Holland’s Theory of Vocational Choice
-emphasizes role of personality in career choices
-the RIASEC model:
Realistic (Practical, Hands-on, Tools and Equipment), Investigative (Precise,
Scientific, Facts, Ideas, Theories), Artistic (Intuitive, Expressive, Creative,
Innovative), Social (Helping others, Outgoing, Working with People),
Enterprising (Persuade, Lead, Sell, Influence), Conventional (Well-organized,
Detail-Oriented, Accurate, Structured)
-emphasize “congruence”, the fit between personality type and job environment
-the better fit leads to greater career satisfaction and success
-Assessment Tools: Holland Occupational Themes (RIASEC) Assessment, Self-
Directed Search (SDS), Strong Interest Inventory (SII)
-RIASEC: assess individual’s alignment with six Holland themes
-Self-Directed Search (SDS): helps individuals identify their career interest based on
Holland’s typology
-Strong Interest Inventory (SII): measures interest and suggests career that align with
those interests
Theory of Work Adjustment (TWA)
-focus on how individual adjust to work environments
-emphasize job satisfaction and satisfactoriness for both employer and employee
-good match between abilities (skills the person bring to the job) and work
values/needs (what a person wants from the job: salary, status, position)
-high satisfactoriness and satisfaction can lead to better adjustment and stability in job
-Career Guidance Tools: Minnesota Importance Questionnaire (MIQ), General
Aptitude Test Battery (GATB), Job Satisfaction Surveys
-Minnesota Importance Questionnaire (MIQ): measures individuals work values and
preferences, help assess what is important to individuals in their work, six major value
categories (achievement, comfort, status, altruism, safety, autonomy)
-General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB): measure various abilities including cognitive,
clerical skills, and manual agility, assist in determining best job fit based on
individual’s aptitude by assessing 1. Verbal and numerical reasoning (solving problems
with words and numbers), 2. Mechanical skills (understanding how mechanical
systems work), 3. Spatial awareness (ability to think about objects in different
positions), and 4. Manual dexterity (skillfully to handle tasks or tools)
-Job Satisfaction Survey: measure the satisfaction of individuals with their job based
on factors like 1. Pay, 2. Working conditions, 3. Opportunities for advancement, and 4.
Relationship with co-workers and supervisors
Career Development Inventories
-definition: self-assessment tools that help individuals identify their interests, skills,
values, and personality traits in relation to potential career path
-paper-and-pencil inventories/computer-administered tests/online inventories
-personal-psychological characteristics: aptitude, interests, values/skills, personality
-Aptitude: specific capacities and abilities to perform task or duty, 9 abilities (verbal
ability, arithmetic reasoning, computation, spatial ability, form perception, clerical
perception, motor coordination, finger dexterity, manual dexterity)
-Interest: individual’s likes and preferences, Super (1957) described 4 types of interests
(expressed interests [verbally expressing interest], inventoried interests [using
questions to depend interest], manifest interest [exhibit interest through action and
participation], tested interests [interests revealed under controlled situations])
-Personality traits: individual’s beliefs, perceptions, emotions, and attitudes, OCEAN
-Values: cognized needs that guide our behaviour and serve as standard against our
behaviour and others behaviour
1. Super’s Work Value Inventory
-measure relative importance individuals place on work-related values
-12 work values: achievement, co-workers, creativity, income, independence, life style,
mental challenge, prestige, security, supervision, variety, workplace
2. Work Importance Locator (WIL)
-help individuals identify occupation that align with their work values
-self-administrated and self-scored using color-coded card-sort
-6 types of work values: achievement, independence, recognition, relationship, support,
working conditions
3. Live Values Inventory (LVI)
-measure values that guide normal behaviour, intervention to assist clients to
crystallize and prioritize their values within life roles
4. Self-Directed Search (SDS)
-self-administered, self-scored, and self-interpreted instrument
5. Reading-Free Vocational Interest Inventory 2nd Ed.
-determine interests of special need students and adults with cognitive and learning
disabilities
-11 areas: automotive, building trades, clerical, animal core, food service, patient care,
horticulture, housekeeping, personal service, laundry, materials handling
6. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
-measure of Jung’s types and score of 4 scale: extroversion-introversion, sensing-
intuition, thinking-feeling, judgement-perception
7. Sixteen Personality Factor Profile (16PFQ)
-interpretation of personality and potential influence on career choice and development
-16 personality factors: warmth (W), reasoning (R), emotional stability (E), dominance
(D), liveliness (L), rule-consciousness (C), social boldness (S), sensitivity (S),
vigilance (V), abstractedness (A), privateness (P), apprehension (A), openness to
change (O), self-reliance (S), perfectionism (P), tension (T)
8. Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB)
-useful for counsellor and students in planning a military career
-used by military to recruit and determine applicants’ suitability
9. Career Decision Scale (CDS)
-provide explanatory information regarding a failure to make career decision
-provide insight of level of indecision (indecision) and reveal factors of contributing
(certainty)
10. My Vocational Situation
-provide information about lack of environmental/personal barriers to occupational
choice
-3 scale scores: vocational identity, occupational information, barriers
-Qualitative inventories: card sorts 卡牌, genograms 家族树
-benefits of career development inventories: self-awareness, career exploration, goal
setting, improve decision-making, increase confidence, reduced career indecision
-consideration when selecting inventories: reliability, validity, norm group, bias exist,
content relevance, testing process, language
Job Adjustment Counselling
-adjustment: process of making changes or adaptation in respond to condition, to
achieve better alignment with desired outcomes or to cope with changes
-work adjustment theory is the matching of abilities, reinforcers, and values
-abilities: skills or talents of an individual
-values: individuals’ need and preference (what an individual finds important), 6 main
values: achievement, comfort, status, altruism, safety, autonomy
-reinforcer: element in work environment that satisfy the individual’s values (financial
security, recognition, safe workplace), reinforcer are meant to fulfill the values
-common work adjustment problems: values & needs mismatch, external factors, skill
mismatch, reinforcer patterns
-counselling process involved:
1. assess work personality and environment
2. identify values and needs using tools like MIQ
3. assess abilities with tools like GATB or observational methods
4. evaluate reinforcer patterns in the workplace
-counsellors’ role in work adjustment counselling: assessing discrepancies, attachment
theory connection, solutions for work adjustment
-Assessing discrepancies: identify gaps between individuals’ work values and
reinforcers
-Attachment Theory Connection: consider the forming emotional bonds and
relationships that may affect individuals at workplace (social network, family)
-possible solutions for work adjustment issues:
1. internal adjustment: change how they approach work, change expectations,
enhance alignment between worker abilities and job demands, modify job
environment to better meet individuals needs
2. external adjustment: look for reinforcer outside of work (hobbies, volunteer
work)
3. change job if necessary: career change is the best solution if adjustment is
not possible
-job modification: train new skills to meet job requirements, adjust job role to align
more closely with strengths
-challenges for expatriates: job satisfaction (challenges in adapting new roles may
affect job satisfaction), work and psychological adjustment (adapting to new job
expectations, work culture, managing cultural and work-related stress to maintain
mental well-being)
-workplace challenges in Malaysia: skill mismatches, reintegrating women and
vulnerable groups, financial stress and unemployment, work-life balance and mental
health
-actions to help with workplace challenges by government: re-skilling and up-skilling
programs, career comeback program, employment insurance system (EIS), return-to-
work (RTW) program, inclusivity efforts
Counselling for Retirement
-minimum retirement age in Malaysia is 60 years old
-retirement: end of a career and withdrawal from the workforce, many retirees want or
need to continue working after retirement
-adjustment to retirement is a transition from a structured work environment to a
“nonwork” setting
-Theory of Work Adjustment (TWA) in retirement counselling: achieving a level of
individual-environment correspondence during retirement that is similar to what the
retiree experienced before retirement
-counsellor’s roles: identify retirees’ skills, needs, and values to match with their
retirement activities
-transition of work environment: hobby, part time job, volunteering
-challenges in retirement transition: physical factors (physical abilities often decline),
economic factors (needs to supplement income), locational factors (no desire to move
or relocate), emotional factors (loss of identity or purpose)
-retirement counselling: identify basic abilities and reinforcers within himself or
herself and the client for effective counselling
-key elements of retirement counselling in Malaysia: economic security, emotional
well-being, health and physical factors, community integration
-2 main strategies for retirees to cope with their challenges: emotion-focused strategies,
problem-focused strategies
Factors Predicting Work Performance
-job performance: result of work in quality and quantity of an employee
-categories of job performance:
1. task performance: performing the duties and responsibilities that contribute
to the production of a good or service or to administrative task
2. citizenship: actions that contribute to psychological environment of the
organization (helping others when not required, saying positive things, treating
co-workers with respect)
3. counterproductivity: actions that actively damage the organization (stealing,
damaging company property, aggressive towards co-worker)
-ways to evaluate job performance:
1. individual task outcomes: management should evaluate employee’s task on
outcomes (quantity of production, scrap generated, cost per unit of production)
2. behaviors: hard to evaluate outcomes of employees in group effort, hence
management should evaluate employee’s behavior
3. traits: good attitude, showing confidence, being dependable, looking busy,
possessing a wealth of experience
-factors predicting job performance: firm/environment-related factors, job-related
factors, employee-related factors
-Firm/environment-related factors: management support, organizational climate
(quality of relationship with supervisors and colleagues), training (to improve
employee’s knowledge and skills), environmental dynamism (stable working
environment, working in dynamic job environment with increasing job-related
demands are likely to develop behaviors that lead to increase performance)
-Job-related factors: job autonomy (degree of freedom and independence for decision
making), job environment
-Employee-related factors: skill level (variety of skills is a valuable asset for
employer), skill flexibility (different skills and abilities allow the employer to use them
in different job positions, could be improved through job rotation, cross-functional
teams), intrinsic motivation, proactivity (controlling a situation by causing something
to happen rather than waiting to respond), adaptability (deal with different job
requirements and environments), employee commitment (employee’s emotional
attachment), continuance commitment (cost that an employee can tolerate when
leaving the firm), normative commitment (feeling of obligation), emotional
intelligence (capacity to watch ones’ very own feelings and others and to utilize these
feelings to manage others), psychological capital (positive mental condition, HERO:
Hope, Efficacy, Resilience, Optimism)
Job Satisfaction
-a positive feeling about job
-people are typically more satisfied with their jobs overall, with the work itself, and
with their supervisors and co-workers than their pay and promotion opportunities
-job satisfaction: work>supervisor=co-worker>pay=promotion opportunities
-middle income individuals are reported to be happier than individuals with low and
high income
-interdependence, feedback, social support, interaction with co-workers outside
workplace are strongly related to job satisfaction
-personality perspectives: individuals with positive core self-evaluations are more
satisfied with their jobs than those with negative core self-evaluation
-4 employee responses to dissatisfaction:
-Exit: leaving the organization
-Voice: actively and constructively attempting to improve conditions, suggesting
improvement, discussing problems with superiors, undertaking some forms of union
activity
-Loyalty: passively but optimistically waiting for conditions to improve, speaking up
for organization in external criticism, trusting organization
-Neglect: passively allows conditions to worsen and includes chronic absenteeism or
lateness, reduced effort, increase error rate
-Impact of job satisfaction: better job performance, positive organizational citizenship
behavior, higher customer satisfaction, lower absenteeism, lower turnover, lower
workplace deviance
Ethnic and Racial Issues in Career Development
-why focus on diversity: improve innovation and productivity, influence career
opportunities and experiences, enhance problem-solving and innovation
-challenges for ethnic and racial issues: systemic barrier (rural areas, limited access to
quality education and career guidance), employment discrimination, unequal pay,
cultural expectations, representation (less minor ethnic and racial in government sector)
Gender Issues in Career Development
-gender wage gap: women generally earned less than 19% from men on average
-occupational segregation: women dominant in sector like teaching and nursing, while
men in STEM and managerial roles, women hold less leadership roles in corporate
-work-life balance: women facing challenges balancing career and family due to
cultural expectation
-sexual harassment and safety concern: women facing more workplace harassment,
harassment and unsafe work environments discourage women from pursuing high-
pressure or male-dominant career
-challenges for both gender and race
1. gender wage gap: minor racial female may face more challenges in
workplace
2. implicit bias: name bias during job recruitment
3. networking gaps: minor group may have less access to influential mentors
or professional associations
4. educational inequalities: lack of resources in school, high dropout rate
-why happen?: family influence, stereotypes in workplace, education system inequality,
lack of knowledge, globalization and market pressures
-how to overcome?: individual (developing cultural competence, building networks,
self-advocacy), organization (diversity training, mentorship program, fair pay audit)
-inventories:
1. Implicit Association Test (IAT): measure unconscious biases related to race,
gender, age, etc
2. Stereotype Content Model Inventory: evaluate perceptions of warmth and
competence regarding different social groups
3. Modern Racism Scale (MRS): assess subtle and indirect forms of racial
prejudice in modern context
4. Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI): assess intercultural competence
and sensitivity to diversity
5. Bias Self-Assessment Tools: allow individual to reflect on their personal bias
Occupational Information, Classification and
Sources
-occupational information: detail data about specific job or career (job description,
required skills and knowledge, education and training needed, typical work
environment, salary range, career advancement paths, overall job market demand)
-occupational information is important for diverse economy, skilled workforce
development, rapid technological advancement, career guidance and planning
-10 major group classification in Malaysia workforce: 1. manager, 2. professional, 3.
technician and associate professional, 4. clerical support worker, 5. service and sales
worker, 6. skilled agricultural, forestry, livestock and fishery worker, 7. craft and
related trade worker, 8. plant and machine operators and assemblers, 9. elementary
occupations, 10. armed forces
-importance of work sources: standardization and consistency, job matching and
career guidance, understanding occupational trends, international comparison,
developing education and training programs
Counselling for Career Choice: Implications for
Improving Interventions and Working with Diverse
Populations
-career counselling is supporting system for individuals navigating the challenging
journey of career decision-making, provide necessary guidance and tools, foster
professional satisfaction, personal fulfillment, long-term growth
-career counselling not only beneficial working adults, but also students to help them
explore their interest, strengths, and potential career paths
-early intervention in career information can lead to better informed decisions and
smoother transitions to higher education
-career counselling provides self-assessment, goal setting, educational planning, skill
development, decision making strategies
-career counselling serves as a guidance and facilitators to client, help people to make
their own decisions, provide information, resources and support to help client
navigate career exploration process, make informed choices aligned with individual
goals and aspirations
-help client to gain clarity, confidence, direction in pursing their goals and aspirations
-importance of career counselling:
1. support across various stage: provide guidance, help identify strengths,
interests, values, and job market requirements, boost confidence and clarity for
informed decision-making for students or young adults; address challenges
(burnout, industry changes, stagnation), develop strategies (skill enhancement,
role transitions, exploring new career options) for mid-career professionals;
support for recovering career interruptions or undergoing life changes, address
barriers (outdated skills, employment gaps, low self-confidence) for
individuals returning to workforce
2. empowerment and autonomy: self-awareness (encourage clients to reflect
on personal values and interests), adaptability (develop adaptability to navigate
fast-paced and unpredictable job market, provide resources)
3. individual and societal benefit: individual growth (foster high job
satisfaction, boost productivity and engagement, promote lifelong learning),
societal impact (skill gaps, reduce unemployment rates, contribute stronger and
more equitable workforce)
4. comprehensive and client-centered approach: tailored support, workforce
enhancement
-implications for improving in career counselling
1. mitigating economic and workforce challenges: align individual’s skills with
market demand, reduce structural unemployment, prepare client for rapid
changes
2. promoting social justice: address inequities faced by minor population,
provide tailored support to minority groups
3. emphasizing adaptation and lifelong learning: emphasize importance of
continuous professional development, guide client to engage in reskilling and
upskilling opportunities to stay competitive and adaptable for long-term
success
4. comprehensive approach to career counselling: integrate personal and
psychological dimension (help on decision making align with personal goal),
addressing emotional factor (support client to find balance and enhance job
satisfaction)
5. integration of technology in career counselling: AI-driven career mapping
platforms increase accessibility and convenience to explore career options,
provide personalized guidance
6. supporting economic mobility: identify suitable career paths, acquire
necessary skills, secure meaningful employment, reduce poverty, increase
economic productivity, equitable distribution of opportunities
7. cultural competence in career counselling: understand cultural difference,
adapt intervention for specific needs of clients, cultural sensitivity
8. bridging education and employment: ensure academic program align with
market demands, help student transition smoothly from education to
employment, improve long-term career opportunities
-interventions in career counselling: skill development, decision-making support,
behavioral and cognitive techniques, job search strategies, support for transitions
-multicultural approaches: developing cultural self-awareness (recognize personal bias,
self-reflection, create safe and nonjudgmental space for client), understanding clients’
cultural context, employing culturally relevant interventions (career genograms,
identify potential obstacles or opportunities), advocacy for social change, continuous
professional development (lifelong learning through workshops, cultural training and
conferences, seek supervision or consultation, maintain adaptability and
responsiveness, culturally sensitive)
The World of Work
-career information for children: awareness of occupational diversity, awareness of
nature of work, break down racial, sex-role, disabilities stereotypes, education and
work, economic awareness
-career information for adolescent: personal identity, provide motivation for further
education, reality testing through contacting and observing, lifestyle planning,
eliminate stereotypes, compare career opportunities
-career information for adult: information about training opportunities, evaluate
earnings, skills enhancement, develop employability skills, workers right
-career information for retirees: part-time or full-time job opportunities, utilize
developed skills, lifestyle planning
-occupational information: educational, occupational, psychosocial facts of work
-labor market information: data about occupational structure and trends
-O*NET: school, career and rehabilitation counsellor use it as career exploration tool,
human resource manager uses to design training programs and develop job
descriptions, students and adults view it as report for job characteristics and job
requirements
-the occupational outlook handbook: prediction about future of both occupational
clusters and individual occupations, description of duties performed on the job,
working conditions, average salary data, information for each job
-computer-assisted career guidance systems (CAGS): passive and interactive CD-
ROM technology software programs and streaming audiovisual material
-MyGOV: job vacancies in Malaysia (government and private sector), upskilling
programs
-MyFutureJobs: job seek for >40 individuals, re-employment, informal sector,
MYNextChampion, Kerjaya Madani 2.0, Return to work programme
-Other occupational information:
1. Simulations: role-play, complex work setting, high sophisticated program,
suitable for elementary teacher to enhance classroom learning activities, high
school vocational education class, trade and industry departments assign class
project
2. Games: use for any age level, inexpensive, easy storage and maintenance
3. Interviewing Experts: appropriate experiences in all phases of career
development
4. Direct Observation: observe at workplace, additional cost (transportation),
limited range to observe
5. Job Shadowing: best opportunities to gain insight of a job, observe more
than one worker, see variety aspects of job
6. Career Days: direct contact with occupational representatives, accurate
information provided, broaden understanding
7. Career Conferences: brief career day, occupational representative brought to
discuss specific field
8. Work Experience Programs: understand various types of work, work settings,
tools and equipment used, assist students in the development of attitude and
skills
Information About the World of Work
-values are cognitive structures that are the basis for self-evaluation and one’s
evaluation of others
-values are desirable, trans-situational goals that are guiding principles in people’s
lives
-values are fundamental traits than interests
-values are core benefits which guide and motivate attitude and behavior
-occupational aspirations are person’s goals, fantasies, and expectations which can be
influenced by person’s values; important during adolescence because they influence
career goals
-work values/career values, are fundamental beliefs influencing behavior and
decisions in workplace
Schwartz’s Theory of Values
-explain universal human values, which are what motivated people in life and
influences their decisions, including career choices
-core idea: 10 basic values that guide their behaviors, values exist across cultures,
values are arranged in a circle based on how similar or conflicting they are
-10 basic values (grouped into 4 categories)
1. Self-Enhancement (Personal Success and Power)
-achievement: striving for success and being competent (business, law)
-power: seeking control, status, and influence (CEO, military, politics)
2. Self-Transcendence (Caring for Others and Society)
-benevolence: helping and caring for people close to you (nursing, teaching)
-universalism: promoting fairness, equality, and environmental protection
(human rights, environmental science)
3. Openness to Change (Independence and Exploration)
-self-direction: freedom to think and act independently (entrepreneur,
researcher)
-stimulation: seeking excitement and new challenges (travel blogger, pilot)
-hedonism: enjoying life and pleasure (food critic, travel guide, entertainer)
4. Conservation (Tradition and Stability)
-security: seeking safety and stability (police, government jobs)
-conformity: following rules and expectations (accountant, civil service)
-tradition: respecting customs and cultural beliefs (religious leader)
-similar values support each other, opposing values create conflict, people prioritize
values differently, shaping their career and life choices
Brown’s Values-Based Theory
-explains how personal values influence career choices and decision-making
-work values are important to people who values individualism
-core idea: career decisions are guided by personal values instead just interests or
abilities, people choose careers that align with what they find most important in life
(money, work-life balance, helping others)
-key principles:
1. values are main driver of career choices
2. some values are more important than others and influence decisions more
3. external factors (family, culture, society) can shape or change values
4. career satisfaction happen when job match person’s values
-career decision process: identify values>look for career align with values
-different people prioritize different values (independence, stability), life experience
and responsibilities (financial needs, family pressure) may affect career decisions
-types of values:
1. Intrinsic Values (Job satisfaction from the work itself)
-helping others, creativity, autonomy, intellectual stimulation
2. Extrinsic Values (External rewards from work)
-financial security, prestige and recognition, job stability, work-life balance
3. Life Values (Personal Priorities)
-family and relationships, spirituality and ethics, adventure and risk-taking,
community and social impact
Super’s Life Span Theory
-explains how career choices develop over a person’s lifetime, career decisions are not
made just once but evolve as people grow and change
-core idea: career development is a lifelong process, people go through different career
stages based on age and life experiences, career choices reflect a person’s self-concept
(how they see themselves)
-key stages of career development (Life-Span Stages)
1. Growth (0-14 years old)
-exploring interest, developing skills, forming sense of self
2. Exploration (15-24 years old)
-try different career, make early job choices
3. Establishment (25-44 years old)
-gain experience, settle into career, strive for success
4. Maintenance (45-64 years old)
-maintain or improve skills, adjust to job change
5. Decline/Disengagement (65+ years old)
-prepare for retirement, reduce workload, pass knowledge to others
-career development influences: self-concept (personal skills, interest, personality),
life roles (student, parent, worker), situational factors (family, economy, personal
circumstances)
-6 main life roles: child, student, leisurite, citizen, worker, homemaker
-career choices are flexible
-understanding career stages helps with planning future transitions
-self-reflection is important in career development
Gottfredson’s Theory of Circumscription and
Compromise
-explains how people limit (circumscribe) and adjust (compromise) their career
choices based on social and personal factors
-core idea: career choices are shaped by gender, social background, and abilities;
people eliminate unsuitable job; if their ideal career is hard to achieve, they adjust their
choices (compromise)
-Circumscription (Eliminating Career): happen in childhood and adolescence, reject
jobs that don’t fit 1. Gender stereotypes, 2. Social background, and 3. Perceived
abilities
-Compromise (Adjusting Choices): happen when people realize some careers are hard
to achieve (due to education, family, job availability), prioritize practical factors over
personal dream
-Career Decision Process
1. Stage 1: Orientation to Size and Power (3-5 years old)
-see jobs as “big” or “small” and relate them to adults
2. Stage 2: Orientation to Sex Roles (6-8 years old)
-start rejecting job based on gender stereotypes
3. Stage 3: Orientation to Social Class (9-13 years old)
-consider career that match their family’s status
4. Stage 4: Orientation to Internal Self (14+ years old)
-begin making realistic career choices based on interests and abilities
-individual must be aware of limiting beliefs, stay flexible, and encourage to explore
Career Intervention Across Life Span
-importance of career development for school-age youth
1. increase career awareness: help students to understand variety of career
options
2. build self-awareness: encourage students to reflect on their interests, skills,
values, and aspirations
3. promote positive attitudes towards work: encourage healthy work ethic and
positive outlook toward pursuing meaningful work
4. support informed decision-making: equip students with tools and knowledge
needed to make choices about education and career pathways
-key components of career development programs for school-age youth: career
exploration activities, skill development, mentoring and role models, career
counselling and guidance, parental and community involvement
-promoting career development and aspirations in school-age youth is crucial because
it helps to shape their future paths, set goals, and understand the possibilities that lie
ahead
1. Career Exploration Programs
-workshops and career fairs: expose students to various professionals and
industries
-guest speakers and mentors
2. Incorporating Career Education into the Curriculum
-career educational classes: offer lessons or electives that teach students about
different industries, job market, and planning of future careers
-STEM and Soft Skills Development: provide opportunities for students to
engage with Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM)
activities, develop soft skills (communication, teamwork, problem-solving)
3. Individual Career Counselling
-personalized guidance: help students assess their skills, interests, and values
-goal-setting exercises: set short and long-term career goals, understand steps
to achieve them
4. Early Exposure to Career Planning Tools
-assessment and tests: career assessment tools to identify strengths, interests,
and skills
-career portfolio: track achievement, skills, volunteer work, internships; can
serve as tool for career planning and future job applications
