Example #4 :

Determine the reverse bias current for the same diode at room temperature when VD = -5V.
𝑘𝑉𝐷 𝑇𝑘 300
ID =Is(𝑒
ൗ𝑇
𝑘 −1) η=1 → k = 11600Τ2=5800 → 𝐾
= 5800=52 mv
−5
ൗ52𝑥10−3
ID =10-12 (𝑒 −1) = 10-12 (𝑒 −96.154 −1)= 10-12 (1.74𝑥10−42 − 1) = 1.74x10−54 − 10−12 ≃ −10−12 𝐴 = − Is
The negative sign indicates the direction of the current flow but the magnitude is 10−12 A in reverse bias
Example #5 :
Given a silicon diode with Is = 10-14A and VD = 0.6V( η = 2), calculate the diode current.
𝑘𝑉𝐷 𝑇𝑘 300
ID =Is(𝑒
ൗ𝑇
𝑘 −1) η=1 → k = 11600Τ2=5800 → 𝐾
= 5800=52 mv
0.6
ൗ52𝑥10−3
ID =10-14 (𝑒 −1) = 10-14 (𝑒11.54 −1)= 10-14 (1.026𝑥105 − 1) = 1.091x10−9 − 10−12 ≃ 1𝑥10−9 𝐴
I ≃ 1 𝑛𝐴
Example #6 :
Plot the diode current ID against voltage VD for a silicon diode (with η between 1 and 2)
at room temperature using the diode equation. Assume Is = 1 fA (femtoampere).
Additionally, calculate the resistance of the diode at various points on the curve.
 0.2
0.2V: ID =10-15 (𝑒 0.4ൗ52𝑥10−3 −1) = 10-15 (𝑒 3.84 −1)= 10-15 (46.52 − 1) = 45.52x10−15 = 45.529𝑓𝐴
0.4V: ID =10-15 (𝑒 0.6ൗ52𝑥10−3 −1) = 10-15 (𝑒 7.68 −1)= 10-15 (2164.6 − 1) = 2163.6x10−15 = 2.16𝑝𝐴
0.6V: ID =10-15 (𝑒 ൗ52𝑥10−3 −1) = 10-15 (𝑒 11.52 −1)= 10-15 (100709.96 − 1) = 100708.96x10−15 ≃ 0.1 n𝐴
As the voltage approaches 0.7 V, 𝑉𝑇 changes gradually. The current rises exponentially as 𝑉𝑇 decreases from 52 mV to 26 mV,
without an instantaneous shift at 0.7 V.
0.62
0.62V: ID =10-15 (𝑒0.64ൗ47𝑥10−3 −1) = 10-15 (𝑒13.19 −1)= 10-15 (535785.6 − 1) = 0.5x10−9 ≃ 0.5 n𝐴
0.64V: ID =10-15 (𝑒 0.66ൗ41𝑥10−3 −1) = 10-15 (𝑒15.61 −1)= 10-15 (6𝑥106 − 1) = 6x10−9 ≃ 6 n𝐴
0.66V: ID =10-15 (𝑒0.68 ൗ36𝑥10−3 −1) = 10-15 (𝑒18.33 −1)= 10-15 (0.09𝑥109 − 1) ≃ 0.1x10−6 ≃ 0.1 μ𝐴
0.68V: ID =10-15 (𝑒0.7 ൗ31𝑥10−3 −1) = 10-15 (𝑒 21.93 −1)= 10-15 (3.36𝑥109 − 1) = 3.36x10−6 = 3.36 μ𝐴
ൗ26𝑥10−3
0.7V: ID =10-15 (𝑒 0.72 −1) = 10-15 (𝑒 26.92 −1)= 10-15 (4.93𝑥1011 − 1) ≃ 0.5𝑚𝐴
0.72V: ID =10-15 (𝑒 0.74ൗ26𝑥10−3 −1) = 10-15 (𝑒 27.69 −1)= 10-15 (1.1𝑥1012 − 1) = 1.1𝑚𝐴
0.74V: ID =10-15 (𝑒 0.76ൗ26𝑥10−3 −1) = 10-15 (𝑒 28.46 −1)= 10-15 (2.29𝑥1012 − 1) ≃ 2.3𝑚𝐴
0.76V: ID =10-15 (𝑒 0.78ൗ26𝑥10−3 −1) = 10-15 (𝑒 29.23 −1)= 10-15 (4.95𝑥1012 − 1) ≃ 5𝑚𝐴
0.78V: ID =10-12 (𝑒 ൗ26𝑥10−3 −1) = 10-12 (𝑒 30 −1)= 10-12 (10.7𝑥1012 − 1) = 10.7𝑚𝐴
−1
ൗ52𝑥10−3
-1V: ID =10-15 (𝑒 −1) = 10-15 (𝑒 −19.23 −1)= 10-15 (4.45𝑥10−9 − 1) = 4.45x10−24 - 10−15 ≃ −10−15 𝐴

𝑉 0.2 𝑉 0.4
VD = 0.2V: ID =45.53𝑓𝐴→ RD = 𝐼 𝐷 =45.53𝑥10−15 =4.4TΩ VD = 0.4V: ID =2.16𝑝𝐴 → RD = 𝐼 𝐷 =2.16𝑥10−12 =0.185TΩ
𝐷 𝐷
𝑉 0.6 𝑉 0.62
VD = 0.6V: ID =0.1𝑛𝐴 → RD = 𝐼 𝐷 =0.1𝑥10−12 =6TΩ VD = 0.62V: ID =0.5𝑛𝐴 → RD = 𝐼 𝐷 =0.5𝑥10−9 =1.24GΩ
𝐷 𝐷
𝑉𝐷 0.7 𝑉𝐷 0.74
VD = 0.7V: ID =0. 5𝑚𝐴 → RD = 𝐼 =0.5𝑥10−3 =1.4kΩ VD = 0.74V: ID =2.3𝑚𝐴 → RD = 𝐼 =2.3𝑥10−3 =321Ω
𝐷 𝐷
𝑉 0.76 𝑉 0.78
VD = 0.76V: ID =10.52𝑚𝐴 → RD = 𝐼 𝐷 =5𝑥10−3 =152Ω VD = 0.78V: ID =10.7𝑚𝐴 → RD = 𝐼 𝐷 =10.7𝑥10−3 =72.8Ω
𝐷 𝐷
 Temperature Effects
The characteristics of a silicon semiconductor diode can be significantly influenced
by temperature, as demonstrated by a typical silicon diode in this figure.
The reverse saturation current Is tends to approximately
double in magnitude for every 10°C increase in temperature.
The figure illustrates the clear correlation between
increasing levels of Is with temperature.
The figure demonstrates the decrease
in diode knee voltage with increasing
temperature.
In reverse bias, breakdown voltage
increases with temperature, but there's
also an undesirable rise in reverse
saturation current.
 Resistance Levels
As the diode's operating point shifts across regions, its resistance varies because of the
non-linear characteristic curve.Three different levels will be introduced in this section:
1- DC or Static Resistance 2- AC or Dynamic Resistance 3- Average AC Resistance
DC or Static Resistance
Applying DC voltage to a circuit with a semiconductor
diode yields a fixed operating point on its characteristic
Static Resistance:
curve, unchanged over time. It's the resistance
calculated using
The diode's resistance at the operating point is determined the ratio of voltage
to current at a
by matching VD and ID levels in this figure and using the specific point in a
circuit. Formula: `

equation: (2)
DC resistance levels below the knee are higher than
5.4mA
those in the vertical rise section of the characteristics.
Resistance levels in the reverse-bias region are naturally high.
Generally, lower current through a diode results in
higher DC resistance levels.
Example #7 :
Determine the dc resistance levels for the diode of this figure at
(a) ID = 2 mA; (b) ID = 20 mA; (c) VD = -10 V

Dynamic
Resistance: This
is the small
change in voltage
divided by the
resulting small
change in current
(used for
analyzing
components like
diodes). Formula:

AC or Dynamic Resistance
The independence of a diode's DC resistance from the characteristic's shape around the point of interest
is evident from equation of diode and Example #7.
Sinusoidal input alters the situation entirely.
The changing input will shift the operating point within the characteristic curve,
resulting in a specific change in current and voltage, as illustrated in the front figure.
Without any applied varying signal, the operating point, known as the Q-point, is
determined by the applied DC levels shown on the figure.
The term "Q-point" comes from "quiescent," meaning still or unvarying.
A tangent line drawn at point Q on the curve reveals specific voltage and current changes, aiding
in the determination of the diode's AC resistance in that region, as depicted in the front figure.
Keep voltage and current changes small and equidistant around the Q-point.
In equation form, (3) where Δ signifies a finite change in the quantity.
A steeper slope implies less ΔVd for the same ΔId, resulting in lower resistance.
AC resistance is low in the vertical-rise region but significantly higher at low current levels.
Generally, the lower the Q-point (less current or voltage), the higher the AC resistance.
Example #8 : For the characteristics of this figure:
(a) Determine the ac resistance at ID = 2 mA.
A tangent line was drawn at ID = 2 mA as shown in the figure, with a swing of 2 mA above and
below the specified diode current. At ID = 4 mA, VD = 0.76 V, and at ID = 0 mA, VD = 0.65 V.

(b) Determine the ac resistance at ID = 25 mA.

(c) Compare the results of parts (a) and (b) to the dc resistances at each current level.
For Example #8, the ac resistance at 25 mA was calculated to be 2 . Using Eq.(5), we have:
and the ac resistance at 2 mA was calculated to be 27.5
Using Eq.(5), but multiplying by a factor of 2 for this region (in the knee of the curve η=2),
The difference of 1.5 could be treated as the contribution due to rB.
At low diode currents, rB is typically small compared to rd,
allowing its impact on the AC diode resistance to be ignored.
we will assume that the ac resistance is determined solely by rd
Average AC Resistance
If the input signal swings widely, as shown in the figure,
Average Resistance:
the device's resistance in this region is called the average AC resistance. It's the overall or
typical resistance
This resistance is determined from a straight line between the points value of a material or
component when
current flows through it.
where the input voltage reaches its maximum and minimum values.

At an ID of 2 mA, the AC resistance (rd) exceeds 5Ω, whereas at 17 mA, it's less.
The AC resistance transitions from a higher value at 2 mA to a lower value at 17 mA.
Eq. (6) defines a value representing the average of the AC values between 2 and 17 mA.
This table reinforces recent Summary Table
conclusions and highlights
resistance level differences.

DC resistance is
determined by dividing VD
by ID at the Q point.

Keep voltage and current

Average resistance is
determined by a straight
line between the points
of peak input voltage.