i fTTV

FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

We begin this chapter with a brief review of some precalculus mathematics, after
which we introduce the two critical ideas upon which calculus is based function
and limit. Using the idea of a limit of a function, we formulate and study the
important concept of continuity.

1.1 Real Numbers, Inequalities, and

Absolute Value
The familiar idea of a number scale, number line, or coordinate axis makes it

possible to visualize real numbers as points along an infinite straight line (Figure 1).

Figure 1 o"&"

The real number corresponding to a point on the line is called the coordinate of the
point. An arrowhead may be used to indicate the direction (to the right in Figure 1)

in which the coordinates are increasing. The point with coordinate is called the
origin, and the point with coordinate 1 is called the unit point. The distance be-
tween the origin and the unit point is called the unit distance on the number scale.
On a horizontal number scale, points to the right of the origin have positive coordi-
nates, and points to the left of the origin have negative coordinates. The set of all

coordinates of points on the line is called the set of real numbers and is denoted by
the special symbol U.
Two real numbers .x and v in IR can be combined by the usual arithmetic opera-
tions to yield new real y, x — y, .vy. and (provided y ^ 0) .v/y. If y is
numbers x +
positive, can also raise y to the power x and obtain a definite real number y\
we
however, if y is negative, y' is not always defined as a real number. For instance,
(—1)1/2 _ Y'^Tj jg fiQj defined as a real number.
 CHAPTER I FINCTIONS AND LIMITS

The real numbers 1 , 2. 3, 4. 5. and so on are called the natural numbers, or the
positive integers (Figure 2). The integers consist of all the natural numbers, the
negatives of the natural numbers, and zero (Figure 3). Real numbers that can be

Figure 2 the natural numbers Figure 3

written in the form a/h. where a and b are integers and fc 5^ 0, are called rational
numbers. The irrational numbers are those real numbers that are not rational. A
real number is irrational if and only if its decimal representation is nonterminating
and nonrepeating. Examples of irrational numbers are

V2= 1.4142135 •• •
and tt = 3.1415926 • •

Inequalities

Two different real numbers .v and y can always be compared to determine which is

greater. If the point with coordinate .v lies to the left of the point with coordinate y
Figure 4
on the number line (Figure 4). we say that y is greater than .v (or, equivalently that .

X is less than v). and we write

y>x x<y
Note that

.V > means that .v is positive.

.V < means that .v is negative.

The integer is neither positive nor negative.

A statement of the form x <y (or y > .v) is called an inequality. You may
already be familiar with the following rules for handling inequalities.

Let a, h. and c denote real numbers.

1 Trichotomy One and only one of the following is true:

a < b or b < a or a = b

2 Transitivity U a < b and b < c. then a < c.

3 Addition U a < b, then a + c < b + c.
4 Subtraction If a < b. then a - c < b — c.

5 Multiplication U a < b and c > 0, then ac < be.

then — < —
a b
6 Division If a < b and c > 0.

According to the addition and subtraction rules, you can add or subtract the same
quantity on both sides of an inequality. The multiplication and division rules permit
you to multiply or divide both sides of an inequality by a positive number. Accord-
ing to the following rule, if you multiply or divide both sides of an inequality by a
negative number, you must reverse the inequality.
 SECTION 1.1 REAL NUMBERS, INEQUALITIES, AND ABSOLUTE VALUE

7 Inequality reversing If a < b and c < 0, then ac > be and —>—

For instance, if you multiply both sides of the inequality 2 < 5 by -3, you must
reverse the inequality and write -6 > - 15; that is, - 15 < -6. Indeed, on a num-
ber line, —15 lies to the left of —6.
Sometimes we know only that a certain inequality does not hold. If .v < v does
not hold, then by the trichotomy rule either .v > y or.v = y. In this case, we say that
X is greater than or equal to y, and we write

X >y (or, equivalently, y ^ x)

Statements of the form y < x (or .v > y) are called strict inequalities; those of the
form y x > y) are called nonstrict.
—x (or
If we < y < z, we mean that < y and y < z. Likewise, x^y>z means
write x .v

that.r S y andy > z. This notation for combined inequalities is used only when the

inequalities run in the same direction.

Statements analogous to Rules 2 through 7 can be made for nonstrict inequalities
and for combined inequalities. For instance, if you know that

-1 <3 - — <5
2

you can multiply all members by -2, provided that you reverse the inequalities to
obtain

2>.v- 6> -10

or -10<a:-6<2
If you are asked to "solve" an equation, it's usually clear what is wanted:

namely, the value (or values) of the variable (or variables) that makes the equation
true. Similarly, you solve an inequality by finding all values of the variable (or
variables) that make the inequality true. The set of all such values is called the
solution set of the inequality.

EXAMPLE 1 Solve the inequality x + 3 < 5a: - 1

SOLUTION jr + 3 < 5.V - 1 (Given)

3 < 4x — 1 (We subtracted x from both sides.)

4 < 4jc (We added 1 to both sides.)

l<x (We divided both sides by 4.)

Thus, the solution set consists of all real numbers that are greater than 1 (Figure 5).

Figure 5 1 does not belong

to the solution set

\ solulion set
-i

In Figure 5, the solution set consists of one connected piece. Such sets, called
intervals, often arise as the solution sets of inequalities.
CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

DEFINITION 1 Bounded Intervals

Let (/ and /; be fixed real numbers with a < b.

(i)The open interval (a, b) with endpoints a and b is the set of all real
numbers .v such that a <x< b.

a does not b does not

belong to the interval belong to the interval
f ) -
a h

(ii) The closed interval [a, b] with endpoints a and b is the set of all real

numbers x such that a < .v < fe.

a belongs b belongs
to the interval to the interval

E 3

(iii) The half-open interval [a, b) with endpoints a and b is the set of all

real numbers .r such that a ^x< b.

a belongs b does not

to the interval belong to the interval

E )

(iv) The half-open interval (a, b] with endpoints a and b is the set of all

real numbers .v such that a < x^ b.

a does not b belongs

belong to the interval to the interval
(
\

Notice that a closed interval contains its endpoints, but an open interval does not. A
half-open interval (also called a half-closed interval) contains one of its endpoints,
but not the other.
Unbounded intervals, which extend indefinitely to the right or left, are written
with the aid of the special symbols +^ and — ^c, called positive infinity and
negative infinity, respectively.

DEFINITION 2 Unbounded Intervals

Let a be a fixed real number.

(i) (a, +0C) is the set of all real numbers x such that a<x.
a does not
belong to the interval

(ii) (-00, a) is the set of all real numbers x such that x < a.
a does not
belong to t!ie interval

(iii) [a, +0O) is the set of all real numbers x such that a < j:.

a belongs
to the intenal
E -

(iv) (-00, a] is the set of all real numbers x such that x^ a.

a belongs
to the interval
^
 SECTION 1.1 REAL NUMBERS, INEQUALITIES, AND ABSOLUTE VALUE

It must be emphasized that +=<= and -^c are just convenient symbols they are not
real numbers and should not be treated as if they were. In the notation for un-
bounded intervals, we usually write ^ rather than +^. For instance, (5, oc) denotes
the set of real numbers greater than 5. The notation (-^, oo) is often used to denote
the set R of all real numbers.

In Examples 2 and 3. solve the inequality and show the solution set on a number
line.

EXAMPLE 2 - 11 S Iv - 3 < 7

SOLUTION We begin by adding 3 to all members to help isolate x in the middle:

-8 < 1y < 10

Then we divide all members by 2, to obtain

Figure 6 _4 < ^.
< 5
1-4,51
r ^ Therefore, the solution set is the half-open interval [—4, 5) (Figure 6).
)
-4 5

EXAMPLE 3 X^ -I- 3a + 2 >

SOLUTION We begin by factoring x^ + 3x + 2 = (x + 1) (x + 2) and rewriting
the given inequality as
(x+ l){x + 2)>0
Here, equality holds exactly when .v = —1 or x = —2. Also, the strict inequality

{x+ l)(x + 2)>0

holds if and only if .v -I- 1 and x + 2 have the same algebraic sign. First, let's
consider the case in which both x + 1 and .r -I- 2 are positive. Then

a: -I- 1 > and .v -I- 2 >

that is, .V > -I and x > -2
Note that if .v > - 1 , then .v > -2 automatically holds; hence, both x + 1 and x + 2
will be positive precisely when

x> -1

Next, we consider the case in which both x + 1 and j: -I- 2 are negative. Then

.V -1-
1 < and .x: + 2 <
that is, .v< -1 and x < -2
Note that if.v < —2, then.v < —1 automatically holds; hence, both.v -i- 1 and.x + 2
will be negative precisely when
x< -2
It follows that

.r -I- 3.V -t- 2 >

holds if and only if

Figure? .v<-2 or v > -

(-«,-21 1-1. ~i
^ [ I
^ In other words, the solution set consists of the two intervals (-^, -2] and [-1, 0°)
-2 -1 (Figure 7). I
 CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

Absolute Value
The idea of absolute value plays an important role in analytic geometry and calcu-
lus, especially in expressions that involve the distance between two points on a
number line.

DEFINITION 3 Absolute Value

if A is a real number, then the absolute value of .v, denoted l.v|

Figure 8
 SECTION 1.1 REAL MMBERS. INEQl ALITIES. AND ABSOLLTE \ALVt.

Many of the properties of absolute value can be established by considering all

possible cases in which the quantities involved are positive, negative, or
zero.

EXAMPLE 4 Show that -|.r| < .t < |.r| holds for every real number .v.

SOLUTION > 0, then = x, so < holds. Also, if > 0, then -\x\ =

If .r |jc| a: \x\ .v

-j: < < so -\x\ < X holds. Thus, -|.r| <

jc, < holds when x>0. On .v |.r|

the other hand, if x < 0, then = -.r, so -|.t| = < < -.r = hence, |.t| .t |.r|:

-|.v| < X < also holds when x < 0.

l.vl

One of the most imponant properties of absolute value is the triangle inequality
liven in the following theorem.

THEOREM 1 Triangle Inequality

If a and b are real numbers, then |a + fo| < \a\ + \b\.

PROOF By the preceding example, -|a| < a s |a| and -\b\^ bs \b\. Adding these in-
equalities, we obtain

-(|a| + \b\) ^a + b^\a\ + \b\

U a + b>Q. then \a + b\ = a + b ^\a\ + \b\. On the other hand, if a + b<0,

then |a + fc| = -(a + b) < \a\ + \b\. In either case, we have |a + fc| < \a\ + \b\.

In solving equations and inequalities involving absolute values, you will tlnd the
followina rules useful.

Let ;/ and v be real numbers, and suppose a is a positive real number. Then
(i) |m| = a if and only if w = a or it = -a.
(ii) \u\ = |v| if and only if u = v or u = -v.
(iii) \u\ <a if and only if -a < it < a.
(iv) |h| >a if and only if u < —a or u > a.

Rules (i) and (ii) are obvious from the definition of absolute value. Rules (iii) and
(iv) are easy to understand and remember if you keep in mind that \ii\ is the distance
between u and 0.

In Examples 5 to 7, solve each equation or inequality

EXAMPLE 5 1 1 - lx| = 7

SOLUTION By Rule (i). |l - 2r| = 7 is true if and only if

1
- Iv = 7 or I - 2v = -7
that is,

-Iv = 6 or -2r = -8
Therefore, the equation has two solutions, x = -3 and x = 4. In other words, the
solution set consists of the numbers -3 and 4. i
 CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

EXAMPLE 6 |3.r - 2| <4

SOLUTION By Rule (iii), the inequality is true if and only if

-4 < 3jc - 2 < 4

that is, -2 < 3a: < 6

or -§ < ;c < 2

Therefore, the solution set is the interval (-§, 2).

EXAMPLE 7 |3y + 2| > 5

SOLUTION By Rule (iv), the inequality is true if and only if

3.V + 2 < -5 or 3.V + 2 > 5

that is, 3y < -7 or 3^ > 3

Hence, the inequality is true if and only if

y < -i or y> I

In other words, the solution set consists of the two intervals (-oc, -J) and (1, ^).

Problem Set 1.1

V 1 Answer true or false. Use suitable rules for inequalities to justify 8 If .V > 0. is it necessarily true that l/.v > 0? Why?
the true statements, and give examples to show that the false
9 The following are solution sets for certain inequalities. Illustrate
statements really are false.
each solution set on a number line.
(a) If j: is a positive number, then 5;i: is a positive number.
(a) [-2, 3)
(b) If jt <3 and V > 3, then x<y.
(b) All numbers x such that -3 < x < 4 and also —6 < jt < 2
(c) If jc < _v, then -5jc < -5y.
(c) All numbers belonging to [-2, 0] or to [-^, 1] or to both of
(d) If jr2<9, then a: < 3.
these intervals
(e) If j: > 2 and v > -t, then y > 0.
(d) All numbers belonging to (0, ^) or to (-^. 0)

2 Show that if j: t^ 0, then .r > 0. (Hint: By the trichotomy rule, (e) All numbers .v that belong to both intervals (0, ») and (3, «)
if X 7^ 0, then either a: > or x < 0. Consider the two cases
(f) All numbers x that belong to both intervals (— =o, -2] and
x> and .v < separately.) (-°o, -5)

3 Use the rules for inequalities to show that A < ^- [Hint: Begin
10 Use interval notation to represent each shaded set below.
by showing that 3(233) < 28(25). Then use the division rule for
inequalities.]
(a) -) ir ^^
4 Show that ifO<x<y, then \/x > \/y. {Hint: Use the division
rule for inequalities twice.) (b)

5 (a) Under what conditions is -x > 0? Explain, (b) Under what

conditions is -x < 0? Explain, (c) Under what conditions is
(c)

—X = 0? Explain.

6 (a) If < Jr < y. show that .r^ < y^. (b) If < a^ < v, show that
(d)
-E h
3 3 is excluded
Vjt< Vy.
(e)
7 If -ir s 9, is it necessarily true that x > 3? Explain.
 SECTION 1.1 REAL NUMBERS, INEQUALITIES, AND ABSOLUTE VALUE

In Problems 1 1 to 24, solve each inequality. Express the solution in

interval notation, and illustrate it on a number line.

11
10 CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

1.2 The Cartesian Coordinate System

In Section 1.1, we saw that a point P on a number line can be specified by a real

number A called its coordinate. Similarly, by using a Cartesian coordinate system,

named in honor of the French philosopher and mathematician Rene Descartes
( 1596-1650), we can specify a point P in the plane with two real numbers, also
called coordinates.
A Cartesian coordinate system consists of two perpendicular number lines,

called coordinate axes, which meet at a common origin O (Figure 1). Ordinarily,
one of the number lines, called the x axis, is horizontal, and the other, called the y
axis, is vertical. Numerical coordinates increase to the right along the .v axis and
upward along the v axis. We usually use the same scale (that is, the same unit
distance) on the two axes, although in some figures, space considerations make it

convenient to use different scales.

Figure 1 y axis

Rene Descartes

If P is a point in the plane, the coordinates of P are the coordinates x and y of

the points where perpendiculars from P meet the two axes (Figure 2). The .v coordi-
nate is called the abscissa of P. and the y coordinate is called the ordinate of P. The
coordinates of P are traditionally written as an ordered pair (.v, y) enclosed in
Figure 2 parentheses, with the abscissa first and the ordinate second. (Unfortunately, this is

the same symbolism used for an open interval; however, it is always clear from the
P= ix.y)
context what is intended.)
To plot the point P with coordinates {x, y) means to draw Cartesian coordinate
axes and to place a dot representing P at the point with abscissa x and ordinate y.
You can think of the ordered pair (.v, y) as the numerical "address" of P. The
correspondence between P and (x, y) seems so natural that in practice we identify
the point P with its address (x, y) by writing P = (x, y). With this identification in

\ mind, we call an ordered pair of real numbers (.v, y) a point, and we refer to the set
abscissa of all such ordered pairs as the Cartesian plane, or the xy plane.
The .V and y axes divide the plane into four regions called quadrants, denoted Qi,
Qii, Gni. and 2iv and called the first, second, third, and fourth quadrants (Fig-
ure 3). Notice that a point on a coordinate axis belongs to no quadrant.

Figure 3

Oil al
all (.V, y) with
v < 0, >• >

ll(.v. ,1) witli

.•<0,y<
 SECTION 1.2 THE CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEM 11

Figure 4
12 CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

Graphs in the Cartesian Plane

Recall (from prccalculus mathematics) the following definition of the graph of an
equation.

DEFiMTiON I Graph of an Equation

The graph of an equation involving the variables .v and v is the set of all points
(.V, v) in the Cartesian plane, and only those points, whose coordinates x and y
satisfy the equation.

For instance, consider the equation

X- 4- A

We can rewrite this equation as

V.r + v^ = V9
or as VCv - 0)- + (y - 0)- = 3

By the distance formula (Theorem 1 ), the last equation holds if and only if the point
P = {x, y) is 3 units from the origin O = (0, 0). Therefore, the graph of .\r + y^ = 9
Figure 6 is a circle of radius 3 units with its center at the origin (Figure 6).
If we are given a curve in the Cartesian plane, we can ask whether there is an
graph of equation for which it is the graph. Such an equation is called an equation for the
curve, or an equation of the curve. For instance, .v~ + y- = 9 is an equation for the
circle in Figure 6. Two
equations in x and y are said to be e quivale nt if they have
the same graph. For example, .v" + v" = 9 is equivalent to V.x"^ + y" = 3. We often
use an equation for a curve to designate the curve; for instance, if we speak of "the
circle x^ + y^ = 9," we mean "the circle for which .x~ + y" = 9 is an equation."
If r > 0, then the circle of radius r with center (h, k) consists of all points (.v, y)
such that the distance between (.v. y) and (h. k) is /• units (Figure 7). Using the
distance formula (Theorem 1), we can write an equation for this circle as

VU -/?)- + (.V - kf = r

or, equivalently.

'"
(.V -/!)- + O'-^-)" =

This last equation is called the standard form for an equation of a circle of radius r
with center (/i, k).

Figure 7
 SECTION 1.2 THE CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEM 13

EXAMPLE 3 Find an equation for a circle of radius 5 with center (-2, 3).

SOLUTION Here r = 5 and {h, k) = (-2, 3), so, in standard form, the equation
of the circle is

[x - (-2)]- + Cv - 3)2 = 52

(x + If + 0' - 3)- = 25

If desired, we can expand the squares,

x^ + Ax + A + y~ -(,y + 9 = 25

and combine the constant terms to obtain an equivalent equation in the form

r- + y^ + Ax- 6v -12 =

The last equation can be restored to standard form by "completing the squares."
The work is arranged as follows;

x^ + v- + 4.V - 6v - 12 =
x^ + Ax + ^'^ - 6^ = 12

x^ + 4;c + 4 + 3;- - 6}' + 9 = 12 + 4+ 9

{x + lf ^- (y- 3)- = 25

Here, we added 4 to both sides of the equation to change x^ + Ax to the perfect

square x" + 4x + 4, and we added 9 to both sides to change y^ — 6}' to the perfect
square v" - 6v + 9. Notice that, in general:

An expression
 14 CHAKFER I FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

EXAMPLE 5 Find an equation in the form x^ + y-^ + Ax + By + C = and an

equation in the standard form of the circle containing the three points (-2, 5),
(1, 4), and (-3, 6).

SOLUTION We substitute the and v coordinates of the three points into the
.v

equation x^ + y'^ + Ax + By + C = and thus obtain the three simultaneous equa-

tions
{-2A + 5B + C = -29

A + 4B + C = -17
-2A + 6fi + C = -45

Solving these simultaneous linear equations in the usual way, we get A = —2,
B = - 18, and C= 57. Thus, an equation of the circle is

x~ + r - 2jc- 18y + 57 =

Completing the squares, we have

.r - It + 1 +r - 18y + 81 = -57 + 1 + 81

(A -lf + (y- 9f = 25

Thus, the circle has radius 5 units and center (1, 9).

Problem Set 1.2

1 Plot each point and indicate which quadrant or coordinate axis 15 (-3, -5) and (-7, 16 (-i -i) and (-3, -I)
contains it.
17 (2, -I) and (5, t) 18 Ui. b + \) dnd (a + \. h)
(a) (1, 6) (b) (-2, 3)

(c) (4. 1) (d) (4, -2) [II In Problems 19 and 20, use a calculator to find the distance be-

tween the two points. Round off your answer to three decimal
(e) (-1, -4) (f) (0, 2)
places.
(g) (-3, 0) (h) (0, -4)
19 (-2.714, 7. Ill) and (3.135, 4.982)
] 2 Plot the four points A = {n. Vl), B = (-V3, V2),
C = (VS, -Vl), and D= (i -f ). 20 (tt, ^)3Lnd (,-Vn, H^)

In Problems 3 to 6, plot the point P and determine the coordinates of In Problems 21 to 24, (a) use the distance formula and the converse
points Q, R, and 5 such that (a) the line segment PQ is perpendicular of the Pythagorean theorem to show that triangle ABC is a right

to the .V axis and is bisected by it: (b) the line segment PR is perpen- triangle, and (b) find the area of U-iangle ABC.
dicular lo the y axis and is bisected by it; (c) the line segment PS
passes through the origin and is bisected by it. 21 A = (1, 1), B = (5, 1), C= (5. 7)

= (-4, -3) 22 A = (-1, -2), B = (3, -2), C= (-1. -7)

3 P = {3. 2) 4 P
A = B = (-3, C =
^ = (-1.
/ V3_ _ n 23 (0, 0), 3), (2, 2)

5 3) '' = \~r-~) 24 A = (-2, -5), B = (9, i), C= (4, ¥

25 Show that the points A = (-2, -3), fl = (3, -1), C = (1,4),
In Problems 7 to 18, find the distance between the two points.
and D= (-4. 2) are the vertices of a square.

7 (7, 10) and (I. 2) 8 (-1, 7) and (2, II) 26 Show that the distance between the points (x\.\\) and (.vj, yi) is
the same as the distance between the point (x\ - .vi, Vi - Vj) and
9 (7, -1) and (7. 3) 10 (-4, 7) and (0, -8
the origin.
11 (-6, 3) and (3, -5) 12 (0, 4) and (-4. 0)
27 If A = (-5. I), fi = (-6, 5), and C= (-2, 4), determine
13 (0, 0) and (-8. -6) 14 (/, 4) and U, 8) whether triangle ABC is isosceles.
 THE CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEM 15

28 Check the derivation of the distance formula (Theorem 1 ) for the 38 (x + 3)- + (y - 10)- = 100
case in which one point is in the second quadrant and the other
39 .r + y- + 2r + 4y + 4 =
point is in the third quadrant.

40 .r + y- - Jc - y - 1 =
29 Find all values of t so that the distance between the points
(-2. 3) and (r, t) is 5 units. 41 4x- + 4v= + 8.V - 4y + 1 = (Him: Begin by dividing by 4.)

30 If Pz and P3 are pwints i n the plan e, the n P 2 lies on the line

P) , -
42 3.r= + 3y- - 6.t + 9y = 27
segment PJP^ if and only if iPiP,! = l/'iP^I + {PiPil- Illustrate
43 Axr + 4r + 4.v - 4y + 1 =
this geometric fact with diagrams.

44 4.v2 + 4r + llv + 20y + 25 =

In Problems 31 to 33. determi ne whethe r P; ies o n the line segment
l

P^P, by checking whether \PiP,\ = |f iPjl + iPiPil (see Prob- In Problems 45 to 47, find the equation in the standard form of the
lem 30). circle or circles in the xy plane that satisfy the conditions given.

31 f, = (1. 2). P: = (0. i), P} = (-1. 3) 45 Containing the points (-3, 1). (7. 1), and (-7, 5)

32 P, = (-i. 0). P2 = (-1. 5), P3 = (2. 11) 46 Containing the points (1. 7), (8. 6). and (7. -1)

33 P, = (2. 3). P2 = (3, -3). P3 = (-1. -1) 47 Radius vT7, center on the x axis, and containing the point

(0, I). (There are two circles in this case.)

34 On a Cartesian coordinate grid, an aircraft carrier is detected by
radar at pwint A = (52, 7 1 ) and a submarine is detected by sonar 48 A point P = (.r, y) moves so that it is always twice as far from
at point 5 = (47, 83). If distances are measured in nautical the point (6. 0) as it is from the point (0, 3). (a) Find the equation

miles, how far is the carrier from a point on the surface of the of the cur\'e traced out by the point P. (b) Sketch a graph of this

water directly over the submarine? curve.

49 Salesperson A is allowed to sell encyclopedias anywhere within

In Problems 35 and 36, find the equations in standard form for the + y- = B allowed to
the circle .\r 100, while salesperson is sell
circles in the Cartesian plane that satisfy the given conditions. - =
them within the circle (.v 20)- + y- 144. Do their sales ter-

ritories overlap? Explain.

35 (a) Radius 3 and center (0, 2)

(b) Radius 2 and center (

— 1, 4) 50 Find conditions on the constants a. b, c, d, r, and R so that
the circle (x — a)' + (y — b)- = ir will intersect the circle
(c) Radius 5 and center (3,4)
(.V - f )- + (y - d)- = R-.
36 (a) Center at (1. 6) and containing the point (—2, 2)
51 Show that the equation of the circle in the standard form
(b) Radius 4 and containing the points (-3. 0) and (5, 0) -
(X - h)- + = r can always be rewritten in the
iy k)-
(c) Points (3. 7) and (—3. —1) are the endpoints of a diameter alternative + y- + Ax + By + C = 0. where A = -2h,
form x^
B = ~2k, and C = h- + kr — n. (Hint: Expand the squares and
In Problems 37 to 44. find the radius r and the coordinates ih. k) of collect the terms.)
the center of the circle for each equation, and sketch a graph of the
circle.
52 Show that the equation xr + y^+Ax + By + C = represents
a circle with center at the point (h. k) = {-A/2. -BID and ra-
37 (.r-i- 1)- + (V - 2)- = 9 dius r = iVA- + B- - 4C. provided that A- + B' > AC.

1.3 Straight Lines and Their Slopes

Perhaps the simplest curves in the plane are straight lines (called simply lines) and
circles. In Section 1.2, we derived equations for circles by using the distance for-
mula. In this section, we derive equations for lines by using the idea of slope.
In ordinary language, the word "slope" refers to a steepness, an incline, or a

deviation from the horizontal. For instance, we speak of a ski slope or the slope of

a roof. In mathematics, the word "slope" has a precise meaning.

16 CHAPTER I FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

Figure 1 Consider the inclined line segment AB in Figure 1. The horizontal distance be-
tween A and B is called the run, and the vertical distance between A and B is called
the rise. The ratio of rise to run is called the slope of the line segment and is

traditionally denoted by the symbol in. Thus, by dcfinitiftn.

slope of AB = in

If the line segment AB is turned so that itbecomes more nearly vertical, then the rise
increases, the run decreases, and the slope m = rise/run becomes very large. When
the line segment becomes vertical, the slope m = rise/run becomes undefined since
the denominator is zero^In this case, we sometimes say that the slope is infinite.
If the line segment AB is horizontal, its rise is zero, so its slope m= rise/run is

zero. If AB slants downward to the right as in Figure 2, its rise is considered

negative; hence, its slope m = rise/run is negative. (The run is always regarded as
being nonnegative.)

Figure 2

negative
rise

Figure 3
 SECTION 1.3 STRAIGHT LINES AND THEIR SLOPES 17

Consideration of the similar triangles in Figure 4 shows that two parallel line
segments AB and CD have the same slope. Similarly, if two line segments AB and
CD lie on the same infinite line, as in Figure 5, they have the same slope. The
common slope of all the segments of a line L is called the slope of L.
From two parallel line segments have the same slope, it follows that
the fact that
two parallel lines have the same slope. Conversely, it is easy to see that two distinct
lines having the same slope must be parallel, and we have the following theorem.

Figure 4 Figure 5

THEOREM 2 Parallelism Condition

Figure 6
Two distinct nonvertical lines are parallel if and only if they have the same slope.

Now, consider a nonvertical line L with slope m and containing a point A =

(.V|, \'i) (Figure 6). If P = (.v, v) is any other point on L, then, by Theorem 1,
m= (y - yi)/{x - .Vi); hence,

y ~ .Vi = m{.x - xj)

Note that this equation holds even if P= A, when it simply reduces to = 0. In

fact, we claim that it is an equation of the line L in the sense that not only do all
points (.V, v) on L satisfy this equation, but, conversely, any point (.v, y) that satisfies
this equation lies on line L. (The converse follows from Theorem 2.) The equation
Figure 7
_Vi = mix - .V|)

is called the point-slope form for an equation of L.

EXAMPLE 2 Let L be the line of slope 5 containing the point (3, 4). Write an
equation of form, determine where L intersects the v axis, draw a
Z, in point-slope

diagram showing L and the coordinate axes, and decide whether the point (4, 9)
belongs to L.

SOLUTION The point-slope form for an equation of the line L is y - 4 =

5(.v - This equation can be rewritten as y = 5,v - 1 1 If L intersects the v axis at
3). .

the point (0. b), then b = 5(0) - 1 1 = - 1 1 Since both (0, - 1 1) and (3, 4) belong .

(0.-11) to L, it is easy to draw L by drawing the line through these two points (Figure 7). If
we put .V = 4, y = 9 in the equation for L, we obtain 9 = 5(4) -11, which is true.
Therefore, (4, 9) does belong to L.
18 CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

Figure 8 Now suppose that L is any nonvertical line with slope w. Since L is not parallel to
the y axis, it must intersect it at some point (0. h) (Figure 8). The ordinate h of this
intersection point is y intercept of L. Since (0. h) belongs to L, we can
called the
write the point-slope equation y - h = m{.x - 0) for L. This equation simplifies to

nL\ + b

which is called the slope-intercept form for an equation of L.

EXAMPLE 3 In 1982 the Solar Electric Company showed a profit of $3.17 per
share, and it expects this figure to increase by $0.24 per share per year. Counting
the years so that 1982 corresponds to .v = and successive years correspond to
.r = 1,2,3, and so forth, find the equation y = nu + b of the line that will enable
the company to predict its profit y per share during future years. Draw a graph
showing this line, and find the predicted profit per share in 1990.

SOLUTION When .v = 0, y = 3.17; hence, 3.17 = m{0) + and so = 3.17. fc, /?

Thus, y + 3.17. When x increases by 1, y increases by 0.24; hence, m =

= ffix

0.24. The equation, therefore, is y = 0.24.V + 3.17. In 1990. x = 8 and y =

(0.24)(8) + 3.17 = 5.09. The predicted profit per share in 1990 is $5.09 (Figure 9).

Figure 9 Figure JO
 SECTION 1.3 STRAIGHT LINES AND THEIR SLOPES 19

The equation of any line can be put into the form

Av + B\ + C =

where A. B. and C are constants and not both A and B are zero. This is called the
general form of an equation of a line. If B# 0, the equation Ax + By -'r C= Q can
be rewritten

y
= -X +

and therefore represents a line with slope m = —A/B and y intercept b = —C/B. On
the other hand, if fi = 0, then A ^ and the equation can be rewritten in the form
.V = —C/A. which represents a vertical line.

Perpendicular Lines
In Theorem 2 we have seen that two nonvertical lines are parallel if and only if they
have the same slope. Theorem 3 gives a condition for two nonvertical lines to be

perpendicular.

THEOREM 3 Perpendicularity Condition

Two nonvertical lines are perpendicular if and only if the slope of one of the lines
is the negative of the reciprocal of the slope of the other line.

Figure 12

\
20 CHAPTER I FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

EXAMPLE 4 If A = (-1, 2) and fi_= (4. -5), find the slope m, of a line that is

perpendicular to the line segment AB.

SOLUTION The slope W: of the line containing the points A and B is given by

= yi - vi
= -5-2 = 7
m-,
JC2-.V, 4-(-l) 5

Therefore, by the perpendicularity condition (Theorem 3),

1 1 5

EXAMPLE 5 Let L be the line 3.v - v — = 0. Find (a) an equation of the line Li
1

that contains the point (-1,2) and is parallel to L; (b) an equation of the line L2 that
contains the point (—1, 2) and is perpendicular to L. Sketch the graphs of these
lines.

SOLUTION

(a) In slope-intercept form, the equation of L is v = 3.v — 1; hence, L has

slope w= 3. Since L| is to be parallel toL, the slope of Li must be/Hi =m = 3.

Because L, contains (—1, 2), its equation is v — 2 = 3[.y — (—1)] in point-

slope form, or y = 3.y -I- 5 in slope-intercept form.

(b) Since Li is to be perpendicular to L, it follows that the slope of Li must

be ott = -1/w = -3. Therefore, because L2 contains (-1, 2), its equation
in point-slope form is y — 2 = ~^[x — (—1)], or, in slope-intercept form,
y = -ix + § (Figure 13).

Figure 13

If two different lines in the plane are not parallel, they will intersect in a single
point. For instance, in Figure 13, the lines Z,| and Li meet in the point (- 1, 2). In

order to find the point at which two nonparallel lines intersect, it is only necessary to
solve the equations of the two lines simultaneously.
 - ^^1 SECTION 1.3 STRAIGHT LINES AND THEIR SLOPES 21

Problem Set 1.3

\ In Problems 1 to 6, find the slope of the line that contains the two 26 L has slope m= i and intersects the x axis at (—3, 0).

points.
27 L intersects the x and y axes at (3, 0) and (0, 5).

1 (6. 2) and (3, 7) 2 (3. -2) and (5. -6) 28 L contains the points (5, f) and (§. -6).

3 (14. 7) and (2. 1) 4 (2, 2) and (-4, -1) 29 L contains the point (4, -4) and is parallel to the line

Ix - 5y -1-3 = 0.
5 (-5, 3) and (6. 8) 6 (1. 3) and (-1, -1)
30 L contains the point (-3, §) and is perpendicular to the y axis.
( In Problems 7 to 18. find an equation in point-slope form of the line
31 L contains the point (-3, §) and is perpendicular to the line
L.
5.V + 3y -1=0.
7 L contains the point (5. 4) and has slope m= 2. 32 L is the perpendicular bisector of the line segment AB. where

8 L contains the point and has slope m = -4. A = (3. -2) andB = (7, 6).
(6. 1)

9 L contains the point (3. 2) and has slope m= \. 33 Find a real number B so that the graph of 3x -1-
By — 5 = has y
intercept b = -4.
10 L contains the point (
— 5. —1) and has slope m= 0.

34 Suppose that the line L intersects the axes at (a. 0) and (0, b). If
11 L contains the point (7, —2) and has slope m= -3.
a 7^ and b 9^ 0. show that the equation of L can be written in
12 L contains the point (0. 2) and has slope m= -§. intercept form

13 L contains the point (5. §) and has slope m= 0.

= 1

14 L contains the points (7, 11) and (-1. 1).

15 L contains the points (3, 2) and (4, 8).

In Problems 35 to 38, suppose that m\ and mi are the slopes of the

16 L contains the point (7, 2) and is parallel to the line segment AS. distinct lines Z-i and Lt, respecfively. Indicate whether the lines are

where A = (i 1) and B = (-§. i).

(a) parallel, (b) perpendicular, or (c) neither parallel nor perpendicu-
lar. Then, supposing that Z,, contains the point (3. 2) and Li contains
17 L contains the points (
— 3. 4) and (-4, 4). (-2,
the point 5), draw L; and Z,i on the same diagram.
18 L contains the point (—1. 2) and is perpendicular to the line
segment AB, where A = and B = (-§,
35 mi = § and mi = 5 36 rri] and mi = f
(i, §) 3).

37 m, = f and mi = — 38 m. - 1 and mi = 1

19 Write an equation for each of the following lines, (a) The line

containing the point (-2. 3) and perpendicular to the y axis, A = (-5,

39 If -2), B = (1. -1), C= (4, 4), and D= (-2, 3),
(b) The line containing the point (-2. 3) and perpendicular to show that the quadrilateral ABCD is a parallelogram. (Hint:
the X axis. Show that opposite sides have the same slope.)

20 Show that if .Vi # .vt. then an equation of the line containing the
40 There are two circles of radius VTO that are tangent to the line
two points (.V|. yi) and (.Vi, Vi) is = 6 at the point (3, -3). Find the equations of these
3.r -(-
y
.V2 - -VaVi - Xjyi circles in standard form. (Hint: The tangent line to a circle is
y = .Vi
X
,

H
perpendicular to the radius at the point of tangency.)

41 (a) Determine d so that the line containing A = (rf. 3) and

Xln Problems 21 to 24, rewrite each equation in slope-intercept form, B = (—2, 1) is perpendicular to the line containing C = (5, -2)
find the slope m and the y intercept b. and sketch the graph. and D= (1, 4). (b) Determine k so that the line containing
E= (k, 3) and B = (—2. 1) is parallel to the line containing
21 - 2y = 6 22 5x - -10 =
3;c 2y C= (5, -2) and£) = (1, 4).

23 V -I- 1 = 24 jc = -iy + i 42 Prove that

In Problems 25 to 32. find an equation of the line L in (a) point-slope vi + X2 yi + y:

form, (b) slope-intercept form, and (c) general form.

25 L has slope m = —3 and y intercept b = 5. is the midpoint of the line segment between (.v, .y,) and (X2, yi).
22 CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

43 Use the midpoint foniiula in Problem 42 to find the midpoint of 47 If a piece of property is depredated linearly over a period of n

the line segment between each pair of points. years, then its value y dollars at the end of x years is given by
y = f[l - (x/n)\. where c dollars is the original value of the
(a) (8. 1) and (7, 3) (b) (9, 3) and (-5. 7)
property. An apartment building built in 1975 and originally

(-1. and (5. 3) (d) (1, -3) and (5, 8)

worth $400,000 is being depreciated linearly over a period of 40
(c) 1)
years. Sketch a graph showing the value y dollars of the apart-
44 If mi 7^ 1112. show that the line v = m^x + b, intersects the line ment building .v years after it was built, and determine its value

y = m2X + bn at the point in the year 1995.

( b2 - bi mi/>2 ~ 'n2bi \ 48 Show that the line Ax + By + C is perpendicular to the line

-Bx + A\ + D = Q.

49 In 1980, tests showed that water in a lake was polluted with 7

45 A car rental company leases automobiles for $22 per day plus
milligrams of mercury compounds per 1000 liters of water.
$0.20 per mile. Write an equation for the cost v dollars in terms
Cleaning up the lake became an immediate priority, and envi-
of the distance x miles driven if the car is leased for A^ days. If
ronmentalists determined that the pollution level would drop at
N= 3, sketch a graph of the equation.
the rate of 0.75 milligram of mercury compounds per 1000 liters
46 Find the distance (measured perpendicularly) between the point of water per year if all their recommendations were followed. If
(-4. 3) and the line y = 3.v - 5 by carrying out the following 1980 corresponds to .v = and successive years correspond to

steps: (a) Find the equation of the line through (-4, 3) which is x = 1,2,3, and so on, find the equation y = mx + b of the line

perpendicular to the line y = 3.v - 5. (b) Find the point (.vi, yO that allows the environmentalists to predict the pollution level y
at which the line obtained in part (a) meets the line y = 3.r - 5. in future years if their recommendations are followed. Sketch
(c) Use the distance formula to find the distance between (-4, 3) the graph of the equation and determine when the lake will be

and Ui, free of mercury pollution according to this graph.

yi).

1.4 Functions
Advances in our scientific understanding of the world often result from the discov-
ery that things depend on one another in definite ways. For instance, the gravita-
tional attraction between two material bodies depends on the distance between
them, and the pitch of a guitar string depends on its tension. The idea that a quantity
)• depends upon another quantity .v is nicely symbolized by the mapping notation

This notation indicates that to each value of .v there corresponds a uniquely deter-
mined value of y; or, as mathematicians say, each value of .v is "mapped onto" a

corresponding value of y. Another name for a mapping is di function.

DEFINITION 1 Function

A function
 SECTION 1.4 FUNCTIONS 23

have special keys for some of the more important functions.

Scientific calculators
By number x and touching, for instance, the V.r key, you obtain a vivid
entering a
demonstration of the mapping .v > V.v as the display changes from x to its image

Va- under the square -root function. For instance.

25 1 >5
2 I * V2= 1.414

Programmable calculators and microcomputers have "user-definable" keys that

can be programmed for whatever function x * y may be required. The program \

for the required function is the actual rule whereby y is to be calculated from x. Each
user-definable key is marked with a letter of the alphabet or other symbol, so that,
after the key has been programmed for a particular function, the letter or symbol can
be used as the "name"" of the function.
The use of letters of the alphabet to designate functions is not restricted exclu-
sively to calculating machines. Although any letters of the alphabet can be used to
designate functions, the letters/, g, and /? as well as F. G. and H are most common.
(Letters of the Greek alphabet are also used.) For instance, if we wish to designate

the square-root function x i > Vjc by the letter /, we write

X I > vx or /: x i
> \^r

If/:.r I > V is a function, it is customar>' to write the value of y that corresponds

to.vas/(.v), read "/of.r." In other words, /(.v) is the image of .r under the function/.
For instance, if /:.v i > y/x is the square-root function, then

/(4) = V4 = 2

/(25) = V25 = 5

/(2) = \/2= 1.414

and, in general, for any nonnegative value of x,

fix) = Vx
lff:x 1 > y, then, for ever>' value of .v in the domain of/, we have

y=/(.v)

an equation relating the dependent variable y to the independent variable .x. Con-
versely, when an equation of the form

y = an expression involving x

determines a function /:.r i > y, we say that the function /is defined by, or given
by. the equation. For instance, the equation

y = 3.r2 - 1

defines a function /:j: i > y, so that

y=f{x) = 3x^- 1

or simply

fix) = 3x^-1
When a function/ is defined by an equation, you can determine, by substitution,
the image /(a) corresponding to a particular value x = a.
24 CHAPTER I FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

EXAMPLE I Let/be the function defined by f(.x) = 5.v- + 3.v. Find the indicated
values.

(a)/(2) (b)/(-2) (c)/(r')

(d) [f(-\)\- (e) /(/ + /!) (f) n-x)

SOLUTION

(a) /(2) = 5(2)^ + 3(2) = 20 + 6 = 26

(b) /(-2) = 5(-2)2 + 3(-2) = 20 - 6 = 14

(c) /(r^) = 5(Pf + 3(P) = 5t^ + 3t^

(d) [/(-1)]2 = [5(-l)2 + 3(-l)]- = (5 - 3)2 = 2- = 4

(e) /(/ + h) = 5(t + hf + 3(/ + /i) = 5r + \Qth + 5h^ + 3/ + 3/i

(f) f(-x) = 5{-xf + 3(-;c) = 5;c2 - 3.v

If a function /:x i » y is defined by an equation, you may assume (unless

otherwise stated) that its domain consists of all values of x for which the equation
makes sense and determines a unique corresponding real number v. Then the range
of the function is automatically determined, since it consists of the set of all values
of V that correspond, by the equation that defines the function, to values of ;c in the
domain.

EXAMPLE 2 Find the domain of the function defined by

(a) f(x) = (b) g(x)

,
= V4-J: (c) h(x) = 3.v - 5
X — \

SOLUTION

(a) The domain of/ is the set of all real numbers except 1. In other words, it

consists of the interval (-«>, 1) together with the interval (1, «=).

(b) The expression V4 - x represents a real number if and only if 4 - jc > 0,

that is. A' ^ 4. Therefore, the domain of g is the interval (-=», 4].

(c) Since the expression 3.v — 5 represents a real number for all real values of
X, the domain of h is the set IR of all real numbers.

Functions that arise in applied mathematics may have restrictions imposed on

their domains by physical or geometric circumstances. For instance, the function
X I > TTjr that expresses the correspondence between the radius .v and the area ttv"

of a circle would have its domain restricted to the interval (0, ^), since a circle must
have a positive radius.
The particular letters used to denote the dependent and independent variables are
of no importance in themselves — the important thing is the rule by which a definite
value of the dependent variable is assigned to each value of the independent vari-
able. In appliedwork, variables other than .v and y are often used because physical
and geometric quantities are designated by conventional symbols. For instance, the
radius of a circle is often designated by r and its area by A. Thus, the function
f.r * I
A that assigns to each positive value of r the corresponding value of A is

given by

A =f(r) = ttP-
 SECTION 1.4 FUNCTIONS 25

In dealing with a function/, it is important to distinguish among Xhe function itself

f:x H^ y
which is a rule, the image

fix)

which is a number depending on .v, and the equation

v=/(.v)

which dependent variable y to the independent variable x. Nevertheless,

relates the
people tend to take shortcuts and speak, incorrectly, of "the function /(.v)" or "the
function^ =/(j:)." Similarly, in applied mathematics, people often say that "y is a
function of a." for instance, "current is a function of voltage." Although we avoid
these practices when absolute precision is required, we indulge in them whenever it

seems convenient and harmless.

Figure 1

Figure 2

Figure 3
26 CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

Figure 4 It is important to realize that noi every curve in the Cartesian plane is the graph of
a function. Indeed, the definition of a function (Definition 1) requires that there be
one and only one value of y corresponding to each value of .v in the domain. Thus,
on the graph of a function, we cannot have two points (.v, Vi) and {x, Vt) with the
same abscissa x and different ordinates V] and y^- Hence, we have the following
test.

Vertical-Line Test

A set of points in the Cartesian plane is the graph of a function if and only if no
vertical straight line intersects the set more than once.

EXAMPLE 4 Which of the curves in Figure 4 is the graph of a function?

SOLUTION By the vertical-line test, the curve in Figure 4a is the graph of a

function, but the curve in Figure 4b is not.

Graph Sketching
A basic graph-sketching procedure is the following.

The Point-Plotting Method

To sketch the graph of y =/(.v), select several values of .v in the domain of/,
calculate the corresponding values of/(.v), plot the resulting points, and connect
the points with a smooth curve. The more points you plot, the more accurate your
sketch will be.

After you have learned some calculus, you'll find that you can sketch accurate
graphs by plotting relatively few points. This is a case of substituting knowledge for
tedious labor.

Figure 5
 SECTION 1.4 FUNCTIONS 27

Figure 6

domain of /

(a)

The domain and range of a function are easily found from its graph. Indeed, as
Figure 6 illustrates, the domain of a function is the set of all abscissas of points on
its graph (Figure 6a) and the range of a function is the set of all ordinates of points
on its graph (Figure 6b).

For each function in Examples 6 to 10. determine the domain, sketch the graph, and
determine the range.

EXAMPLE 6 fix) = \x\

SOLUTION The independent variable .v can take on any value, so the domain is

the set !R of all real numbers. For .v > 0, we have/(.v) = x\ hence, the portion of the
graph corresponding to .v > is part of a line of slope 1 starting at the origin and
extending upward into quadrant I. For x < 0, we have f{x) = -.v, so the corre-
sponding portion of the graph is part of a line of slope - The graph
1 . is sketched in
Figure 7 Figure 7. Evidently, /(.v) cannot be negative but can take on any nonnegative value.
Thus, the range of/ is the interval [0, ^). We call/(.>:) = |.v| the absolute-value
function.

x^ - 4
EXAMPLE 7 g(x)

SOLUTION The fraction

jr -4
x-2
is defined for all values of .v except x = 2 (which makes the denominator zero).
Therefore, the domain of g consists of the two intervals (
— ==, 2) and (2, oc). Note
that

x^ -4 = (x + 2)(x - 2)
Figure 8
hence, for jc t^ 2,

x^ - 4 (X + 2)(.v - 2)
= x + 2
x-2
Therefore, provided that x ¥" 2,

gix) =x+2
It follows that the graph of g consists of all points on the line y = x + 2 except for
the point (2, 4), which is excluded (Figure 8). Evidently, the range of ^ is all real
numbers except 4; that is, the range consists of the two intervals ( - -t. 4) and (4, y^).
28 CHAPTER I FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

Figure 9 El EXAMPLE 8 h(x) = 1 + V4 - A

SOLUTION Since V4 - x is defined only when 4 - .v s 0, that is, when x < 4,

the domain of /i is the interval (-5:. 4|. We select several values of .r in this interval

and calculate the corresponding values of

h(x) = I + V4-X
as in the table in Figure 9. Here, we have used a calculator and rounded off values

of h(x) to two decimal places. (If a calculator isn't available, the table of square
roots in Appendix D may be used.) Using the information in this table and the
point-plotting method, we sketch the graph as in Figure 9. Evidently, the range of /i

is the interval [1, ^).

if ;c<4
EXAMPLE 9 F(.V) =
-Zv-l-9 if x>4
Figure 10 SOLUTION A function such as F that is defined by using different equations in
different intervals is called a piecewise-defined function. Here x can take on any
value, so the domain of f is U. In sketching the graph, we must consider separately
the portions to the right and to the left of the vertical line .v = 4. To the right of

jc = 4, the graph is a portion of the line of slope -2, starting at the point (4, 1 ) and
extending downward to the right. To the left of .v = 4, the graph coincides with

the curve sketched in Figure 9. These parts, taken together, form the graph of F
(Figure 10). Evidently, the range of F is R.

IS EXAMPLE 10 G(.v) =
I
- X
SOLUTION The domain of G consists of the two intervals (-^, 1) and(l, ^). If

X is near 1 but a little smaller than 1, then 1

- .v is small and positive, so G(x) =
I/( 1 - .y) is very large and positive. Similarly, if .v is near 1 but a little larger than 1

then 1
— .V is negative and small in absolute value, so G(x) is negative and very
large in absolute value. Also, if .v is very large in absolute value, then so is 1
- .v,

and it follows that G(x) is very small in absolute value. Plotting a few points and
keeping these facts in mind, we can sketch the graph of G (Figure 11). From this

graph, we can see that the range of G consists of all real numbers except for 0; that

is, it consists of the two intervals (-^c, 0) and (0, ==).

Figure 11
 SECTION 1.4 FINCTIONS 29

Problem Set 1.4

In Problems 1 to 14. let 18 Is the graph of the equation .ir + y^ = 9 the graph of a function?
Why or why not?

f(x) = 2x+ \ g(x) = JT - 3.x -4 h(x) = V3.t + 5

Problems 19 to 32. determine the domain, sketch the graph, and
F{x) = 'y\ G{x) = S/x'-A H(x) = |2 - 5.v|
In
determine the range of the given function.
3.V + 7

Find the indicated values. 19 fix) = 4v - 1

1 /(-3) 2 F(i) 3 /i(-i)

4 H(-A) 5 G(VlT) 6 [h(-\)]-

7 5(0) 8/(l/a) 9 «(c + 2)

10 /[U- l)/2] 11 F(a/3) 12 G(Vb)

013 g(4.718) 114 ;i(2.003)

In Problems 15 and 16. find the domain of each function.

15 (a) /(.v) = 1
- 4.\- (b) g(x) = (X + 2)"'

(c) h(x) = Vx (d) F{x) = V5 - 3.V

(e) G(.v) = 7/(5 - dv) (f) A:(a-) = (4 - 5*)'

16 (a) g(.v) = (9 + .v')^-' (b) hlx)

X + \x\

(c) f U) = —
.r^-8
(d) H(x) =
\.v

17 Use the vertical-line test to determine which of the curves in

Figure 12 are graphs of functions.

Figure 12
30 CHAPTER 1 KUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

shrabs at a distance .v kilometers from an industrial city is given shown to be a linear function of h. When h = 0, P =
by p(.r) = 32 - (3.r/50) for 50 < .v s 500. Sketcii a graph of the 1.013 X 10''
newtons per square meter. When h = 1 meter,

function/?, and find /7(50), /?( 100), p(200), p(400), and/7(500). P = 2.003 X 10^ newtons per square meter. Obtain the equation
that defines Z' as a function of h. and use it to find the pressure P
at a depth of h = 100 meters.

042 The period T{l) seconds of a simple pendulum of length / meters

if^mi lt^fitiy.k, ^^-f'f}'. <'**t*'''r^'''
=
swin ging alo ng a small arc is given approximately by r(/)
27rV//9.807. Using a calculator and rounding off your answer
to three decimal places, find 7(0.1), 7(1), 7(1.5), and
7(0.2484).

43 A baseball diamond is a square 90 feet on each side. A player is

running from home plate to first base at a rate of 30 feet per

second. Express the runner's distance .v from second base as a

function of the time / since he left home plate for < < f 3.

44 In Problem 43, suppose the runner continues around the bases at

a constant speed of 30 feet per second. Express his distance i

from second base as a function of r for s s / 12.

1345 A person sketches the graph of/(.r) = 4x* - H.r' + 20.r - 5x

for x > by plotting five points and connecting them with a
smooth curve, as shown in Figure 13. However, the graph is not

correct as shown. Find the error.

Figure 13 y

38 A closed box with a square base x centimeters by x centimeters

has a volume of 100 cubic centimeters. Express the total surface
area A of the exterior of this box as a function of .v. (Assume that
the thickness of the walls is negligible.)

39 An airline chart shows that the temperature T at an altitude of

h = 15,000 feet is 7 = 5° F. At an altitude of h = 20,000 feet,
7 = - 15° F. Supposing that 7" is a linear function of /i, obtain an
equation that defines this function, sketch its graph, and find the
temperature at an altitude h = 30,000 feet.

40 The speed v of a car is measured during a certain time interval

and found to vary according to the equation

_ |60r OS /<
for 5

^"UoO forf>5

where v is measured in meters per minute and the elapsed time t

is measured in seconds. If V is the speed measured in kilometers

per hour and T is the elapsed time measured in minutes, find V

as a function of T.

E41 In physics, the (absolute) pressure P in newtons* per square

meter at a point h meters below the surface of a body of water is
 SECTION 1.5 TVPES OF UNCTIONS 31

1.5 Types of Functions

Grouping, or classifying, is a familiar technique in the natural sciences for dealing
with the immense diversity of things in the real world. For instance, in biology,
plantsand animals are divided into various phyla, classes, orders, families, genera,
and species. In much the same way, functions can be grouped, or classified, by
singling out important features possessed by some functions but not by others. In
this section we describe certain types, or classes, of functions that are considered in
calculus. Among these are even functions, odd functions, polynomial functions,
rational functions, algebraic functions, and transcendental functions.

Even and Odd Functions

Consider the graphs in Figure 1 . The graph of/ (Figure la) is symmetric about the
y axis; that is. the portion of the graph to the right of the y axis is the mirror image of
the portion to the left of it. Specifically, if the point (.v, y) belongs to the graph of
/. then so does the point-.v, y ). In other words, /( -x) = f(x). Similarly, the graph
(

of ^ (Figure lb) symmetric about the origin because if the point (.v, y) belongs to
is

the graph, then so does the point (— .v, — y); that is, g(—x) = —g{x).

Figure I
32 CHAPTKR 1 Fl'NCTIONS AND LIMITS

Figure 2 EXAMPLE 1 Determine whether each of the functions whose graphs are shown in
Figure 2 is even, odd, or neither.

SOLUTION In Figure 2a. the graph of/ is symmetric about the origin; thus.
/(— -v) = —/(.v) and/ is an odd function. In Figure 2b, the graph of ^ is symmetric
neither about the y axis nor about the origin, so ^ is neither even nor odd. In
Figure 2c, the graph of h is symmetric about the y axis; thus, h(-x) = h(x) and h
is an even function.

EXAMPLE 2 Determine whether each function is even. odd. or neither.

(a) f(x) = .V* (b) g(x) = x- \

(c) h(x) = Ir - 3|jc| (d) F(x) = X-'

SOLUTION

(a) /(-.v)= (-x)* = x^ =/(.r), so /is an even function.

(b) g(-.v) = -A - 1, while g(x) = x - \ and -g{x) = -.v + 1. Since we
have neither g(-x) = g(x) nor g(-.v) = — gU), g is neither even nor odd.

(c) h(—x) = 2(— .v)- — 3|— = 2ir — 3|.r| = h(x), so is an even function.
.r| /i

(d) F(—x) = (—xf = — .r^ = — F(.v). so F is an odd function.

There are many functions that are neither even nor odd; however, if a function is

found to be either even or odd. the job of sketching its graph becomes easier
because of the symmetry involved.

EXAMPLE 3 Sketch the graph of F(x) = x^.

SOLUTION The domain of F is the set U. Because

F(-.v) = (-v)- = .r' = fU)

the function F is even and its graph is symmetric about the y axis. We already
sketched the portion of this graph for x > in Section 1 .4 (Figure 5, page 26). The
full graph includes the mirror image of this portion on the other side of the y axis
and the point (0, 0) (Figure 3).

Figure 3
 SECTION 1.5 TYPES OF FUNCTIONS 33

Figure 4
34 CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

Figure 6

a>0
 SECTION 1.5 TYPES OF FUNCTIONS 35

Illuminated fountain, St. Louis, Missouri,

showing parabolic jets of water

Algebra of Functions
Sometimes functions are classified by the way in whicii they are formed from
simpler functions. For instance, new functions can be formed from old ones by
addition, subtraction, multiplication, or division. Thus, if f{x) = x- — 2 and
g(x) = -iv + 1, we can form the new function h{x} = f{x) + g(x) = x^ - ix - 1

simply by adding /(.v) and g{x). Naturally, we refer to the function h as the sum of
the functions / and g and write h =f + g (Figure 8). Notice that the graph of h is

obtained from the graphs of/ and g by adding corresponding ordinates; for instance,
h(-2)=f(-2) + g(-2).
It should be clear that any two functions with intersecting domains can be added
as shown.* In a similar way, subtraction, multiplication, and division of functions
can be accomplished. The following definition shows exactly how this is done.

Figure

;i(.v) = /(.v) + g(.v)

*This idea is crucial in applied mathematics, since the functions that describe natural phe-
nomena (for example, light waves or sound waves) often add when the phenomena are

combined.
36 CHAPIER 1 FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

DEFINITION 2 Sum, Difference, Product, and Quotient of Functions

Let/
 SECTION 1.5 TYPES OF FUNCTIONS 37

Figure 9

X
38 CHAFTER 1 FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

Discontinuous Functions
Many functions considered in elementary calculus have graphs that are "con-
nected" in the sense that they consist of one continuous piece. Such functions,
which are said to be continuous, are discussed in detail in Section 1.9. In order to
fully understand and appreciate the nature of continuous functions, it is sometimes
useful to examine specific functions that are not continuous. One of the more inter-
esting discontinuous functions is the greatest-integer function . which, like the abso-
lute-value function, has its own special symbol.

DEFINITION 5 Greatest-Integer Function

If .V is a real number, the symbol Uxl] denotes the greatest integer not exceeding .v;

that is, II-vl] is the integer that is nearest to .v but is less than or equal to .v. The
greatest-integer function is the function / defined by/(.v) = H-vJ.

Note that Qa]] is the unique integer satisfying the condition

PB x< + 1

For instance, p. 71) = 3, IM =

= 3. [[-2.7]] = -3,
0, 113.234334]]
[1-2.343341] = -3, 1]-^ = -1, [lV3]l = I, Q21] = 2, and [1-2D = -2. A
table of values of Q.v]] for -3 ^ .v < 4 follows, and the corresponding graph of
f(x) = [].v]] is shown in Figure 10:

-3 for -3 <.x< -2
-2 for -2<.v< -1
-1 for - <X< 1

for < < .V 1

1 for 1 < < .t 2

2 for 2 < < a: 3
3 for 3 <X< 4

In Figure 10, we use small dots to emphasize that the left-hand endpoints of the
horizontal line segments belong to the graph, and we use small open circles to
indicate that the right-hand endpoints do not belong to the graph. The discontinuous
nature of the greatest-integer function is apparent from its graph.

Figure 10
 SECTION 1.5 TYPES OF FUNCTIONS 39

Problem Set 1.5

1 For each function in Figure 1 1 . find the domain and range and
determine whether the function is even, odd, or neither.

Figure II
40 CHAPTER I FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

2 Is there any function that is both even and odd? If not. why not? 30 Sketch the graph of fix) = Ir + k for (a) * = 0, (b) t = 1 , and
If so. give an example. (c) A- = -I.

In Problems 31 to 36, rewrite each function /in the form /(a) =

In Problems 3 to II. decide whether the function is even, odd, or
aix - h)' + k by completing the square.
neither.

31 fix) = AT + 2r - 4 32 fix) =.r - 12x + 5

3 f(x) = jr* + 3 4 g(x) = -X* + Ijr + \

33 fix) = 3.r - lOx - 2 34 fix) = 2xr + 3x - \

S f(x) =x* + x 6 g(t) = i' + \t\

35 fix) = -2x^ + 6.r + 3 36 /(.r) = ir^ - 6x - 7

1 F(x) = 5.r' + 7.r 8 /(/) = -t^ + lt

V8?T7 VTTT In Problems 37 to 40, sketch the graph of each function.

9 h(x) = 10 Av) =
\y\

37 fix) = 2(;( -1)^ + 3 38 /i(.v) = -iix +1)^-4

l./(.v) = 4--^' = -2U + 2)2-3 = Hx+ \)^-i
r+ 1
39 gix) 40 pix)

12 (a) Show that the function f U) = Vjlj is even, (b) Using the 41 Let fix) = -3.ir - lit - 1. (a) By completing the square,
rewrite/ in the form fix) = aix - h)- + k. (b) Sketch the
symmetry implied by the fact that F is even, and Figure 9,
sketch the graph of F. graph of/

42 Prove Theorem 1 . [Hint: Begin by rewriting

In Problems 13 to 20, decide whether the function is a polynomial =

fix) ax' + bx + c
function. If it is a polynomial function, indicate the degree (if any)
and identify the coefficients.
fix ) = a(x^ + ^x )
+
13 fix) = 6a- - 3.t - 8 14 f(x) = .t"' + 2x
Then complete the square.]
15 gix) = (X - 3)U - 2) - .x^ 16 /(.v) = 2-
43 In each case, evaluate if+g)ix), if-g)ix), if-g)ix), and
17 F(x) = VZt" - 5" V + 20 18 /(.«) = 210x"' - 1 l.r - 40 if/g)ix).

19 g(x) = (a) fix) = 2v - 5 and gix) = jr + I

(b) fix) = Vx and gix) = x^ + 4

20 h{x) = ^x-' - 6.r + 12v - 8
(c) fix) = 3a: + 5 and gix) = 1 - 4x
21 Explain in your own words the distinction between the constant (d) fix) = Vjc+ 3 and gix) = \/x
function / defined by the equation f(x) = 2 and the real num- = = -
(e) fix) |jc| and gix) \x 2\
ber 2.
if) fix) = ax + band gix) = ex + d
22 Is the function fix) = .v~' + [(.v - l)/.v] a constant function?
44 Suppose that /and
g are even functions. Show that/ + g,f - g,
f-g, ai\df/g are also even functions.
In Problems 23 to 26, determine a linear function/that satisfies the

condition. 45 Specify whether the algebraic function is a rational function.

3.V .V + 1
(a) fix) = .

gix)
(b) " =
23 /(2) = 5 and/(-3) = 7 24 /(2v + 3) = 2/(.v) + 3 .V - 1 S/l'C + 5

25 f{5x ) = 5/U 26 fix + 1) = fix) + /(7)

(c) fix) = AT + It + 1 (d) /(/) =
2r' + 5
27 A number r is called a zero of a function/ if /(r) = 0. Prove that
6f2
every nonconstant linear function has a zero. (e) /(/) = -T}
't+ 1

28 Let / be a function with domain IR. Prove that

46 Show that

/(fc + (l - t)d) = tfic) + il -t)fid)

fix)
holds for every three numbers c, d. and I if and only if/ is linear. I -.r I +JC

29 Sketch the graph of fix) = or for (a) a = 3, (b) a = -3, is a rational function by rewriting it as a ratio of polynomial
(c) a = i. and (d) a = -J. functions. What is the domain of/?
 SECTION 1.6 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 41

In Problems 47 to 53, sketch the graph of the function and specify its (a) Find sgn (-2), sgn (-3), sgn 0, sgn 2, sgn 3, and sgn 151.
domain and its range. (b) Prove that |j:|
=x sgn .v is true for all values of x. (c) Prove
that sgn iab) = (sgn a)(sgn b) is true for all values of a and b.

47 H{x) = \x+ l\ 48 h(x) = -3\x\ +X (d) Sketch the graph of the signum function, (e) Find the domain
and the range of the signum function, (f) Sketch the graph of the
49 f(.x) = II3.VE 50 h(x) = \[x]\+ X
function / defined by/(.v) = sgn (x - 1). (g) Explain why the

51 fix) = dixl] 52 G(x) = IIWI) sgn function is discontinuous.

53 g(x) = lE.TllI
[356 In economics, the profit function P from the sale of goods is
related to the revenue function R from the sale and the cost C of
54 Let/ be any function with domain R. (a) Define a function g by producing the goods by the equation P = R - C. Suppose that

the equation g(x) = {f(x) + f(—x)]/2. Prove that g is even, the revenue function R (in dollars) and the cost function C (in

(b) Define a function h by the equation h{x) = [/(x) — f(—x)]/2. dollars) for a product are given by R(x) = 25.x + (.x-^/250)

Prove that /; is odd. (c) Prove that/(.r) = g{x) + htx) holds for and C(x) = 100 + 3x + (.x^/30), where x is the number of units
all Jr. Thus, conclude that any function with domain U is the sum of the- product manufactured and sold. Find the equation that

of an even function and an odd function, (d) Suppose that G is an describes the profit function P; also find f (350), ^(375), and
even function with domain R, that is an odd function with H /'(400). Sketch the graph of P, and find the smallest and largest

domain IR, = G{x) + H{x) holds for all x. Prove

and that/(.ic) values of the production level .x for which the profit is positive.

that G{x) = = h(x) for all values of x.

gtx) and that H(x) Also find the production level for which the profit is maximum.
(e) Show that/is even if and only if/(.x) = g(x) holds for all x.
057 The sum of all expenses, such as insurance, rent, and salaries,
(0 Show that /is odd if and only iff(x) = h(x) holds for all .v. incurred by a manufacturer even when no items are produced is

55 The signum function (abbreviated sgn) is defined by known as the fixed cost F. The part of the total cost of production
C that varies with the level of production x is called the variable
flvl
cost V. (a) Write an equation for C in terms of F and V. (b) If
sgn A- X F= 500 dollars and V (in dollars) is given by V(.x) = .x^ + 4.x,

if .X = find a formula for C(x) and sketch the graph of C.

1.6 Trigonometric Functions

Figure 1 This section is intended as a concise review of the basic trigonometry that you will
need in the rest of the book. To facilitate your review, much of the material is
arc length = f
presented in somewhat condensed, "outline" form.

Radian Measure of Angles

Although the degree measure of angles is used in most elementary applications of
trigonometry, more advanced applications (especially those that involve calculus)
require radian measure. One radian is the measure of an angle that has its vertex at

Figure 2 the center of a circle (that is, a central angle) and intercepts an arc on the circle
equal in length to the radius r (Figure 1).

A central angle of 2 radians in a circle of radius /• intercepts an arc of length 2r on

the circle, a central angle of | radian intercepts an arc of length |r, and so forth.
More generally, if a central angle AOB of 6 radians (0 is the Greek letter theta)

intercepts an arc AB of length 5 on a circle of radius r (Figure 2), then we have

s = rB
42 CHAPTER I FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

It follows that the radian measure 6 of angle AOB is given by the foimula

Figure 3
For instance, if a central angle in a circle of radius r = 27 meters intercepts an arc of
length .9 = 9 meters, then the measure of the angle in radians is given by 6 = sjr =
^= 3 radian.

A central angle of 360° corresponds to 1 revolution; hence it intercepts an arc

5 = 2vr equal to the entire circumference of the circle (Figure 3). Therefore, if 8 is

the radian measure of the 360° angle.

27rr
Itt radians

that is. 360° = 2n radians, or

1
80° = 77 radians

You can use this relationship to convert degrees to radians and vice versa. In partic-
ular,

180 \°
1° = radian and 1 radian =
180

so we have the following rule:

Multiply degrees by 77/180° to convert to radians, and multiply radians by

180°/ 77 to convert to degrees.

For instance,

60° =
180°
(60°) radians = — radians
3

137T 180° / 1377

and radians = I
234°
10 77 ^ 10

Note that when radian measures are expressed as rational multiples of n. we may
leave them in that form rather than write them as decimals. Also, when angles are
measured in radians, the word "radian" is often omitted. For instance, rather than
writing 60° = 77-/3 radians, we =
Therefore, when no unit of angular
write 60° 7r/3.

measure is indicated, always understood that radian measure is intended.

it is

Table 1 gives the corresponding degree and radian measures of certain special
angles.

Table I

Degree measure
 SECTION 1.6 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 43

Figure 4 A sector OPQ of acircle is th e region inside the circle bounded by the arc PQ and
the radial segments OP and OQ (Figure 4). If the central angle POQ has a measure
of radians and r is the radius of the circle, then the area A of the sector is given by
the formula

er

Indeed, the area of the circle is in^. and the sector occupies a fraction dj(lTr) of this
area, so

e Or-
A =
,
777- =
Itt 2

The Trigonometric Functions

Figure 5 In order to define the six trigonometric functions, we begin with any real number t

and measure out an angle of |r| radians, starting at the positive x axis and turning
counterclockwise about the origin if r > and clockwise if r < (Figure 5). Then
we choose any positive number r and draw the circle .ir + y- = r^ of radius r with
center at the origin. Let (.v, y) be the point at which the terminal side of the angle
meets the circle. Now the values at t of the six trigonometric functions are de-
fined by

sin f = —
r
44 CHAPTER I FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

By using a little geometry, you can find the exact values of the trigonometric
functions at the special values of / shown in Table 2. (Dashes in the table indicate

that the function is undefined at the corresponding value of /.)

Table 2

Value of 1
 SECTION 1.6 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 45

Figure 6

indefinitely. It is precisely the wavelike nature of the sine and cosine functions that
makes thein so useful in applied mathematics. Indeed, many natural phenomena,
from electromagnetic waves to the ebb and flow of the tides, are periodic, and so
these functions are indispensable in the construction of mathematical descriptions or
models for such phenomena.
46 CHAPTER I FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

Trigonometric Identities
The six trigonometric functions satisfy certain identities that are routinely derived in

precalcuius mathematics courses. For your convenience, these standard identities

are listed on the inside front cover of this textbook.

In Examples 2 and 3, use the standard trigonometric identities to simplify the given
expression.

EXAMPLE 2 (sin X + cos .v)- - sin 2x

SOLUTION We use the Pythagorean identity

sin- .V + COS" .V = 1

and the double-angle identity

sin Iv = 2 sin .X cos .v

Thus,

(sin .V + cos ,v)- — sin Zv = sin- .v + 2 sin x cos x + cos" x — sin 2v

= sin- .V + COS" .V + 2 sin x cos x — sin Zx
= 1 + sin 2v - sin It
= 1

EXAMPLE 3 sin (.V + 77)

SOLUTION We use the addition formula

sin (x + y) = sin x cos v -I- sin y cos .v

with y = T. Recall that

cos TT 1 and sin 7J- =
Thus, sin (.V -I- tt) = sin x cos tt + sin ir cos x
= (sin.v)(-l) -I- (OKcosA-)
= —sin X

Right-Triangle Trigonometry
If we denote one of the two acute angles in a right triangle by 6. we can abbreviate
the lengths of the side opposite 6. the hypotenuse, and the side adjacent to 6 as opp.
hyp, and adj, respectively (Figure 7). Then

Figure 8
sin e = -^^
hyp

cos e = —adj
hyp

tan e = -^ opp
adj
 SECTION 1.6 TRIGONOMETRIC FL'NCTIONS 47

Figure 9 EXAMPLE 4 Find the values of the six trigonometric functions of the acute angle i

in Figure 9.

SOLUTION For angle 0. we have

adj = 5 and hyp = 13

but opp isn't given. However, by the Pythagorean theorem,

adj- + opp- = hyp-

Figure 10
so that

opp- = hyp- - adj- = 13- - 5" = 144

Figure 11

Figure 12
48 CHAPTKR I FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

Figure 13
 SECTION 1.5 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 49

Figure 16
(see Figure 4). In right triangle OQS. we have

tan, = ^ MMadj
=
\0Q\
=
1

so that

\QS\ = tan ;

Therefore, the areaA^ of right triangle OQS (one-half height times base) is given by

AT=i\QS\\OQ\ =|(tan/)(l) = itanr

Evidently, the area Ac of the circular sector POQ is smaller than the area Ar of
triangle OQS\ that is,

Ac<At
or

I? < 5 tan t

Therefore,

r < tan /

It follows that

r cos r < sin ;

that is,

The inequality

< 1

follows from Theorem Combining

1. the inequalities we have obtained, we have
sm t
< cos / < < 1

as claimed in Theorem 2.

THEOREM 3 Comparison of 1 - cos t and r^/2

If < \r\ < 77-, then 1

1 - cos /I <—
'
1

PROOF From the half-angle formula

. . t 1

Sin-Y = y(l - COS t)

(see inside front cover), we have

|l - cos t\ = 2 sin--
 50 CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

If < |/| < 77. then < |//2| < 7t/2; hence, by the remark following Theorem I

sin —
t \

<
\

—t

I 2 1 I 2

Therefore,

|sin-y| = |smy| <\-\ =-

and it follows that

— = ^ ' 1 .( '^\ ^
1 cos t\ 2 sin

Problem Set 1,6

In Problems 1 to 6, s denotes the length of the arc intercepted on a

circle of radius r by a central angle of radians. Find the missing

quantity.

1 r = 2 meters, S = 1 .65 radians, s = ?

2 r = 1.8 centimeters, 0=8 radians, s = ?

3 r = 9 feet, s= 12 feet. 0= ?

4 i = 477 kilometers, 6 = tt/1 radians, r = ?

5 r = 12 inches, S = Stt/IS radian. s = l

6 r = 5 meters, s = 1377 meters, 9 = ?

1 Convert each degree measure to radians. Do not use a calculator.

Write your answers as rational multiples of 77.

(a) 30° (b) 45° (c) 90° (d) 120°

(e)-150° (f) 520° (g) 72° (h) 67.5°

(i) -330° (j) 450° (k) 21° (1) -360°

51 8 each degree measure to an approxi-

U.se a calculator to convert

mate radian measure expressed as a decimal. Round off all an-

swers to four decimal places.

(a) 7°
 SECTION 1.6 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 51

25 Use the standard identities (inside front cover) to simplify each

expression.

(a) (1 — cos /)(! + cos I) (b) 2 sin t cos r esc t

(c) sec" I (csc" / - l)(sin I + \) - esc i

1 + cot- /
(d) (e)
sec t sec / — 1

38
26 Show that

(a) cos
(f
(b) sin (?-') =

(c) tan (f + 77) = tan / (d) tan I f + -cot I

27 (a) Use the fact that 45° + 30° = 75° to find the exact values of
sin 75° and cos 75°. (b) Find the exact values of tan 75°.
39 If < < n/2 and x = 2 sin 6. find sec 6 in terms of .r.

cot 75°, sec 75°, and esc 75°. =

40 If < < 77/2 and .t 3 tan 0, find esc 6 in terms of x.

28 Using the standard trigonometric identities, prove that 41 < 8 < and r = 5 sec 0. find cos in terms of
If 77/2 z.
cos 3r = 4 cos^ / - 3 cos t. Then use this to show that

cos (7r/9) is a solution of the equation 8.v^ — 6ic — 1 = 0. 42 If < e < 77/2 and 3m = 2 tan S, find sin 6 in terms of u.

29 Simplify, 43 If Z, is a line with inclination and slope m, show that m= Ian 6

sin" 2t cos f - sin t in the cases where 6 = and where 7r/2 < < tt.

(a) .. ,, .... + 1 (b)'

(1 +
.

cos 2t)- '

"
sin 2r 44 An irrigation ditch has a cross section in the shape of an isosce-
(c) cos^ 2r - sin- t (d) tan f - esc f (1 2 cos- r) sec t les trapezoid that is wider at the top than at the bottom (Fig-

(e) cos {s - t) cos t — sin {s - t) sin t

ure 17). The bottom and equal sides of the trapezoid are each 2
meters long. If 6 is the acute angle between the horizontal and
30 Suppose that sin / = if and cos s = - i, where tt/2 < t <tt the side of the ditch, show that the cross-sectional area A of the
and IT12 < s <Tr. Find the exact values of ditch is given by A = 4 sin fl (1 -I- cos 6).

(a) sin (s - t) (b) cos (s + t) (c) cot (.s

- t)

In Problems 31 to 38, find the values of the six trigonometric func- Figure 17
tions of the acute angle 6.

31

]45 From a point on level ground 75 meters from the base of a

television transmitting tower, the angle of elevation of the top of
the tower is 68. 17°. Find the height h of the tower (Figure 18).

33 34

Figure 18

35 36

2v^
 52 CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

E146 A high-altitude military reconnaissance jet photographs a missile panel and the ground be equal to the latitude of its location.

silo under construction near a small town. The jet is at an alti- Assuming that this recommendation has been followed, find the

tude of 57. 000 feet, and the angles of depression of the town and surface area of the panel. (Round off your answer to three deci-

silo are 60° and 30°. respectively (Figure 19). Assuming that the mal places.)
jet, the silo, and the town lie in the .same vertical plane, find the
048 Biologists studying the migration of birds are following a mi-
distance between the town and the silo.
grating flock in a light plane. The birds are flying at a constant
altitude of 1200 feet, and the plane is following at a constant
Figure 19 altitude of 1700 feet. The biologists must maintain a distance of
at least 600 feet between the plane and the flock to avoid disturb-
liorizontal line
ing the birds; therefore, they must monitor the angle of depres-
sion of the flock from the plane. Find the maximum allowable
angle of depression, rounded off to the nearest degree.

49 (a) Use the half-angle formulas

57,000 fcot

= —-( 1
- cos .v) and cos" —=— (1 -I- cos x)

to help show that

y<cos-y for < <— .r

2

(b) Using the result of part (a), show that < sin f < cos ; holds
E147 A rectangular panel to collect solar energy rests on flat ground
for < < f 7r/4. (Hint: Let x = It. ) (c) Use the result of part (b)
and toward the sun. The edge resting on the ground is
is tilted
to show that < tan / < 1 holds for < <
f 7r/4.
3.217 meters long, and the upper edge is 1.574 meters above the
ground. The panel is located near Chicago, and its latitude is 50 For small values of t, sin t = tan ;. Prove this by establishing
41.8°. Solar engineers recommend that the angle between the the inequality |sin ; - tan /| < r/2 for < |f| < Tr/4.

1.7 Limits of Functions

Figure I
 SECTION 1.7 LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS 53

More generally, if/ is a function and a is a number, we understand the notation

lim f(x) = L

which is read "the limit oi f{x) as .v approaches a is L," to mean comes

that/(jr)

closer and closer to the number L as x comes closer and closer to the number a.
Although we give a more formal definition at the end of this section, you can
acquire a working understanding of limits by considering further examples and
geometric illustrations.

EXAMPLE 2 Determine lim (5x + 7).

SOLUTION As X comes closer and closer to 4, 5x comes closer and closer to 20,

and 5x + 1 comes closer and closer to 27. Therefore, lim {5x + 7) = 27.

Unfortunately, it isn't always possible to determine the limit of a function by

simple arithmetic considerations as in the preceding example. In the first place, the
function values may jump around so erratically that they never settle down and
approach a limit, inwhich case we say that the limit does not exist. (Later we give
some examples in which limits do not exist; however, in the present section, our
examples are chosen so that all required limits exist.) In the second place, the
function may be so complicated that the limit, even though it exists, is not evident

by superficial inspection.
For instance, let

-ir - Ax
/(.v)

and consider the problem of determining lim f{x). Here, it is not immediately clear

just how/(jf) behaves as .v approaches 2; however, we can gain some insight into
this behavior by using a calculator to find some values of /(x) as x gets closer and
closer to 2 but stays less than 2. These values are shown in the following table:
54 CHAPTER 1 FlINCTIONS AND LIMITS

This guess can be verified by some elementary algebra, as in the following

example.

3a- - 4.V - 4
EXAMPLE 3 Determine lim
.V - 2

SOLUTION Let

3.x- - 4.V - 4
fix)

Then the domain of/consists of all real numbers .v except for .v = 2 (which makes
the denominator zero). We are only concerned with the values of /(.r) as .v ap-
proaches 2 — what happens when .v reaches 2 is not in question here. For j: # 2,

3.V- - 4.V - 4 (3.V + 2)(.v - 2)

fix)
= = = 3.V + 2
.V - 2 .V — 2

Therefore, as .v comes closer and closer to 2,/(.v) comes closer and closer to 8; that
is,

3.x- - 4.V - 4
lim f(x) = lim = lim (3.v + 2) = 8
x->2-' .x-*2 x-2 x^2

The limit found in the preceding example can be illustrated geometrically by

sketching a graph of the function

3.x- - 4.V - 4
f(x) =
.V - 2
Figure 2
(Figure 2). Since /(.v) = 3.v + 2 holds for x ¥^ 2, this graph is a line with the point
(2, 8) excluded. Figure 2 makes it clear that the value of/(.v) can be made to come
as close to 8 as we please simply by choosing x to be sufficiently close to 2 (but not
x*2 equal to 2).
We see from Figure 2 that:

In finding the limit of/(j:) as a' approaches a, it does not matter how/ is defined
at a (or even whether it is defined there at all). The only thing that does matter is

how / is defined for values of .v near a.

Sometimes, you can use special algebraic tricks to simplify an expression so that

its limit becomes apparent.

V^-1
IS EXAMPLE 4 Find lim and check your result numerically with a cal
V — I
.V - 1

culator.

SOLUTION The desired limit, if it exists at all. is certainly not clear as things
stand. But, by multiplying both the numerator and the denominator of the fraction
by Vx + 1, we "rationalize the numerator" and obtain

Vx - 1 (Va - 1)(Va+ 1)

(.v-1)(Va+1) (.v- 1)(Va + 1) Va+1

 SECTION 1.7 LLVllTS OF FUNCTIONS 55

Now, as .r comes closer and closer to 1 , Vjc comes closer and closer to 1 , V? + 1

comes closer and closer to 2, and \/(\G. + 1) comes closer and closer to s. There-
fore,

V^- 1
=
1
lim lim
..-1 X - 1 ^-1 V^ + 1 2

Using a calculator, we find several values of (\^v — \)/(x — 1) for values of a: less

than 1. but approaching 1. Thus.

X
56 CHAPTER I FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

Consider, for instance, the problem of finding

sin X
lim
JT—O X

It's difficult to think of any algebraic trick that will simplify (sin .v)/.v so that its limit

as jc -* will become apparent. Using a calculator (in radian mode), you can verify

the entries in the following table:

v
 SECTION 1.7 LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS 57

Geometrically, lim f(x) = L means that, for a; ¥= a, we can guarantee that /(a:) is in

any given small open interval around L if we make sure that jr is in a suitably small
open interval around a.
Now, we summarize these considerations in a formal definition of limit.

DEFINITION 1 Limit

Let/be a function defined on some open interval containing a, except possibly at

the number a itself. The statement lim /(.v) = L means that, for each positive

number e, there exists a positive number 5 such that |/(.v) - L\ < e holds when-
ever < l.v
— n| < 6.

EXAMPLE 5 Given e = 0.03, determine a positive 8 so that |(3.v + 7) - l| < e

whenever < |jc
— — 2)| < 5.
(

SOLUTION We have

|(3.x-l-7)- 1| = |3.r-l-6| = |3(.v + 2)1 = 3|x + 2| and |a:

- (-2)| = |a: + 2|

hence, we must find a positive 8 such that

3|.v + 2| < 0.03 holds whenever < |.v + 2| < 5

The condition 3|.v + 2| < 0.03 is equivalent to |.v + 2| < 0.03/3 = 0.01; hence, we
must determine a positive 8 such that

|.v + 2| < 0.01 holds whenever < |.v + 2| < 5

Obviously, 8 = 0.01 works. So does any smaller positive value of 5.

EXAMPLE 6 Use Definition 1 to prove that lim (3.v + 7) = 1.

SOLUTION Let e > 0. We must find 6 > such that |(3x + 7) - l| < e holds
whenever < |.v - (-2)| < 6, that is, whenever < |jr -I- 2| < 5. Just as in Exam-
ple 5, we have
|(3.v + 7) - 1|
= 3|jf + 2|

Therefore, the condition |(3.v + 7) - l| < e is equivalent to 3|.v + 2| < e, that is,

|x + 2| < e/3. Hence, we must determine a positive 8 such that

\x -I- 2 < holds whenever < Lv + 2 < 5

Obviously, 8 = e/3 works. So does any smaller positive value of 5. This proves
that

lim^ (3.V -^ 7) = 1

In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the creators of calculus had to man-
age with something like the intuitive idea of limit that we first introduced — and they
had no electronic calculators with which they could quickly check their results. In
finding limits, they had to depend on geometric and numerical insights that were
developed and sharpened by laborious calculations. It wasn't until 1821 that the
great French mathematician Augustin Louis Cauchy (1789-1857) proposed a more
precise definition of limit. Definition 1 is a somewhat refined and perfected version
Augustin Louis Cauchy of Cauchy 's idea of the meaning of limit.
58 CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

Problem Set 1.7

In Problems 1 to 6, determine the limit and sketch a graph of each X

function to illustrate the limit involved.

1 lim ix 2 lim (3.r - 6)

3 lim^ (2 - 3x) 4 lim —2

x^i X

r -9 6 lim -2x\
5 lim |1
3 .V - 3

In Problems 7 to 14, use elementary algebra to simplify each expres-

sion so that its limit becomes apparent. Then IS check your result

numerically by using a calculator to fill in the blanks in the accom-

panying table.

*^ - 5.t -I- 6
7 lim
-2 x-2
 SECTION 1.7 LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS 59

14 lim [Hint: Multiply numerator and denominator by

>r->i X-—
X 1

( Vx)- + V(v + 1

X
60 CHAPIER 1 FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

1.8 Properties of Limits of Functions

Although graphs, "hunches," and numerical evidence generated by a calculator

can provide means for guessing the value of a limit, such a value must be viewed
with suspicion until it is confirmed. The formal e, 8 definition (Definition 1, Sec-
tion 1 .7) is a reliable means for confirming the true value of a limit, but it provides
few clues for finding such a value in the first place. Furthermore, direct use of the
definition can be difficult — it may not be easy to find a d that works for a given e.

In practical work, limits are often determined by using certain properties that can
be shown to follow deductively from the e, 8 definition. If you have managed a
good intuitive grasp of the idea of a limit, most of these properties should seem
quite reasonable, if not obvious. We recommend that you become familiar with
these properties and their use before studying their proofs (in Appendix B). At first,

in order to show you how the limit properties work, we have deliberately chosen
some very simple examples in which the limits themselves are more or less appar-
ent. Later in this section we use these properties to help prove some important
theorems about limits of trigonometric functions.

The Constant and Identity Properties

1 lim c = c
 SECTION 1.8 PROPERTIES OF LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS 61

The Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, and Division Properties

Suppose that lim /(.v) = L and lim ^(.y) = M. Then

4 Im [fix) + g(x)] = lim /U) + lim g{x) =L + M

5 |im [fix) - gix)\ = lim fix) - lim gix) = L- M
6 Im [fix) -gix)] = [lim/(jc)][Jim gix)] = LM

, ,. fix) J!iP/(^> L
' '™ ~7T ^ T TT = TT provided that A/ ^

EXAMPLE 3 Find:

(a) lim
v^3
ix+ \) (b) lim
.v^3
U- D (c) lim ix
.v^3
+ l)ix - 1) (d) lim ^^
v^3 X - 1

SOLUTION
(a) lim ix + 1) = lim a + lim 1 (Property 4)

= 3+1 (Properties 2 and 1)

= 4
(b) lim (jT - 1) = lim .v - lim 1 (Property 5)

= 3—1 (Properties 2 and 1)

= 2

(c) jim (x + 1)(a: - 1) = [jim ix + l)][lim (jc - 1)] (Property 6)

= (4)(2)

^^ J
lim^ ix + 1)
(d) lim
V— 3 X -
= ^j^
hm (.V - (Property
f J 7) '
I 1)

_ 4_

= 2

The Power, Root, and Absolute- Value Properties

62 CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

EXAMPLE 4 Find:
 SECTION 1.8 PROPERTIES OF LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS 63

Therefore,
64 CHAPTER I FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

EXAMPLE 8 Find lim x cos — 1

SOLUTION Because values of the cosine always lie between — and

1 1 inclusive,
we have

Lv cos —Mill
= cos — |.v|
1 1

< I

|jr|
I

•
1 = \x\
I .V I I X \

for all values of .v other than 0. Therefore,

— II ^ |.r| X cos —< 1 I

\x\
,

holds for all values of ^ other than 0. By Properties 10, 3, and 2,

lim l.vl = and lim (-U|) =

Hence, by Property 12,

lim A cos —=
1

The following properties can be used to rewrite limits in equivalent alternative

forms.

The Alternative-Form Properties

13 lim/(.v)
 SECTION 1.8 PROPERTIES OF LEVUTS OF FIINCTIONS 65

SOLUTION By Theorem 3 in Section 1.6,

s |cos x — 1 1 < ijr

holds for every value of .r in the open inter\al (-77, tt) except for .v = 0. By
Properties 1, 3, 8, and 2, we have both

lim =

and

lim ic^ = i lim r^ = * • 0- =

JT^O x-*0

Therefore, by the squeezing property (Property 12),

lim Icos x — 1 1
=

Hence, by Property 13, it follows that

lim cos jc = 1

THEOREM 1 Limits of sin x and cos x

66 CHAPTER I FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

In Section 1.7. our calculator work suggested that

sin X
lim = 1

Now we can prove this important tact.

THEOREM 2 Limit of (sin x)/x

sin .V
lim = 1

PROOF By Theorem 2 in Section 1 .6.

sin X
cos A < < 1

holds for < A- < tt/2. If -77/2 <x< 0, then < -x < tt/2. and we have

sin (-.v)
cos -a) < < 1

Because cos (— .v) = cos x and sin (—a) = —sin a, it follows that

sin A
cos X < < 1

also holds for -n/2 < x < 0. Therefore, it holds for every value of a in the open
interval (
— 7r/2, it/2), except for a = 0. Hence, by the squeezing property (Property
12) together with the facts that

lim cos A = 1 and lim 1 = 1

we can conclude that

sin A
lim = 1
V ^O A

sin 5a:
EXAMPLE 12 Evaluate lim

SOLUTION Let V = 5a, and note that v -^ when a -^ 0. Because a = v/5, we

have

lim
x^O
sin 5a
= hm,.

V—
—sm7^ = v^O
v ,,
lim
/^sin v\
5
X /5
v/5 \ V '

sin V
= 5 lim — (Property 3)

= 5(1) (Theorem 2)

= 5

The method used in Example 12 substituting y — for 5a — is generalized and made

more precise by the following property.
 SECTION l.g PROPERTIES OF LIMITS OF Fl-NCTIONS 67

The Substitution Property*

Suppose that lim Av) exists and that lim g(.v) = c. Then, provided that/(g(.r))
is defined
fined and g(x) # c for all va
values of .t in an open interval containing a except
possibly
ibly for jr = a, it follows that
tl

15 lim/(g(.r))= lim/(.v)

EXAMPLE 13 Find lim cos r^ - —

SOLUTION Here, the idea is to make the substitution v = x- - (7r/3), so that
cos [.V- - (7r/3)] = cos v. Informally, we would proceed by notina that as .v -^ 0,
y -^ -~tt/1>: hence.

lim cos (a- --) = ^Jim^^ cos v = cos (- ~) (Theorem 1

This procedure justified by taking /O) = = - (V3)

is
cos v, g(x) .v^ a = and
c = -(-/3) in Property 15.

THEOREM 3 Limit of (1 - COS x)lx

1 — cos A
hm =

PROOF By the half-angle formula.

—
sin- —= 1 cos X
2
Therefore.

1 - cos A ^ 2 sin- (A-/2) _ sin- (.v/Z)

Now we use the substitution property (Property

15) with v = -^
v/2 Note that v
when A ^ Therefore.
0.

lim i-Zf^= H„ i!5l(V2l^ j^^

^iiry
(Property 15)
-0 a/2

= lim sin v ) (Property 6)

v-^o \ •
V /

,. / s
= dim .

sin V) lim -
y-»o • Vv—O
= (0)(1) = (Theorems 1 and 2)

*The function h(x) = f{g(x)) obtained by evaluating at g(x)

/ is called the composition off
and g. The composition of functions is studied in detail in Section
2.7.
68 CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

Problem Set 1.8

In Problems 1 to 66, find the limit by using the properties and theo-
rems ol" this section.

I lim 5

3
 SECTION 1.9 CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS 69

73 Prove that Property 3 follows from Properties 6 and 1. sold. The marginal profit at production level x is defined by

74 Prove that Property 11 follows from Property 12.

„. P(x + h)- P{x)
P ^
(.V) = ,.
lim
75 Prove that Property 5 follows from Properties 4 and 3. 'i-o h

76 Suppose lim f(x) = and that there exists a constant B such that where, in taking the limit as /; -^ 0. .v is to be held constant.
Suppose that the profit in dollars from the manufacture and sale
\g(x)\ < B for all values of a in some open interval containing a.
of x quartz travel alarm clocks is
except possibly for.v = a. Use the squeezing property (Property
12) to prove that lim [flx)g{x)] = 0.
P{x) = 20.r - 50,000 -
1000
77 In economics, the profit function P gives the profit Fix) dollars
to the manufacturer if x units of a commodity are produced and Find the marginal profit P'{x).

1.9 Continuous Functions

As we mentioned, there are many functions/for which lim f{x) is the same as /(a).

For such a well-behaved function, there's no problem in finding lim fix) — all you
have to do is evaluate /(a). A function that has this useful property is said to be
continuous at the number a.

DEFINITION 1
Continuous Function at a Number
A function /is continuous at the number a if the following conditions hold:

(i) /(a) is defined

(ii) lim fix) exists

(iii) lim fix) =f(a)

Figure 1 EXAMPLE 1 Is the absolute- value function /(x) = |.v| (Figure 1) continuous at 0?

SOLUTION

(i) Here, /(O) = |0|

= 0, so/(0) is defined,

(ii) By Property 10 in Section 1.8,

lim fix) = lim \x\ = |0| =

so lim fix) exists.

(iii) By (i) and (ii) above,

lim/(.v) = 0=/(0)

so /is continuous at 0.

EXAMPLE 2 Show that the absolute- value function /(.r) = \x\ is actually continu-
ous at every number a.
70 CHAPTER I FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

SOLUTION Here. f{a) = \a\ is defined. Also, just as in Example 1

lim/(.v) = lim |.v| = \a\ = f(a)

so /is continuous at every number a.

If any of conditions (i). (ii), or (iii) of Definition 1 fail, we say that/ is discon-
tinuous at the number a. Condition (iii),

lim/(.v)=/(a)

means that/(.v) comes closer and closer to /(a) as .v comes closer and closer to a.
This condition will fail if the function value takes a sudden "jump" when .v = a.

EXAMPLE 3 Is the function

+ 3.V + 1

(^\- if .V 7^ -
.v+ 1

3 if .V = - 1

contmuous at — 1
.'

Figure 2
SOLUTION Here, /( - 1 ) = 3, so /( - 1 ) is defined. For .v r^ - 1

Ir^ + 3.V + 1 (Iv + 1)(.Y + 1)

fix) = ;
= = Iv + 1
.V + 1 .V + 1

Hence, by Property 11 of Section 1.8,

lim /(.v) = lim (Zv+ 1) = -1

so lim fix) exists. However, because lim fix) = -1 and /(-I) = 3, we have

lim _/{.v) #/(-!)

and it follows that /is discontinuous —1. The graph of/ (Figure 2) is the line at

y = 2x + 1 everywhere except at .v = -
1. where a "hole" appears. The defined

value of/ at —1 produces a point (-1. 3) on the graph of/ but above this hole.
Figure 3

Another example of a discontinuous function is provided by

f3.t-2 if.r<3
fix)
=
5- X if .V > 3

The graph of/(Figure 3) visually indicates a discontinuity at the number v = 3. In

order to study this apparent discontinuity, it is convenient to introduce the idea of a

one-sided limit, that is, a limit of/(.\ ) as .v approaches 3 through values entirely on
one side of 3. Figure 3 clearly shows that the numerical value /(.v) approaches 7 as
.V approaches 3 through values that arc always less than 3. We write this fact sym-
bolically as

lim /(.v) = 7

the condition that .v approaches 3 from the left being denoted by .v -^ 3~.
 SECTION 1.9 CONTINL'OUS FXINCTIONS 71

Likewise, tlie condition that .v approaches 3 through values that are always greater
than 3. so that .v approaches 3 from the right, is denoted by .v -^ 3" From pfgure 3 .

we see that

lim fix) = 2

Because the two one-sided limits of/(.v) as .v ^3^ and as .v -^ 3* are not the same,
it follows that lim /(a) cannot exist. Therefore (as we have already guessed from

our inspection of Figure 3). / is discontinuous at the number 3.

A
formal definition of one-sided limits can be patterned after
Definition 1 in
Section 1.7 (Problem 44). The basic idea is simple. Indeed,
lim f(x) just =L
means that we can make |/(.v) - L\ as small as we please by taking x close enough to
a but less than a. Likewise, Hm^ f(x) = R means that we can make |/(.r)
- R\ as

small as we please by taking .v close enough to a but greater than a.\fL¥=R (as in
Figure 3). then jim cannot More
^^°
/(jc) exist. generally, we have the following
theorem.

THEOREM Limits and One-Sided Limits

The limit ^lini /(.v) exists and equals L if and only if both of the one-sided limits

hm f{x) and lim_/(jr) exist and have the common value L.

We leave the proof of this theorem as an exercise

(Problems 47 to 50).
One-sided limits
satisfy appropriate analogs of the properties in Section
1.8. For
instance, if lim f(x) = L and lim. ^(.v) = M, then

lim_ \f(x) + g(x)] =L+ M

lim, [fix) gix)] = LM

and so forth.

In Examples 4 and 5. (a) sketch the graph of the function, ih) find the one-sided
limits of the function as x -^ a' and as x^
a*, (c) determine the limit of the
fiinction as x -^ a (if this limit exists), and (d) decide
whether the function is
continuous at the number a.

-'"
Figure 4 EX.AMPLE 4 = \]~ '^•' - =
gix) \ « 1
U + .V- if .V > 1

SOLUTION

(a) A sketch of the graph is shown in Figure 4.

(b) lim gi.x) = lim (3 - .<^) = 2

lim, gi.x) = lim (1 -I- .v^) = 2

(c) Because both of the one-sided limits exist and have the same value, 2, it
follows that lim gix) = 2.
72 CHAPTER I FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

(d) Here. ^'(1) = 3 - 1^ = 2, so ^ is defined at 1 . Also, lim ^(.v) exists and

hm ^(.v) = 2 = g(\)

hence, g is continuous at 1.

I.V
- 21 if X 9^2
EXAMPLE 5 /(a) ,a = 2
1 ifx = 2

SOLUTION

(a) A sketch of the graph of/ is shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5

(b) By Property 11 of Section 1.8,

lim fix) = lim |.v

— 2|

hence, by Property 10 of Section 1.8,

lim f(x) = I
lirn^ (.v - 2)| = |0| =

It follows from Theorem 1 that

Vm fix) = liin. f(x) = Hm_/(.v) =

(c) We have already seen in part (b) that lim /(,v) = 0.

(d) /(2) = 1, lim f(x) = 7^ 1; hence, /is discontinuous at 2.

Properties of Continuous Functions

Suppose that /and g are two functions that are continuous at the number a. Then
f(a) and g{a) are both defined, so that {/+ g)(a) = f(a) + g(a) is defined. More-
over, by Property 4 of Section 1.8,

hm^ (/+ g)(x) = lim^ L/(.v) + ^(.v)) = lim /(.v) + \\m g(.v)

= f(a) + g(ii) = {/+ g)(a)

 SECTION 1.9 CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS 73

Figure 6 y

Figure 7
74 CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

The following continuity properties of the trigonometric functions follow from

Theorem in Section 1.8 (Problem 46).
1

Continuity Properties of the Trigonometric Functions

6 The sine and cosine functions are continuous at every number.

7 The tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant functions are continuous at

every number for which they are defined.

InExamples 9 and 10, use the properties of continuous functions to determine the
numbers at which the given function is continuous.

EXAMPLE 9 /i;,v) = tan X

SOLUTION Because
sin .V

f(x) = tan .V
=

f(x) is undefined when cos x = 0; that is, when

A-= ±— , ±3- — :5- —

2 2

and so on. Therefore, by Property 7, /is continuous at all real numbers except for

odd integer multiples of 7r/2. The graph in Figure 9 clearly shows the periodic
discontinuities of the tangent function.

Figure 9 y

EXAMPLE 10 F(r) = 2 cos (^TT/ - — I

SOLUTION The polynomial function

g(t) = Trt - — 77

is continuous every number by Property 3, and the cosine function is continuous

at

at every number by Property 6; hence, by the substitution property (Property 5), the
function

h{t) = cos ( 7)7 - — ) = cos g{t)

 SECTION 1.9 CONTINVIOUS FUNCTIONS 75

is also continuous at even' number. The constant function

fit) = 2

is continuous at even' number by Property 3; hence, by Property 1,

F(t) = 2 cos (777 - ^) = fit) hit)

6

is continuous at every number. (See Figure 10 for the graph of F.)

Figure 10 y

Continuity on an Interval
To say that a function /is continuous on an open interval means, by definition,
that /is continuous at every number in the intenal. For instance, the function

fix) = V'9 - x^

is continuous on the open interval (-3, 3) (Figure 11).

Similarly, to say that a function / is continuous on a closed interval [a, b]
means, by definition, that /is continuous on the open intenal {a. b) and that/
'
satisfies the following "one-sided" " continuity conditions at the endpoints a and b:

lim^/(jc) = f(a) and \\mj(x)=f{b)

Figure 11 For instance, the function f(x) = V9~ X- is actually continuous on the closed
interval [-3, 3] (Figure 11).

EX.\MPLE 11 Determine whether the rational function

x + 1
fix)
x^ - 36
is continuous on the following intervals: (-x, -6), [-6. 6], (-6, 6), and (6, x).

SOLUTION Here, fix) is defined for all real numbers x except for the values
jr = -6 and .v = 6 (which make the denominator zero). Thus, the rational function/
iscontinuous on (-x, -6), (-6, 6). and (6. ^) by Property 4. Since -b and 6 do
not belong to the domain of /, it follows that / is not continuous on the closed
interval [
— 6, 6].
76 CHAKIER 1 FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

Problem Set 1.9

= x+ I

In Problems 1 to 14, (a) sketch a graph of the function; (b) find the 17 hlx) = X- 2\x\ 18 Fix)
one-sided limits of the function as v approaches a from the right and
X- 1

approaches
from the
a (if this
left; (c)

limit exists);
dctemiinc the limit of the function as
and (d) using the definition
v

of continuity, 19 C(A) =
I

20 fix) = —
decide whether the function is continuous at the number a.
A- - 4a + 3 \x^ if A <
21 ^(A) = 22 hix)
15 -l-.v if .V < 3 Ix' if A >
1 fix) a = 3
>
'

if .V 3 - 4a + - -
.V- 3 .r Iv 3
23 Fix) = + I

if v < A - I

2 F(.v) = i
if .V = ; o =
I
if .X > 24 Gix) 25 Hix) =
A - 2
13 + X if .V < I

a= 1
if .V > I 26 Tix) -
27 fix) = cot A

flv- I if .v< I

4 G(x) =
Ia-
, .^
if X s ,•.«=!
I 28 fix) = sec — 29 gix) = CSC x

= if .V # 5
5 W(.v) a = 5 I
- sin r
if .V = 5 30 hit) = tan |;t
31 fit)
=
cos t

x-2 if .V 5^ 2
6 Hlx) = - a = 2
<j
|.v 2| ;
if A ^
if X = 2 32 fix) = < X
if A =
\2- X i{x> \

7 fix) = a = 1 ( tan X if A < 7T/4

if .r < I
;

33 /;(A)
l^V^sinA if A > 77/4

if .V ^ 2
8 Q(x) = {
x-2 ;a = 2 I

sm if A 9^
if x = 2 34 fix) = < X
if A =
r - 9
''^ "^
9 Fix) = <! v - 3 * -\ a = 3 In Problems 35 to 40, determine whether each function is continu-
if .V = 3 ous or discontinuous on each interval.

3 + x^ if.r<-2
35 fix) = VA - .r on |-2, 2), [2, 3], (-2, 2), and (-1, 5)
10 mx) = i
if A = -2; u =
II -V- if A> -2
36 gix) on (-^, I), (-3. -I), (-X, -I), (-1, =0),

11 5(A-) = 5 + |6.r- 3|, a = i

[-1, =c). and [-2. 2]
12 «(A) = llAll + [15 - aH. « = 4
= -A ;-on(-oo, 61,(-oc, -4], (-6. o:),[-6. 9], and
13 /(A)
= A- -
A +
—
Iv
I
- 3
,«= -1
37 Fix)

[-7,00)
.r - 36

14 T{x) = 111 -aH + Ha- ID, a= 1 X - 5

38 fix) = on 1-1, l|, (-1. I). (-5, =c), {-X, 51. and
A - 5
1-8.61
in Problems 15 to 34. use the properties of continuous functions to
determine the numbers at which the function is continuous.
39 Gix) = ,'^\ ^„ on 1-i 01. 1-J, 01. (-i x). [-2. x), and
16a- -9
15 fix) = 2\x\ 16 8ix) = \\ -A-l (-1, -i)
 REVIEW PROBLEM SET 77

44 Give a formal definition of (a) lim fix) =L and (b)

40 fix) = cot .V on (
- ^ ^ .
)
. - ^ y . I , (0. 17). and [0. v]
lim^ f(x) =R patterned after Definition 1 in Section 1 .7. {Hint:

41 The weight of an object is given by Note, for instance, that < |.v — a| < 5 and v < a if and only if

ax if ,v R -8<x - a <0.)

iv(.v) = ! b 45 Find lim^ V.x - 2 and explain why lim V.v — 2 does not exist.
if v >R

where .v is the distance of the object from the center of the earth. 46 Use Theorem 1 in Section 1 .8 and Properties 2 and 3 of continu-

R is the radius of the earth, and a and b are constants. What ous functions to prove the continuity Properties 6 and 7 of the

relation must exist between these constants if vc is to be a contin- trigonometric functions.

uous function? Assuming that w is continuous, sketch its graph.

47 Suppose that lim f(x) = L. Give an informal argument to ex-

42 If a hollow sphere of radius a is charged with one unit of static plain why it should follow that lim fix) = L.

electricity, the field intensity £ at a point P depends as follows

on the distance .v from the center of the sphere to P: 48 Suppose that lim /(.v) = L. Use the formal definition in Prob-

r if < .V < a lem 44 to prove that lim_ fix) = L.

if -V = a 49 Suppose that lim^ fix) = lim fix) = L. Give an informal argu-

E(x)
ment to explain why it should follow that lim fix) = L.
- if .V > a

(a) Sketch a graph of E. (b) Discuss the continuity of £. 50 Suppose that lim /(.v) = lim /(.v) = L. Use the formal defini-

tions to prove that lim fix) = L.

43 If g is defined by the equation

51 State the analog of Property 1 1 of Section 1.8 for limits from the
,^ = J^-^I-i if.v#l
1 V -
«(-^' right.
1

U( if .v= 1
52 State the analog of Property 1 2 of Section 1 .8 for limits from the
determine the value of o so that g will be continuous at 1. left.

Review Problem Set, Chapter 1

1 Assume that a and b are real numbers such that a < b. Which 10 >0 ll^i^<0
.x-l- 3
of the following are necessarily true and which could be false?
(a) a < 5b (b) -3a < -3b
(c) 5a < -i-Sb) id) a + 5 <b + 5
12^^.1
- V 2
13
x + 2
>3
(e) 1/a > l/b ii) a - 1 > b - 1

In Problems 2
on the number
to 13, solve the inequality

line.
and illustrate the solution
(a)
11,11
14 State the conditions under which each inequality

—<
.T
— 10
(b)
x
<
100
(c) -:;
x^-
1

\
is

<
true.

1000

(d) -.V < X (e) -.ir < T-

2 .V - 5 < 7 3 3.»: -I- 2 > 8
15 Give two different examples of real numbers a. b, c. and d with
4 3j: - 2 > 1 -I- 2x 5 5 > 8.V - 3 > -6
a < b and c < d but ac > bd.

t-
,
"2
1
2+ 7 .^ -I- .V - 20 < 16 For positive real numbers a and b. show that
3
lab a + b
8 -r' - 6.V - 7 s 9 2r -I- 9 < 5 Vab£
a + b
 78 CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

17 A student on academic probation must earn a C in his calculus 35 Determine which equations or inequalities are true for all val-

course to avoid being expelled from college. Since he is lazy ues of the variables.

and has no interest in earning a grade any higher than neces- (a) \x'-4\ = \x- 2\\x + 2| (b) |jr - 4| = .r + 4
sary, he wants his final numerical grade for calculus to lie in - = - = -
(c) I
-tp ;r (d) |.t >•! |v .t|

the interval 170, 80). This grade will be determined by taking

three-fifths of his classroom average, which is 68, plus two- (e) |.r + ix\^x' + \3x\ (f ) \x-y\^ \x\ + \y\

fifths of his score on the exam. Since he has always had

final
36 It is predicted that the number N of cars to be produced by an
trouble with inequalities, he can't figure out the range in which automobile industry in the coming year will satisfy the inequal-
his score on the final exam should fall to allow him to stay in ity \N - 4,000.000| < 500,000. Describe the anticipated pro-
school. Can you help him? duction as an interval of real numbers.

El 18 A runner leaves a starting point and runs along a straight road at

InProblems 37 to 42, plot each pair of points and find the distance
a steady speed of 8.8 miles per hour. After a while, she turns
between them by using the distance formula.
around and begins to run back to the starting point. How fast
must she run on the way back so that her average speed for the
37 (I. 1) and (4, 5)
entire run will be greater than 8 miles per hour but no greater
than 8.5 miles per hour? {Caution: The average speed for her 38 (-1,2) and (5, -7)
entire run ciiniwt be found by adding 8.8 miles per hour to her
39 (-3, 2) and (2, 14)
return speed and dividing by 2.)
[g 40 (4.71, -3.22) and (0, tt)
19 Find the distance between the numbers in each pair and illus-

trate your answer on a number line. 41 (-2, -5) and (-2, 3)

—3 and 4 V2
(a)

(b) and -5
_
El 42 (Vtt,
r-
77) and
/
— 1 -I-

f)
31

[c)(c) -2.735 and -TT (-1,

El 43 What is the perimeter of the triangle with vertices 5),
(d) -3.2 and 4.1 (8, —7), and (4, 1)? Round off your answer to two decimal
(e) -§ and I
places.

[c](f) 1.42 and Vl 44 Are the points (-5, 4). (7, -11), (12, -ID. and (0, 4) the

vertices of a parallelogram? Justify your answer.

20 Use the absolute-value notation to write an expression for the
distance between the two given numbers. Simplify your an-
In Problems 45 to 48, find the radius r and the coordinates (/i, k) of
swer.
the center of each circle, and sketch a graph of the circle.

(a) —6 and 5 (b) — and

x+ 1
45 (.V - 2)- + (v + 3)- = 25

(O— and 3 .
— 4
(d)
.v-i- 1
and — 46 .r -I- 2v -I- y- + 2y + I =

47 .r -I- y- - 3.v -I- 4y -I- 4 =

In Problems 21 to 26, solve the absolute-value equation.
48 4.x- -h 4.V- -I- 4.V - 4y -H I =
21 Ix-t- 1| = 3 22 |2t - 3| = 5
In Problems 49 to 52, find the slope of the line segment AB and an
23 \2y+ 1| = 5 24 \2t H- 3| = |f -t-
2|
equation in point-slope form of the line containing -4 and B.

25 |2ir - M - 2i = 26 |5 - 3z| = 2z
49 A = (3, -5), B = (2, 2)

Problems 27 to 34, solve the absolute-value inequality and show

In
50 A = (0, 7). B = (5, 0)
your solution on a number line.
51 A = (1, 2), B = (-3, -4)
27 |2x + 5| s 6 28 |3.v -I- 4| < 2 = B = (i -I)
52 A (i, 5),

29 |1 -.t|<0.01 30 ll - 4.v| ^x
In Problems 53 and 54, sketch the line L that contains the point P

- > S3 and has slope m, and find an equation in point-slope form for L.
31 |7.r 6| .r 32
U - 1

1 1
53 P = (5, 2), m= -i
33 34 >5
|2v -1-31 4 |3^-1| 54 P = {-L i).m = ?
 REVIEW PROBLEM SET 79

In Problems 55 and 56, (a) find an equation of the line that contains In Problems 77 to 82. find the domain of each function.

the point P and is parallel to the line segment AB. and (b) find an
equation of the line that contains the point P and is perpendicular to
=
1

77 fix)
line segment AB.

55 P = (7. -5). A = (1. 8). B = (-3, 2)

56 P = (i, I), A = (4. -f). S = (l, I)

In Problems 57 and 58, rewrite each equation in slope-intercept

form, find the slope m and the y intercept b of the graph, and sketch
the graph.

57 4.V - 3y + 2 =

58 f.Y - iv + 3 =
80 CHAPTER I FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

84 Which of the graphs in Figure 2 are graphs of functions? ciency. For a certain wind-powered generator, the constant
it = 3.38 X lO""*. Sketch the graph of the function P for this
Figure 2 y generator, and determine how many horsepower are generated
when the wind speed is 35 miles per hour.

92 In economics, it is often assumed that the demand for a com-

modity is a function of selling price, that is,q = /(/>), where p
dollarsis the selling price per unit of the commodity and q is

thenumber of units that will sell at that price, (a) If p increases,

\kr\m^ would you expect q to increase or decrease? What does this

mean about the graph of/? (b) Write an equation for the total
amount of money F{p) in dollars spent by consumers for the
commodity if the selling price per unit is p dollars, (c) What
would it mean to say that there is a value p^^ dollars for which
/(Po) = 0?

93 In economics, it is often assumed that the number of units 5 of

a commodity that producers will supply to the marketplace is a

function of the selling price p dollars per unit, that is, 5 = g(p).
(a) If/) increases, would you expect i to increase or decrease?
What does this mean about the graph of ^?? (b) Write an equa-
tion for the total amount of money (in dollars) C(p) spent by
consumers for the commodity if the selling price per unit is p
dollars and all supplied units are purchased, (c) What would it

mean to say that there is a value p\ dollars for which g(/7| )

=
0?

94 A manufacturer finds that 100.000 electronic calculators are

sold per month at a price of $50 each, but that only 60,000 are
sold per month if the price is $75 each. Suppose that the graph
of the demand function /for these calculators is a straight line
in the pq plane (see Problem 92). (a) Find a formula for/(p),
where p dollars is the selling price per calculator and q = f{p)
is the number per month that will sell at that price, (b) Find the
selling price per calculator if the monthly demand is 80,000
calculators, (c) What price would be so high that no calculators
would be sold?

In Problems 85 to 90. find the domain of the function, sketch its

In Problems 95 to 100, determine without drawing a graph whether
graph, and find the range of the function. El If you wish, use a
the function is even, odd, or neither, and discuss any symmetry of
calculator to help sketch more accurate graphs.
the graph.

85 /(.v) = 5.V - 3 86 g(.v)

95 /(.v) = 5.x-'^ -I- 3.r^ +x 96 g(x) = (X* + X' + 1)-

88 G(.v) = x' 97 hlx) = tx+ l).r"' 98 Fix) = -x^\x\

89 /lU) = 99 G(.v) = x^° - 5.t'' -I- 9 100 Hix) =

if .V < 1 +x

if .V < In Problems 101 to 110, find

90 wu) = ; 1, if < .r < 1
(b)(/-g)(.r)
(a) (/-(-,<?)(.x) {c){J-g){x) (d) (f/g)(x)
y 3.x- - I if .r > I

m 91 The power delivered by a wind-powered generator is given by 101 f(x) = x + 2. g{x) = 3.r - 4

P{x) = kx' horsepower 102 f(x) =x^ + It. g{x) = -x- - It

where x is the speed of the wind in miles per hour and *: is a =

1
= 1

103 f(x) Six)

constant depending on the size of the generator and its effi- x+ 1
 REVIEW PROBLEM SET 81

+ 3 X 131 Convert each degree measure to radian measure. Do not use a

104 /U) = jt
-, g(x) = -
X - 2 X - 2 calculator. Write your answer as a rational multiple of tt.

(a) 80° (b) 570° (c) -355°

105 fix) = .^^ g(x) = VTTT
(d) -810° (e) -310° (f) 765°
106 f(x) = X, gix) = \x-2\-x
132 Use a calculator to convert each degree measure to an approxi-
107 fix) = W, gU) = -X mate radian measure, rounded off to four decimal places.

108 /(x) = VVT7. gix) = 7r|jf|

(a) 5° (b) 27.7533° (c) -17.173° (d) 35.2819°

109 /U) =.r'-' + 1, g(A) = V^ 133 Convert each radian measure to degree measure. Do not use a
calculator.
110/U) = -U-,g(j:) = --
X 277 1377 777
\x\
(b)
- (c)
5
In Problems 111 to 122, find the vertex of the graph of the quadratic 3577 5177 1877
(e) (f)
function, determine whether the graph opens upward or downward,
3
sketch the graph, and find the domain and range of the function.
O 134 Use a calculator to convert each radian measure to an approxi-
Ill fix) = 4x^ 112 gix) = W mate degree measure, rounded off to four decimal places.

113 hix) = -ir 114 Fix) = 3.r + 2 (a) 5 (b) 3.9 (c) -7.63 (d) -21.403

115 Gix) = 3U - 2)- + 116 Hix) = i[ix + 3)- + 2]

1
In Problems 135 and 136, find the area A = ir-0 of a sector of a
117 fix) = ,r - 3x + 2 118 gix) = 6;r + 13x - 5 circle of radius r with central angle 0.

119 hix) = -6.r - 7.V + 20 120 Gix) = -2jr + X + 10

135 r = 25 centimeters, = 77/6 136 r = 3.5 meters, 6 = 60°

121 Fix) = 10.V - 25 - r^ 122 Hix) = 7;c + 2r - 39

137 The minute hand on a tower clock is 0.6 meter long. How far
El 123 Suppose a manufacturer of sports trophies knows that the total does the tip of the hand travel in 4 minutes'?
cost C (in dollars) of making .v thousand trophies is given by
138 In Problem 137, what the area of the sector swept out by the
C= 600 + 60-v, and the corresponding sales revenue R (in dol-
is

lars) is given by R = 300.v - 4.v-. Let Fix) be the manufactur- minute hand in 4 minutes?

er's profit if X thousand trophies are manufactured and sold, E) 139 Find the approximate diameter of the moon if its disk subtends
(a) Find a formula for P{x). (b) Find Pi 10) and P(35). (c) Find an angle of 0.5° on at a point the earth 240,000 miles away
the largest and smallest values of the production level x, (Figure 3). iHini: Approximate the diameter \DE\ by the length
rounded off to the nearest trophy, for which the profit is posi-
of the arc BC.
tive.

124 Suppose that/ is a quadratic function and that /(.vi) = Figure 3

fix2) = 0. Show that the .v coordinate of the vertex of the graph
of/ is 5(.lCi + Xi).

In Problems 125 to 130, i denotes the length of the arc intercepted

on a circle of radius r by a central angle of radians. Find the

missing quantity.

= = =
El 140 A satellite in a circular orbit above the earth is known to have a
125 r 5 meters, 6 0.57 radian, s 1
speed of 9.92 kilometers per second. In 10 seconds it moves
126 r = 40 centimeters, .s = 4 centimeters, 0=1 along an arc that subtends an angle of 0.75° at the center of the
earth. If the radius of the earth is 6371 kilometers, how high is
127 .J = 37r feet, 6 = tt radians, r = ?
the satellite above the surface of the earth?
37T
128 / = 13 kilometers, = ^— radians, i = ?
Elln Problems 141 to 158, use a calculator to find the approximate
values of the trigonometric functions.
129 r = 2 meters, s = tt meters, 0=1
141 sin 27.33° 142 sin 421.25°
5-77
130 i = 1777 micrometers, = radians, r = '?

6 143 cos 53.47° 144 cos(- 113.81°)

82 CHAPTER I FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

145 ian(- 117.2583) 146 lan( -281. 5236) 180 Assume that « is in quadrant IV. cos a = ?, /3 is in quadrant I,

sin /3 = rV. y is 'i quadrant II, cos y = -M. is in

147 sec 16.43° 148 sec( -248.2°)
quadrant II, and sin fl = ^. Find the exact numerical value of

149 CSC —
47r
150 CSC 5.132
each expression.

(a) sin(a + fi) (b) cos(y + 0) (c) sin(/3 + 0)

(d) sin(a - y) (e) cos(/3- y) (f) sin(/3 - y)

151 cot(-3.18) 152 cot(-7.167)
(g) tan(/3 - y) (h) sec(/3 - y) (i) simO - y)
153 cos(- 19.213) 154 CSC 18.113
(j) cos(/3 - 0)
155 sin 3.015 156 cot V3
Problems 181 to 188, simplify each expression.
157 cos —-- 158 sin|tan(- 7 1.32)1
In

181 cos- 2v - sin- 2v 182 1

- 2 sin- —
2

In Problems 159 to 178. simplify each expression.

183 2 sin — cos — 184 cos-* 20 - sin-* 20
2 2
sin(-6») -sin(-a)
159 160 sin 4in
cos(-e) -cos(-a) 185 2 sin" -— + cos 186
2 4 sin TTt cos TTt

161 CSC .V - cos .r cot .r 162 sec e - sin e tan

cos-(r/2) - cos f
163 CSC" / tan- I - 1 164 (cot .V + 1)- - csc^ jc
187 188
sin-(iV2)

see' M + 2 tan u sec fi

165 166 189 If < e < 7r/2 and x = V7 sin 0. find cot in terms of
1 + tan M cot /3 + tan /3
.v.

sin'S + 2 cos-0
190 If < < r 7r/2 and .v = vTT tan f. find cos l in terms of .v.

167 2 cot
sin d cos El 191 A broadcasting antenna tower 200 meters high is to be held
vertical by three cables running from a point 10 meters below
1
168 the top of the tower to concrete anchors sunk in the ground
CSC V - cot y esc y + cot y
(Figure 4). If the cables are to make angles of 60° with the

169 cos(360° - 0) 170 tan(2Tr - /3)

horizontal, how many meters of cable will be required?

171 sin(270° + a) 172 cos(270° - <f>)

Figure 4
173 sin(27r + I) 174 cot (
-^ + xj
175 sin 37° cos 23° + cos 37° sin 23°

.,^ tan(7r/5) + tan(7r/20)

176 ; :

1
- tan(7r/5) tan(7r/20)

177 sin .V cos y - sinl.v + —I sin(-y)

178 cos(77 - t) - tan / cosi i]

179 Use the fact that 77r/l2 = (Tr/4) + (7r/3) to find the exact 192 An electronic echo locator on a commercial fishing boat indi-
numerical value of cates a school of fish at a slant distance of 575 meters from the
ItT boat with an angle of depression of 33.60°. What is the depth of
(a) sin
12 the school of fish?

(b) cos
In El In Problems 193 and 194. use elementary algebra to simplify each
12
expression so that its limit becomes apparent. Then check your re-

777 sults numerically by using a calculator to fill in the blanks in the

(c) tan
accompanying table.
 REVIEW PROBLEM SET 83

193 Urn
r-2 1 - (2A)

A
84 CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

239 The air freight charge for shipping merchandise between two

231 g(.v) =-\ .\

- 2 ; lim s(.v), lim, ^U), lim g(.x) cities is given by the equation
'"* '"*• '""
if = 2
1 .V
0.5a if < .t < 10

5.V + 5 C(.v) 0.4a if lOs A<30

^ 0.3 a 30 s X
232/(.v)=-j |.v+l| '
"^
: lim^ /(.v), Im .
/(.v), lim /(.v)
if

lo if.v= -1 where a is the number of pounds being shipped and C(a) is the
charge in dollars. Sketch the graph of C, and find tho.se values
In Problems 233 to 236, sketcli tiie graph of the given function and of A for which C is discontinuous.
indicate whether the function is continuous at x = a.

240 A function / is defined by the equation

if .r ?^ 3 -X if A <
233 f(x) =< v - 3 a = 3 C
;
if < A s I

if A = 3 -
,A.v) A if 1 < A < 2

X- - 1
if A > 2
if V 7^ 1

234 i'U) =< A- 1 a = 1

:
(a) Sketch the graph of/, and discuss the continuity of/ at 0. 1

if .V = 1
and 2. (b) Determine the constants A, B,C, D. and E so that

v- 1
= Ax + B + C\x\ + D\x - l\+ E\x -
if X ^ 1
f(x) 2|
235 fix) : a = 1

:'A if A- = 1
241 Determine the values of the constants A and B so that the func-
tion/is continuous at every real number and sketch the graph
of the resulting function.
if A ?^ 2
236 /i(.x) : a = 2
3a if a s2
if A = 2
fix) Av B -I- if 2 <A< 5
—6a if a 2: 5
237 Taxi fare is 90 cents plus 50 cents for each quarter-mile or

portion thereof. If we let /(a) denote the fare for a ride of 242 Let [IaD denote the greatest integer not exceeding a. and con-
X miles, sketch the graph of/ and indicate where it is discon- sider the function /(a) = dl/Aj for a > 0. Sketch a graph of/,
tinuous. and indicate where /is discontinuous.

238 Assume that it takes 0.5 calorie of heat to raise the temperature 243 Determine whether each function is continuous or discontinu-
of 1 gram of ice 1 degree Celsius, that it takes 80 calories to ous on each of the indicated intervals.
melt the ice at 0°C, and that it takes 1 calorie to raise the
3
temperature of 1 gram of water 1 degree Celsius. Suppose that (a) fix) 1. 11. [-ill. (-1.1). [5.==)
Zx -
-40 s A < 20, and let Q{x) be the number of calories of heat
1

required to raise gram of water from -40°C to a°C. Sketch

1
'^'^'.(-oc.l).
(b) g(.r) = ^-^ ^ (1,2), [1.21
the graph of Q. and indicate where Q is discontinuous. '^
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