Science and Scientific Method • How do we resolve if there are two (2)
competing/conflicting theories?
- If there are two competing theories, two
• THE TWO DEFINING MOMENTS THAT STAND
conflicting interpretations, or two contending
OUT IN INTELLECTUAL THEORY OF MANKIND
points of view, the conflict cannot be resolved
1. Rise of Greek Philosophy (Russell 1961 to
by mere debates, argumentation, or
Thales ca585BC)
ratiocination. At some point, the contending
2. Rise of Modern Science (Galileo to Newton
parties must resort to experimentation and
ca1600)
observation to resolve the conflict.
There is hardly an institution that has not been
• SCIENCE AS A BODY OF KNOWLEDGE
influenced by both.
D. Scientific knowledge is much more than just a
mere collection of empirical statements. For a
Science is “rational inquiry into Nature” By rational as
collection of empirical statements to constitute
that inquiry must be within some logical structure. This
scientific knowledge, it must satisfy at least the
definition attributes an objective existence to Nature.
following requirements:
Two entities: (1) the object of the inquiry and (2) the
a. the collection must be internally
(mind of the) inquirer
consistent;
1. The object of the inquiry - assumed to have an
b. there must be a logical
objective existence independent of the
interrelationship between the
inquirer’s
statements that organizes them into a
2. The (mind of the) inquirer - is assumed
coherent whole
capable of rational inquisition.
c. we should be able to deduce a
prediction, which can then be tested by
• SCIENCE AS A BODY OF KNOWLEDGE
an experiment or observation
A. The purpose of rational inquiry is to gain
knowledge about Nature. (scientific knowledge
• HIERARCHY OF EMPIRICAL STATEMENTS
– mental picture of nature) (or a mental model)
a. Primitive statements of direct observation
Notes:
(e.g., the moon is spherical in shape)
The faithfulness with which our mental model
b. Statements that are not of direct observation,
represents the real world reflects the degree of our
but instead express some common features of
understanding of that real world. It varies with time,
or relationship between the entities.
and with discipline.
(e.g., Newton's famous second law of motion;
These models are not perfect representations of the
a body, acted by a net force, accelerates in the
various aspects of Nature. But, neither are they static
direction of the force, and the magnitude of the
or stagnant. They continually undergo change and
acceleration is proportional to the magnitude of
improvement.
the force and inversely proportional to the
body’s mass. Newton’s law, thus, gets these
B. Any bit of scientific knowledge is a declarative
three concepts (force, mass, and acceleration)
sentence about the real world.
together and expresses a relationship among
C. It is an empirical statement, the validity of
them)
which is eventually decided through
These general statements, or natural law, together
observation and experimentation.
with their logical scaffolding, implicit assumptions, and
philosophical underpinning, would make up what we
• SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE
commonly call scientific theory.
- a generalized body of laws and theories to
c. Overarching fundamental principles that
explain a phenomenon or behavior of interest
encompass the entire range of the Natural
that are acquired using the scientific method
Sciences (cut across all disciplines)
- laws are observed patterns of phenomena or
(e.g., conservation principles (principles on the
behaviors, while theories systematically
conservation of energy) (all principles in
explain the underlying phenomenon or
chemistry, physics, and biology submit to the
behavior.
principle of conservation of energy)
What is Philosophy?
➢ the study of the fundamental nature of In a nutshell, scientists all subscribe to the existing
knowledge, reality, and existence, especially paradigm (or model) of their discipline. This paradigm
when considered an academic discipline. claims to be an interpretation of the physical world, not
➢ love of wisdom (philein sophia) just empirically, but even philosophically. (theory of
evolution)
• PHILOSOPHICAL UNDERPINNING
A. This entire structure of scientific knowledge Scientific worldview: a worldview that prioritizes
rests on its philosophical underpinning rational inquiry, evidence-based conclusions, and a
(assumptions… something that you accept as systematic approach to understanding reality.
true without question or proof) - shapes how we perceive and interpret the
world broadly through a scientific lens
- a fundamental belief or principle that underlies (broader),
the practice of scientific inquiry Scientific paradigm: a framework or set of practices
- are not themselves derived from empirical that define a scientific discipline during a particular
evidence but are instead foundational period. [Link] Method and Theory of Evolution
concepts that make scientific investigation - while a scientific paradigm dictates the specific
possible. methods and assumptions within a scientific
- Philosophical assumptions guide how discipline at a given time (more specifically).
scientists interpret data, design experiments,
and understand the world. • THOMAS KUHN
- American historian of science
Laws of Nature (general statements on the - one of the most influential philosophers of
behavior of nature) 2 assumptions: science of the twentieth century, perhaps the
1. regularity in Nature that is expressed by these most influential. His 1962 book The Structure
laws of Scientific Revolutions is one of the most
2. human mind can “know” these laws cited academic books of all time.
Remove these assumptions and the scientific
structure crumbles • How does science develop paradigms?
Normal science (Kuhn):
• LAWS OF NATURE VS. NATURAL LAW - consists of elucidating the paradigm, i.e,
- Natural Law: Ethical and philosophical making small discoveries here and there and
principles about what is right and wrong, verifying the predictions of the paradigm
universally applicable, and discernible through - But, since our knowledge is not perfect—and,
reason. therefore, the paradigm is not perfect
- Laws of Nature: Scientific principles that representation of the real world—there are
describe how the physical world operates, discoveries and observation made every now
discovered through observation and and then that do not quite fit into the paradigm.
experimentation. ….called anomalies
B. The scientific worldview (Weltanschauung) is a Possibility A:
structure of scientific observations, laws, Over time, these unexplainable anomalies
theories, principles, and philosophical accumulate, creating an intellectual tension within the
assumptions that hold them together. community.
- The affirmation of the Weltanschauung is what A point may finally be reached when the validity of the
differentiates the mind of a scientist from a paradigm itself may be called into question. But for as
non-scientist’s long as the paradigm is the only viable one, it is
- a worldview that prioritizes rational inquiry, maintained as such notwithstanding its shortcomings
evidence-based conclusions, and a systematic and the anomalies.
approach to understanding reality. Possibility B:
If there is a competing paradigm that is equally viable
C. This scientific worldview is closely related to and, in addition, can explain the anomalies, then the
what Thomas Kuhn (1962) referred to as the existing paradigm is overthrown and a new one is
scientific paradigm, in his analysis of how established. Kuhn calls it the “scientific revolution.”
science progresses.
• THE METHODS OF SCIENCE
- Science is about the physical world.
- thus, science is empirical. (based on,
concerned with, or verifiable by observation or
experience rather than theory or pure logic.)
- Therefore, its statements about the world must
be validated by observation and
experimentation. (final judge: empirical
observation)
Note: Important roles of theorists and experimentalists
• What happens to the old paradigm? • THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
- They don’t completely disappear. Most are - The purpose of any scientific research is to
retained (though dethroned), for they can still arrive at a statement that describes an aspect
be useful. of the physical world, whether it is one of
- There have to be extremely compelling simple observation or a generalization
reasons before a paradigm is replaced - Defining a problem (may also be solving a host
of issues before being able to solve a defined
problem)
- Using tools/devices (both physical and mental)
to arrive at a solution.
- The intellectual tools at the scientist’s disposal
could be logical inference, inductive reasoning,
analogy with past events, mathematics,
imagination, lucky guesses, and even dreams.
• PAUL FEYERABEND (1993) (philosopher of
science)
- In his book Against Method, even went so far
as to declare that in science, there is really
no method. He believed that any prescribed
“official” method would unduly hold back
scientific progress.
- Marxists, on the other hand, would insist that,
regardless of the tool used in arriving at a
theory of the physical world, the ultimate
arbiter of the validity or truth of theories
(insofar as a theory can be judged as true or
false) is a social practice, or what other would
call practical or experimental verification (Lenin
1977).
