Plastics History

The word plastics is from the Greek word Plastikos,

meaning “able to be shaped and molded”
 Why Design with Plastics?
• Corrosion resistance
• Low electrical and thermal conductivity, insulator
• Easily formed into complex shapes, can be formed,
casted and joined.
• Wide choice of appearance, colors and transparencies
Disadvantages of using Plastics
• Low strength
o
• Low useful temperature range (up to 600 F)
• Less dimensional stability over period of time (creep
effect)
• Aging effect, hardens and become brittle over time
• Sensitive to environment, moisture and chemicals
• Poor machinability
 Mechanical Properties of Various Plastics

Steel: 350 to 1900 MPa Brass: 200 to 850 MPa

Aluminum: 100 to 550 MPa
▪ Thermoplastics

▪ Thermosets

▪ Elastomers

Plastic Types
 Thermoplastics
General properties: low melting point, softer, flexible.

Typical uses: bottles, food wrappers, toys, …

• There are a wide range of thermoplastics, Long chain molecules

some that are rigid and some that are
extremely flexible.

• The molecules of thermoplastics are in lines

or long chains with very few entanglements.
When heat is applied the molecules move
apart, which increases the distance between
them, causing them to become untangled.
This allows them to become soft when
heated so that they can be bent into all sorts
of shapes.

• When they are left to cool the chains of

molecules cool, take their former position
and the plastic becomes stiff and hard again.
The process of heating, shaping, reheating
and reforming can be repeated many times.
 Thermoplastics and Plastic
Memory
• Each time a thermoplastic is reheated it will try and return to its
original shape, unless it has been damaged due to overheating or
overstretching. This property is called plastic memory.

• This is why a shape formed in thermoplastic becomes flat when

reheated.
 Thermosetting plastics
General properties: more durable, harder, tough, light.

Typical uses: automobile parts, construction materials.

• The molecules of thermosetting

plastics are heavily cross-linked. They Cross-linked molecules
form a rigid molecular structure.

• The molecules in thermoplastics sit

end-to-end and side-by-side.

• Although they soften when heated

the first time, which allows them to
be shaped they become permanently
stiff and solid and cannot be
reshaped.

• Thermoplastics remain rigid and non-

flexible even at high temperatures.
Polyester resin and urea
formaldehyde are examples of
thermosetting plastics.
 Elastomers
General properties: these are thermosets, and have rubber-like properties.

Typical uses: medical masks, gloves, rubber-substitutes

(A) is an unstressed polymer; (B) is the same

polymer under stress. When the stress is
removed, it will return to the A configuration.
(The dots represent cross-links)
Modified and compounded with various additives to modify the mechanical, chemical and physical for
particular uses
( the process of selection of such additives and their incorporation into a polymer is called compounding)

compounding - modifications of the polymer properties is accomplished by mixing it with various

ingredients such as polymeric resins, plasticizers, fillers and reinforcing agents.

Blending of polymers - process of mixing ( or reaction ) two or more polymer resins to obtain a product
with improved properties, especially impact resistance.

Physical blending, interpolymerization and graft polymerization

filler materials - to improve tensile and compressive strength , abrasion resistance , toughness, and thermal
stability

plasticizers - flexibility, ductility and toughness – polymer may be improved with the aid of additives
Extrusion

Blow molding

Thermoforming

Compression and Transfer molding

Injection molding

Plastics Processing Techniques

Plastics Processing: Extrusion

open cross-sections (channels) closed cross-sections (tubes, pipes) pellets

Plastics Processing: Blow molding

In extrusion blow molding a tube is extruded and clamped in a split

mold. Air under pressure (50-100 psi) is injected into the tube
blowing the plastic outward to fill the mold cavity.

- similar to glass blow-molding -

Plastics Processing: Thermoforming

Sheet of plastic → Heated (soft) → Molded using a shaped die

Plastics Processing: Compression and Transfer Molding

• used mostly for thermosetting polymers

• mold is heated and closed using pressure
• plastic flows to fills the cavity
• flash must be trimmed by finishing

dishes, handles for cooking pots

skis, housing for high-voltage switches
some rubber parts like shoe soles
and even composites such as fiber-reinforced parts
 Plastics Processing: Compression and Transfer Molding

compression molding

transfer molding

(more complex shapes)

Plastics Processing: Injection Molding

- Probably the most common, most important, most economical process

Plastics Processing: Injection Molding

Cycle of operation for injection molding

 Applications of Thermoplastics

Design requirement: strength

Applications: Valves, gears, cams, pistons, fan blades, …

Plastics: nylon, acetal (delrin), polycarbonate, phenolic

Design requirement: wear resistance

Applications: bearings, gears, bushings, wheels, ….

Plastics: nylon, acetal (delrin), polyurethane, phenolic, polymide

 Applications of Thermoplastics
Design requirement: functional and decorative

Applications: knobs, handles, cases, moldings, pipe fittings, …

Plastics: ABS, acrylic, polyethylene, phenolic, polypropylene, polystyrene

Design requirement: functional and transparent

Applications: lens, goggles, signs, food processing equipment, …

Plastics: acrylic, polycarbonate, polystyrene, polysulfone

Design requirement: hollow shapes and housings

Applications: pumps, helmets, power tools, cases, …

Plastics: ABS, polyethylene, phenolic, polypropylene, polystyrene, polycarbonate

 Applications of Thermosetting Plastics

Epoxies
Properties: good dimensional stability, excellent mechanical and
electrical properties, good resistance to heat and chemicals

Applications: electrical components requiring strength, tools and dies, fiber

reinforced epoxies are used in structural components, tanks, pressure vessels,
rocket motor casing

Phenolics
Properties: good dimensional stability, rigid, high resistance to heat,
water, electricity, and chemicals

Applications: laminated panels, handles, knobs, electrical components;

connectors, insulators
 Applications of Thermosetting Plastics

Polyesters (thermosetting, reinforced with glass fibers)

Properties: good mechanical, electrical, and chemical properties, good
resistance to heat and chemicals

Applications: boats, luggage, swimming pools, automotive bodies, chairs

Silicones
Properties: excellent electrical properties over a wide rang of
temperature and humidity, good heat and chemical properties

Applications: electrical components requiring strength at high temp., waterproof

materials, heat seals
Types of materials
How many can we recycle ?
What are they made of ?
Why do we need different kinds?
PET
Polyethylene Terephthalate
• A clear, tough, polymer with exceptional gas and
moisture barrier properties.

• PET’s ability to contain carbon dioxide (carbonation)

make it a good choice in soft drink bottles.

Eg -- bottles for acidic foods like juices, food trays

HDPE
High Density Polyethylene

• Used in milk, juice and water containers in order to

take advantage of its protective barrier properties

• Its chemical resistance properties make it a good

choice as container for household chemicals and
detergents.
Eg – packaging, electrical insulation
Vinyl
Polyvinyl chloride, or PVC

• Excellent clarity, puncture resistance and cling

• Film vinyl can breathe, making it ideal for meats

Eg -- electrical cables cover, credit cards, car instrument panels

LDPE
Low density polyethylene

• Makes bottles that requires flexibility

• Produces grocery bags and garbage bags, shrink

and stretch film and the coating for milk cartons

Eg -- milk and water bottles, packaging film

PP
Polypropylene

• High tensile strength, ideal for caps and lids with threaded
openings

• High melting point so can be hot-filled with products that

then will cool

• Also used for products that need to be incubated, such as

yogurt
Eg -- carpet fibers, automotive bumpers, microwave containers
PS
Polystyrene

• In its crystalline form, it is a colorless plastic plastic that can be clear and hard.

• It can also be foamed to provide exceptional insulation properties. Foamed or

expanded polystyrene (EPS) is used for products such as meat trays, egg cartons
and coffee cups.

• It is also used for packaging and protecting appliances, electronics and other
sensitive products

Eg -- disposable spoons, forks, Styrofoam

What kinds of products are made
with recycled plastics?

•Recycled PET can be used in

producing deli and bakery trays,
carpets, clothing and textiles.
What kinds of products are
made with recycled
plastics?
Recycled HDPE can become bottles for laundry
products, recycling bins, agricultural, pipe, bags,
motor oil bottles, decking and pilings.
What kinds of products are made
with recycled plastics?
Recycled vinyl can become playground equipment,
film and air bubble cushioning.
What kinds of products are made
with recycled plastics?
Recycled LDPE can be used to manufacture bags,
shrink film and compost bins.
What kinds of products are made
with recycled plastics?
Recycled PP can be used in automobile parts,
carpets, battery casings, textiles, industrial
fibers and films used for packaging products
such as candy.
What kinds of products are
made with recycled
plastics?
Recycled PS can be used in products including office
accessories, video cassettes and cases.
 Composites
• Composite:
-- Multiphase material that is artificially
made.

• Phase types:
-- Matrix - is continuous
-- Dispersed - is discontinuous and
surrounded by matrix
 Metals

Polymers

Ceramics

Composites
 • Matrix phase:
-- Purposes are to:
- transfer stress to dispersed phase
- protect dispersed phase from
environment
-- Types: MMC, CMC, PMC

metal ceramic polymer

• Dispersed phase:
-- Purpose:
MMC: increase sy, TS, creep resist.
CMC: increase KIc
PMC: increase E, sy, TS, creep resist.
-- Types: particle, fiber, structural
Classification of Composites

Fiber Reinforced
Composites

Particle Reinforced
Composites
 What are composites?

• Solid materials composed of a binder or

matrix that surrounds and holds in place
reinforcements.
– The material consists of two (or more) phases
– One of the phases is continuous (the matrix)
– The other phase is discontinuous (the
reinforcement)
– The phases can be thought of as a group of islands
(discontinuous) in a sea (continuous)
 Matrix purposes

• Hold the reinforcements together

• Give shape to the object
• Transfer loads to the reinforcements Protect
the reinforcements
– Heat
– Weather
•Transfer Load to Reinforcement
– Flammability •Temperature Resistance
– Impacts •Chemical Resistance
– Solvent/water
 Reinforcement purposes

• Carry the load (most mechanical properties)

• Give directionality of some properties
(optional)

•Tensile Properties
•Stiffness
•Impact Resistance
 Properties

• Higher strength
• Less weight
• Resistance to higher temperatures.
 Types of Composites

• Particle reinforced
• Fiber reinforced
• Sandwich
 Particle Composites

• Particles are embedded

in the matrix to make
the material stronger.
• Random or Oriented
 Particle Reinforced Composites:
• Particles used for reinforcing include:
– ceramics and glasses such as small mineral particles,
– metal particles such as aluminum,
– and amorphous materials, including polymers and carbon black.
• Particles are used to increase the modulus of the matrix, to decrease the
permeability of the matrix, or to decrease the ductility of the matrix.
• Particle reinforced composites support higher tensile, compressive and shear
stresses
• Particles are also used to produce inexpensive composites.
• Examples:
– automobile tire which has carbon black particles in a matrix of elastomeric polymer.
– spheroidized steel where cementite is transformed into a spherical shape which
improves the machinability of the material.
– concrete where the aggregtes ( sand and gravel) are the particles and cement is the
matrix.
 Composite Survey: Particle-I
Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural
• Examples:
- Spheroidite matrix: particles:
steel ferrite (a) cementite
(ductile) (Fe3 C)
Dispersed
(brittle)
60 mm

- WC/Co matrix: particles:

cemented cobalt WC
(ductile) (brittle,
carbide Vm : hard)
Large 10-15 vol%! 600 mm

- Automobile matrix: particles:

tires rubber C
(compliant) (stiffer)
nano-composite
0.75 mm 47
 Particle Composites

• Concrete – cement is
the gray matter and the
rocks can be thought of
as particles.
• Fiberglass – plastic with
pieces of glass strewn
through it.
 Composite Survey: Fiber-I
Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural
• Fibers very strong
– Provide significant strength improvement to material
– Ex: fiber-glass
• Continuous glass filaments in a polymer matrix
• Strength due to fibers
• Polymer simply holds them in place
– Fibers have very high SPECIFIC STRENGTH
 Composite Survey: Fiber-II
Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural
• Fiber Materials
– Whiskers - Thin single crystals - large length to diameter ratio
• graphite, SiN, SiC
• high crystal perfection – extremely strong, strongest known
• very expensive
– Fibers
• polycrystalline or amorphous
• generally polymers or ceramics
• Ex: Carbon, Al2O3 , Aramid, E-glass, Boron, UHMWPE
– Wires
• Metal – steel, Mo, W
 Fiber Reinforced Composites
• Can think of it as similar to particles, just with
a second phase that is longer and thinner.
• Fibers turn out to be extremely strong.
• Graphite shaft golf clubs – Carbon is
lightweight whereas graphite is very strong.
These clubs are stronger, stiffer, and weigh
less than typical steel shafts.
• Bulletproof vests – Dupont engineered these
using a crisscross system of fibers. The
product is surprisingly flexible while still
extremely strong.
• Safety Glass – metal wires are placed inside
windows. A normal window will shatter into
many pieces. Safety glass breaks into larger
pieces with edges that are not as sharp and
are easily cleaned up.
Note: Fiber composite manufacturers
often rotate layers of fibers to avoid
directional variations in the modulus.
• Pultrusion
– Continuous fibers pulled through resin tank, then
preforming die & oven to cure
Stress-strain for fibre composite
Stiffness of
matrix
Stiffness of
composite

Load
Stiffness of
fibres

Failure Strain
strain for
plain
concrete
 Structural Composites:

• The properties of structural composites

depend on:
– Constituents
– Geometrical design
 Composite Survey: Structural
Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural
• Stacked and bonded fiber-reinforced sheets
-- stacking sequence: e.g., 0º/90º
-- benefit: balanced, in-plane stiffness

• Sandwich panels
-- low density, honeycomb core
-- benefit: small weight, large bending stiffness
face sheet
adhesive layer
honeycomb

62
 Types of composites

• Engineering
– Fiberglass reinforced
– Matrix of unsaturated polyesters and vinyl esters or
common engineering thermoplastics
– Uses: tub/shower, boats, automotive, pipes, architectural,
etc.
• Advanced
– Carbon fiber, aramid fiber, or other high performance
reinforcements
– Matrix of epoxies and specialty resins
– Uses: aerospace, sporting goods, specialty
 Basic Materials – a primer

• Three types of solid materials

– Ceramics
– Metals
– Polymers
• These differ, at the most fundamental level, in
the types of bonds between the atoms
Nanocomposites
Nanocomposites
• Multi-constituent materials.
• Superior overall properties compared to
constituent properties e.g. optical clarity, strength,
stiffness, permeability.
• Ability to tailor properties.
Nanocomposites
• Constituents have at least one dimension in the
nanometer scale.
• Nanoparticles (Three nano-scale dimensions)
• Nanofibers (Two nano-scale dimensions)
• Nanoclays (One nano-scale dimensions)
Nanoparticles
• A lot of research literature in this area.
• Common in everyday life.
• Examples include film materials, catalyst, ion
exchangers, nanocrystals, semiconductors -
quantum dots, molecular diodes.
Nanoparticles

Kodak’s color film

(Source: www.kodak.com )
Nanoclays
• Silicates layers separated by an interlayer or gallery.
• Silicates layers are ~ 1 nm thick, 300 nm to microns
laterally.
• Polymers as interlayers.
• Tailor structural, optical properties.
Nanoclays

(Source: Dubois, Alexandre 2000)

Nanofibers - Nanotubes

Source: IBM Nanoscale Research Dept.

Nanotube-reinforced Composites
• Relatively few examples.
• Nanotubes in metal, metal oxide and ceramic
matrix have also been fabricated.
• Typical fabrication process is by hot-pressing the
powdered matrix with the nanotubes.
• Nanotubes in polymer matrices by mixing, then
curing.
Nanotubes - SOG matrix
• spin-on-glass (SOG) as the matrix, and nanotubes
as the reinforcing fiber.
• stiff material for MEMS construction and can be
applied as a coating (spin/dip).
• Low temperature process (low thermal budget)
• Cheaper alternative to chemical vapor deposition
(CVD)
Spin-On-Glass
• siloxanes in organic solvents.
• cured by heating at elevated temperatures.
• typically used as in interlevel dielectric material and
planarization between layers.
• IC qualified.
• SOG modulus = 2 GPa
• Advantages:
– High strength to weight ratio (low density high tensile strength) or high specific
strength ratio!
– High creep resistance
– High tensile strength at elevated temperatures
– High toughness
– Generally perform better than steel or aluminum in applications where cyclic loads
are encountered leading to potential fatigue failure (i.e. helicopter blades).
– Impact loads or vibration – composites can be specially formulated with high
toughness and high damping to reduce these load inputs.
– Some composites can have much higher wear resistance than metals.
– Corrosion resistance
– Dimensional changes due to temp changes can be much less.
– Anisotropic – bi-directional properties can be design advantage (i.e. helicopter
blades)
• Disadvantages (or limitations):
– Material costs
– Fabrication/ manufacturing difficulties
– Repair can be difficult
– Wider range of variability (statistical spread)
– Operating temperature can be an issue for polymeric
matrix (i.e. 500 F). Less an issue for metal matrix (2,700
F).
– Inspection and testing typically more complex.
 Composite Benefits
• CMCs: Increased toughness • PMCs: Increased E/r
Force ceramics
particle-reinf 103
E(GPa) PMCs
10 2
10 metal/
fiber-reinf metal alloys
1
un-reinf
.1 G=3E/8 polymers
.01 K=E
Bend displacement .1 .3 1 3 10 30
10 -4 Density, r [mg/m3]
ess (s-1) 6061 Al
• MMCs:
10 -6
Increased
creep
10 -8 6061 Al
resistance w/SiC
whiskers s(MPa)
10 -10
20 30 50 100 200 79
 Summary
• Composites are classified according to:
-- the matrix material (CMC, MMC, PMC)
-- the reinforcement geometry (particles, fibers, layers).
• Composites enhance matrix properties:
-- MMC: enhance sy, TS, creep performance
-- CMC: enhance Kc
-- PMC: enhance E, sy, TS, creep performance
• Particulate-reinforced:
-- Elastic modulus can be estimated.
-- Properties are isotropic.
• Fiber-reinforced:
-- Elastic modulus and TS can be estimated along fiber dir.
-- Properties can be isotropic or anisotropic.
• Structural:
-- Based on build-up of sandwiches in layered form.