclic Redundancy Check Codes
1.8.5 – Check Sum
1.8.6 – Error Correction Codes
 ERROR DETECTION AND CORRECTION

INTRODUCTION
For most applications, a system must guarantee that the data received are identical
to the data transmitted. Any time data are transmitted from one node to the next,
they can become corrupted in passage. Many factors can alter one or more bits of
message. Some applications require a mechanism for detecting and correcting
errors.
Random errors in audio or video transmissions may be tolerable, but when we
transfer text, we expect a very high level of accuracy.
At the data-link layer, if a frame is corrupted between the two nodes, it needs to be
corrected before it continues its journey to other nodes. However, most link-layer
protocols simply discard the frame and let the upper-layer protocols handle the
retransmission of the frame. Some multimedia applications, however, try to correct
the corrupted frame.
1.8.1 Types of Errors
1. SINGLE BIT ERROR
The term single-bit error means that only 1 bit of a given data unit (such as a byte,
character, or packet) is changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1.
2. BURST ERROR
The term burst error means that 2 or more bits in the data unit have changed from
1 to 0 or from 0 to 1. Figure shows the effect of a single-bit and a burst error on a
data unit.

Figure 8.1: Single Bit ad Burst Errors

A burst error is more likely to occur than a single-bit error because the duration of
the noise signal is normally longer than the duration of 1 bit, which means that
when noise affects data, it affects a set of bits.
Redundancy
The central concept in detecting or correcting errors is redundancy. To be able to
detect or correct errors, we need to send some extra bits with our data. These
redundant bits are added by the sender and removed by the receiver. Their
presence allows the receiver to detect or correct corrupted bits.
Detection versus Correction
S. No Error Detection Error Correction
1 • In error detection, we • In error correction, we need to
are only looking to see if any error know the exact number of bits that are
has occurred. The answer is a corrupted and, more importantly, their location
simple yes or no. in the message.
2 • We are not even • The number of errors and the size
interested in the number of of the message are important factors.
corrupted bits.
Table 8.1: Comparison for Error Detection and Error Correction Codes
Redundancy is achieved through various coding schemes. The sender adds
redundant bits through a process that creates a relationship between the redundant
bits and the actual data bits. The receiver checks the relationships between the two
sets of bits to detect errors. The ratio of redundant bits to data bits and the
robustness of the process are important factors in any coding scheme.
1.8.2 Types of coding
There are two types od codes that are widely used in the computer communication
1. Block coding
2.Convolutioncoding.
BLOCK CODING
In block coding, we divide our message into blocks, each of k bits, called data
words. We add r redundant bits to each block to make the length n = k + r. The
resulting n-bit blocks are called codewords.
With k bits, we can create a combination of 2k data words; with n bits, we can
create a combination of 2n codewords. Since n >k, the number of possible
codewords is larger than the number of possible data words. The block coding
process is one-to-one; the same data word is always encoded as the same
codeword. This means that we have 2n− 2kcodewords that are not used. We call
these codewords invalid or illegal.
If the receiver receives an invalid codeword, this indicates that the data was
corrupted during transmission.
Error Detection in block coding
If the following two conditions are met, the receiver can detect a change in the
original codeword.
1. The receiver has (or can find) a list of valid codewords.
2. The original codeword has changed to an invalid one.
Each codeword sent to the receiver may change during transmission. If the received
codeword is the same as one of the valid codewords, the word is accepted; the
corresponding data word is extracted for use. If the received codeword is not valid,
it is discarded. However, if the codeword is corrupted during transmission but the
received word still matches a valid codeword, the error remains undetected.

Figure 8.2: Sender and receiver algorithm for Error Detection Codes
An error-detecting code can detect only the types of errors for which it is designed;
other types of errors may remain undetected
Hamming Distance
The Hamming distance between two words (of the same size) is the number of
differences between the corresponding bits. We show the Hamming distance
between two words x and y as d (x, y).
For example,
if the codeword 00000 is sent and 01101 is received, 3 bits are in error and the
Hamming distance between the two is d (00000, 01101) =3. In other words, if the
Hamming distance between the sent and the received codeword is not zero, the
codeword has been corrupted during transmission.
Minimum Hamming Distance for Error Detection
In a set of codewords, the minimum Hamming distance is the smallest Hamming
distance between all possible pairs of codewords.
To guarantee the detection of up to s errors in all cases, the minimum Hamming
distance in a block code must be dmin=s +1.
Minimum Distance for Linear Block Codes
The minimum Hamming distance is the number of 1s in the nonzero valid codeword
with the smallest number of 1s.
1.8.3 PARITY-CHECK CODE
The most familiar error-detecting code is the parity-check code. This code is a linear
block code. In this code, a k-bit data word is changed to an n-bit codeword where n
=k +1. The extra bit, called the parity bit, is selected to make the total number of 1s
in the codeword EVEN OR ODD
The minimum Hamming distance for this category is d min=2, which means that
the code is a single-bit error-detecting code.
ENCODER AND DECODER OF PARITY CHECK CODE

Figure 8.3: Sender and receiver algorithm for Parity Check Codes
The parity bit that is added makes the number of 1s in the codeword even. This is
normally done by adding the 4 bits of the data word (modulo-2); the result is the
parity bit. In otherworld’s the number of 1s is even, the result is 0; if the number of
1s is odd, the result is 1.
In both cases, the total number of 1s in the codeword is even. The sender sends the
codeword, which may be corrupted during transmission. The receiver receives a 5-
bit word. The checker at the receiver does the same thing as the generator in the
sender with one exception: The addition is done over all 5 bits. The result, which is
called the syndrome, is just 1 bit.
The syndrome is 0 when the number of 1s in the received codeword is even;
otherwise, it is 1. The syndrome is passed to the decision logic analyser. If the
syndrome is 0, there is no detectable error in the received codeword; the data
portion of the received codeword is accepted as the data word; if the syndrome is 1,
the data portion of the received codeword is discarded. The data word is not
created.
1.8.4 CYCLIC CODES
Cyclic codes are special linear block codes with one extra property. In a cyclic code,
if A codeword is cyclically shifted (rotated), the result is another codeword. For
example, if 1011000 is a codeword and we cyclically left-shift, then 0110001 is also a
codeword.
Cyclic Redundancy Check
A subset of cyclic codes called the cyclic redundancy check (CRC), is used in
networks such as LANs and WANs.

Figure 8.4: Encoder and Decoder Of CRC

In the encoder, the data word has k bits (4 here); the codeword has n bits (7 here).
The size of the data word is augmented by adding n −k (3 here) 0s to the right-
hand side of the word. The n-bit result is fed into the generator. The generator uses
a divisor of size n−k =1 (4 here), predefined and agreed upon.
The generator divides the augmented data word by the divisor (modulo-2 division).
The quotient of the division is discarded; the remainder (r2r1r0) is appended to the
data word to create the codeword.
The decoder receives the codeword (possibly corrupted in transition). A copy of all n
bits is fed to the checker, which is a replica of the generator. The remainder
produced by the checker is a syndrome of n −k (3 here) bits, which is fed to the
decision logic analyser. The analyser has a simple function. If the syndrome bits are
all 0s, the 4 leftmost bits of the codeword are accepted as the data word
(interpreted as no error); otherwise, the 4 bits are discarded (error).
Polynomial REPRESENTATION OF CRC:
Degree of a Polynomial
The degree of a polynomial is the highest power in the polynomial. For example, the
degree of the polynomial x6+x +1 is 6
The divisor in a cyclic code is normally called the generator polynomial or simply the
generator.
Cyclic Code Analysis
Data word: d(x) Codeword: c(x) Generator: g(x) Syndrome: s(x) Error: e(x)
In a cyclic code,
1. If s(x) ¦ 0, one or more bits is corrupted.
2. If s(x) =0, either
a. No bit is corrupted, or
b. Some bits are corrupted, but the decoder failed to detect them.
Cyclic Code Encoder Using Polynomials:

Single-Bit Errors
If the generator has more than one term and the coefficient of x0 is 1, all single-bit
errors can be caught.
Two Isolated Single-Bit Errors

If a generator cannot divide xt+1 (t between 0 and n -1), then all isolated double
errors can be detected.
Odd Numbers of Errors
A generator that contains a factor of x +1 can detect all odd-numbered errors.
Burst Errors
All burst errors with L ≤ r will be detected.
❑All burst errors with L =r +1 will be detected with probability 1 – (1/2) r–1.
❑All burst errors with L >r +1 will be detected with probability 1 – (1/2) r.
Advantages of Cyclic Codes
The cyclic codes have a very good performance in detecting single-bit errors, double
errors, an odd number of errors, and burst errors. They can easily be implemented
in hardware and software. They are especially fast when implemented in hardware.
This has made cyclic codes a good candidate for many networks.
SOME STANDARD POLYNOMIALS

Table 8.2 : CRC Standards

1.8.5 CHECKSUM
Checksum is an error-detecting technique that can be applied to a message of any
length. In the Internet, the checksum technique is mostly used at the network and
transport layer rather than the data-link layer.
At the source, the message is first divided into m-bit units. The generator then
creates an extra m-bit unit called the checksum, which is sent with the message. At
the destination, the checker creates a new checksum from the combination of the
message and sent checksum. If the new checksum is all 0s, the message is
accepted; otherwise, the message is discarded. Note that in the real
implementation, the checksum unit is not necessarily added at the end of the
message; it can be inserted in the middle of the message.

Figure 8.5: Sender and receiver algorithm for Checksum Codes

Internet Checksum
Traditionally, the Internet has used a 16-bit checksum. The sender and the receiver
follow the steps depicted in Table. The sender or the receiver uses five steps.
Example

Figure 8.6: Example for Checksum Codes

1.8.6 Error Correction Codes
Retransmission of corrupted and lost packets is not useful for real-time multimedia
transmission because it creates an unacceptable delay in reproducing: we need to
wait until the lost or corrupted packet is resent. We need to correct the error or
reproduce the packet immediately. Several schemes have been designed and used in
this case that are collectively referred to as forward error correction (FEC)
techniques.
1. Using Hamming Distance
2. Using XOR
Another recommendation is to use the property of the exclusive OR operation as
shown below. In other words, if we apply the exclusive OR operation on N data
items (P1 to PN), we can recreate any of the data items by exclusive-OR in all of the
items, replacing throne to be created by the result of the previous operation (R).
This means that we can divide a packet into N chunks, create the exclusive OR of all
the chunks and send N + 1chunks. If any chunk is lost or corrupted, it can be
created at the receiver site. Now the question is what should the value of N be. If N
= 4, it means that we need to send 25percent extra data and be able to correct the
data if only one out of four chunks is lost.

3. Chunk Interleaving
Another way to achieve FEC in multimedia is to allow some small chunks to be
missing at the receiver. We cannot afford to let all the chunks belonging to the same
packet be missing; however, we can afford to let one chunk be missing in each
packet. We can divide each packet into 5 chunks (normally the number is much
larger). We can then create data chunk by chunk (horizontally), but combine the
chunks into packets vertically. In this case, each packet sent carries a chunk from
several original packets. If the packet is lost, we miss only one chunk in each
packet, which is normally acceptable in multimedia communication.
 Figure 8.7: Concept of interleaving
4. Combining Hamming Distance and Interleaving
Hamming distance and interleaving can be combined. We can first create n-bit
packets that can correct t-bit errors. Then we interleave m rows and send the bits
column by column. In this way, we can automatically correct burst errors up to m ×
t-bit errors.
5.Compounding High- and Low-Resolution Packets
Still another solution is to create a duplicate of each packet with a low-resolution
redundancy and combine the redundant version with the next packet.
Links for online Lecture Videos and
Lecture PPTs
 LINKS FOR ONLINE LECTURE VIDEOS AND LECTURE
SLIDES

Link for Video

S.NO Topic Link for Lecture Slides
Lecture
https://www.slideshare.net/J
Introduction to https://youtu.be/c
aiGanesh11/1-introduction-
1 Communication wehPM9RJak
to-communication-networks-
Networks
subject-introduction
https://youtu.be/x https://www.slideshare.net/J
Overview of data
2 vsuwvqmtyk aiGanesh11/2-overview-of-
communication – Part 1
data-communication-part-1
https://youtu.be/G https://www.slideshare.net/J
Overview of data
3 AtsNUiv2Xk aiGanesh11/3-overview-of-
communication – part 2
data-communication-part-2
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Structure of Internet and
4 VX4W0I2lVs aiGanesh11/4-visualising-
History of Internet
internet
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Protocol Layering and
5 9jqn93x7go aiGanesh11/5-protocol-
OSI Model
layering
https://www.slideshare.net/J
https://youtu.be/5
Data Link Layer Services aiGanesh11/6-data-link-layer-
6 dGrQ5FWIgA
– Physical Addressing physical-addressing-
236811155
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Data Link Layer Services https://youtu.be/d aiGanesh11/7-data-link-layer-
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checksum
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– Error Detection Codes aiGanesh11/8-data-link-layer-
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– Cyclic Redundancy error-detection-and-
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Data Link Layer Services https://youtu.be/U
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9 – Error Correction Codes Ne3tF00gFQ
error-correction-codes-
– Hamming Codes
hamming-code
Assignments
 Assignment Questions
Unit - I
Q.No Question Course K-
Outcome Level
1. Performance is inversely related to delay. When
we use the Internet, which of
the following applications are more sensitive to
delay? CO1 K2
a. Sending an e-mail
b. Copying a file
c. Surfing the Internet
2. When a party makes a local telephone call to
another party, is this a point-topoint CO1 K2
or multipoint connection? Explain the answer.

3. Compare the telephone network and the

Internet. What are the similarities? CO1 K2
What are the differences?
4. For each of the following four networks, discuss
the consequences if a connection
fails.
a. Five devices arranged in a mesh topology CO1 K2
b. Five devices arranged in a star topology (not
counting the hub)
c. Five devices arranged in a bus topology
d. Five devices arranged in a ring topology
5. Assume six devices are arranged in a mesh
topology. How many cables are
needed? How many ports are needed for each CO1 K2
device?
6. In the ring topology, what happens if one of the
stations is CO1 K2
unplugged?

7. In the bus topology in, what happens if one of

the stations is CO1 K2
unplugged?
8. What is the maximum number of characters or
symbols that can be represented CO1 K2
by Unicode?
 Assignment Questions

Q.No Question Course K-

Outcome Level
9. A color image uses 16 bits to represent a pixel.
What is the maximum number CO1 K2
of different colors that can be represented?

10. We have two computers connected by an

Ethernet hub at home. Is this a LAN CO1 K2
or a WAN? Explain the reason.
Part A Q & A (With K - Level and CO)
 Part-A Questions & Answers

Q.No Question Course K-

Outcome Level
1. Define Full Duplex and simplex transmission CO1 K2
system.
Ans-With Full duplex transmission, two stations
can simultaneously send and receive data from
each other.This mode is known as two-way
simultaneous. The signals are transmitted in only
one direction. One is the sender and another is
the receiver.
2. Why sliding window flow control is considered to CO1 K2
be more efficient than stop and wait flow control?
Ans -In sliding window flow control, the
transmission link is treated as a pipeline that may
be filled with frames in transit. But with stop-and-
wait flow control only one frame may be in the
pipe at a time.
3. Define Piggybacking? CO1 K2
Ans-The technique of temporarily delaying
outgoing acknowledgment so that they can be
hooked onto the next outgoing data frame is
widely known as piggybacking.
4. What is OSI? CO1 K2
Ans-OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) is
reference model for how applications can
communicate over a network. It is partitioned
into seven layers. It was developed by the
International Organization for Standardization
(OSI)
5. What are the uses of transport layer? CO1 K2
Ans- Reliable data exchange
Independent of network being used
Independent of application
 Part-A Questions & Answers

Q.No Question Course K-

Outcome Level
6. What is a protocol? What are the key elements of CO1 K3
a protocol? (Nov 2015)
Ans- Protocol is used for communications
between entities in a system and must speak the
same language.Protocol is the set of rules
governing the exchange of data between two
entities. It defines what is communicated, how it
is communicated, when it is communicated. The
Key elements of a Protocol are as follows,
Syntax – It refers to the structure or format of
data meaning the order in which they are
presented.
Semantics – It refers to the meaning of each
section of bit. How to do interpretation.
Timing – When data should be sent and how
fast they can be sent.
7. What is Protocol Data Unit (PDU)? CO1 K3
Ans-At each layer, protocols are used to
communicate and Control information is added to
user data at each layer. Transport layer may
fragment user data. Each fragment has a
transport header added and header consists of
destination SAP, sequence number and error
detection code.
8. What are the uses of internet layer in TCP/IP? CO1 K2
Ans- Systems may be attached to different
networks
Routing functions across multiple networks
Implemented in end systems and routers
9. What is a layered Network Architecture? CO1 K2
Ans- A layer is created when a different level of
abstraction occurs at protocol. Each layer should
perform a well defined function.
 Part-A Questions & Answers

Q.No Question Course K-

Outcome Level
10. .What is the use of data link layer in OSI? CO1 K2
Ans- Frame synchronization: Data is divided by
data link layer as frames, a manageable unit.
Flow Control: Sending station does not
overwhelm receiving station.
Error Control: Any error in bits must be
detected and corrected using some mechanism.
Addressing: Two stations in a multi point that
involved in transmission must be specified using
physical address
Access Control: When two or more devices are
connected to the same link, Access control
mechanism is needed to determine which device
has control over the link at any given time.
11. Why is flow control and error control duplicated CO1 K2
in different layers?
Ans-Like the data link layer, the transport layer is
responsible for flow and error control. Flow
control and error control at data link layer is
node-to-node level. But at transport layer, flow
control and error control is performed end-end
rather than across a single link.
12. List the key ingredients of technology that CO1 K2
determines nature of a LAN. List the common
topologies available for LAN.
Ans-Topology, Transmission medium and Medium
access control technique are the technology that
determines nature of a LAN. Star Topology, Ring
Topology, Bus Topology and Tree Topology are
the topologies available for LAN.
13. What do you mean by Flow Control? CO1 K2
Ans-Flow control is a techniquefor assuring that a
transmitting entity does not overwhelm a
receiving entity with data. It is a feedback
mechanism by which the receiver is able to
regulate the sender. Such a mechanism is used to
keep the sender from overrunning the receiver,
i.e., from transmitting more data than the
receiver is able to process.
 Part-A Questions & Answers

Q.No Question Course K-

Outcome Level
14. What do you mean by Flow Control? CO1 K2
Ans-Flow control is a techniquefor assuring that a
transmitting entity does not overwhelm a
receiving entity with data. It is a feedback
mechanism by which the receiver is able to
regulate the sender. Such a mechanism is used to
keep the sender from overrunning the receiver,
i.e., from transmitting more data than the
receiver is able to process.
15. Define error detection and correction. CO1 K2
Ans- Error detection: Sender transmits every data
unit twice. Receiver performs bit-by-bit
comparison between that two versions of data.
Any mismatch would indicate an error, which
needs error correction. Error Correction is the
process or analyzing and rectifying the errors and
the code.
16. What are the functions of Application Layer? CO1 K2
Ans-It enables the user (human/software) to
access the network. It provides user interfaces
and support forservices such as electronic mail,
remote file access and transfer, shared database
management and other types of distributed
information services. Services provided by the
application layer are Network Virtual terminal,
File transfer, access and management. Mail
services, Directory services.
17. Define bit stuffing. CO1 K2
Ans-HDLC denotes both the beginning and the
end of a frame with the distinguished bit
sequence 01111110.This sequence might appear
anywhere in the body of the frame, it can be
avoided by bit stuffing. On the sending side, any
time five consecutive 1’s have been transmitted
from the body of the message (i.e., excluding
when the sender is trying to transmit the
distinguished 01111110 sequence), the sender
inserts a 0 before transmitting the next bit.
 Part-A Questions & Answers

Q.No Question Course K-

Outcome Level
18. What are the major duties of Network Layer? CO1 K2
Ans-It is used to send the data from source to
destination with help of logical address.
19. What do you meant by framing? CO1 K2
Ans-The data link layer divides the stream of bits
received from the network layer into manageable
data units called frames. The ways to address the
framing problem are
Byte-Oriented Protocols(PPP),
Bit-Oriented Protocols(HDLC)
Clock-Based Framing(SONET)
20. What are the functions of physical layer and CO1 K2
presentation layer?
Ans -Functions of Physical Layer-
Encoding/ decoding of signals
Preamble generation/removal (for
synchronization)
Bit transmission/ reception
Functions of Presentation Layer-
Translation, Encryption / Decryption,
Authentication and Compression
Part B Q's (With K - Level and CO)
 Part-B Questions

Q.No Question Course K-

Outcome Level
1. Draw the block diagram and explain the CO1 K2
functionality of different OSI layers (Nov 2019)
2. (i)Mention key advantages and disadvantages of
stop-and-wait ARQ technique.(ii)What is
piggybacking? What is its advantages? (iii) For a CO1 K3
k-bit numbering scheme,what is the range of
sequence numbers used in sliding window
protocol. (Nov 2019)
3. Explain in detail the method of error detection
and error correction. (Nov 2010, May 2012, Nov CO1 K3
2012,Nov 2014, May 2015, 16)
4. Explain in detail about: (i) HDLC (ii) PPP (May CO1 K3
2016)
5. Explain in detail about internet architecture. (May CO1 K2
2015)
6. Discuss in detail about the layers in OSI model.
(Nov 2010, Nov 2011, May2012, Nov 2012, Nov CO1 K2
2015)
7. Explain sliding window flow control and stop and
wait flow control in detail. Or Explain the various CO1 K2
flow control mechanisms. (Nov 2015)
8. Discuss in detail about the Byte- oriented
Protocols (PPP), Bit-oriented Protocols (HDLC) CO1 K3
(Nov 2018).
9. Discuss about Error Correction. (Nov 2012) CO1 K3

The message 11001001 is to be transmitted,

using CRC error detection algorithm. Assuming
10. the CRC polynomial to be x3+1, determine the CO1 K3
message that should be transmitted. If the
second left most bit is corrupted, show that it is
detected by the receiver. (May 2013)
 Part-B Questions

Q.No Question Course K-

Outcome Level
Discuss the principle of stop and wait flow control
algorithm. Draw time line diagrams and explain
11. how loss of a frame and loss of an ACK are CO1 K3
handled. What is the effect of delay-bandwidth
product on link utilization? (May 2013)
Assume that a frame consists of 6 characters
encoded in 7-bit ASCII. Attach a parity bit for
every character to maintain even parity. Also
12. attach a similar parity bit for each bit position CO1 K3
across each of the bytes in the frame. Show that
such a 2-dimensional parity scheme can detect all
1-bit, 2-bit and 3-bit errors and can correct a
single bit error. (May 2013)
Given a remainder of 111, a data unit of
13. 10110011 and a divisor of 1001, is there an error CO1 K3
in the data unit. Justify your answer with
necessary principles. (May 2014)
14. How frame order and flow control is achieved CO1 K2
using the data link layer? (May 2014)
Supportive Online
certification Courses
 Supportive Online Courses for
EC8551 – Communication Networks

S.no Name of the Course Name of the Duration

Online Platform
1 The Bits and Bytes of Computer Coursera 6 Weeks
Networking
2 Computer Communications Coursera 4 Course
Specializations
Realtime Applications
 Realtime Applications

Study the Topology in your college laboratory network

and draw the network diagram using cisco packet

tracer.
Content Beyond Syllabus
 Content Beyond Syllabus

Value Added Course related to CoE

CCNA Routing and Switching : Introduction to Networks in Cisco

Networking Academy
Assessment Schedule
 Assessment Schedule
ASSESSMENT PROPOSED DATE ACTUAL DATE

Unit - 1 Assignment
Assessment
Unit Test 1

Unit - 2 Assignment
Assessment

Internal Assessment 1

Retest for IA 1

Unit - 3 Assignment
Assessment

Unit Test 2

Unit - 4 Assignment
Assessment
Internal Assessment 2

Retest for IA2

Unit 5 Assignment
Assessment
Revision Test 1

Revision Test 2

Model Exam

Remodel Exam

University Exam
Text Book and Reference Books
Text Book and Reference Books
TEXT BOOK:
1. Behrouz A. Forouzan, ―Data communication and Networking‖, Fifth Edition, Tata
McGraw – Hill, 2013 (UNIT I –V)
REFERENCES
1. James F. Kurose, Keith W. Ross, ―Computer Networking - A Top-Down Approach
Featuring the Internet‖, Seventh Edition, Pearson Education, 2016.
2. Nader. F. Mir,― Computer and Communication Networks‖, Pearson Prentice Hall
Publishers, 2nd Edition, 2014.
3. Ying-Dar Lin, Ren-Hung Hwang, Fred Baker, ―Computer Networks: An Open
Source Approach‖, Mc Graw Hill Publisher, 2011.
4. Larry L. Peterson, Bruce S. Davie, ―Computer Networks: A Systems Approach‖,
Fifth Edition, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, 2011.
Mini Project Ideas
 Projects to be Carried out
Create a network in simulation environment using CISCO Packet Tracer where the

following task must be performed.

Connect 2 systems directly and perform a ping test

Connect 2 or more systems using a switch and narrate the functioning of

ARP Protocol exchange happening when packet is sent from First system to

Last system.

Connect 2 Systems in Different LANS and explain the forms of data in each

layer as depicted in your simulation environment.

 Thank you

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