Tunnelling

Definitions.
Tunnels may be defined as the underground routes or passages, excavated through the rocks
or soft ground, without disturbing the overlying rocks or soil covers.
The subways below the ground by first removing the overburden by making open cuts and
then laying roof slabs are therefore not included in tunnels.
Tunnel excavation and construction methods
Tunneling (Excavation) refers to the process of creating underground passages or tunnels
using mechanized shields or tools in soft or unstable ground conditions. It involves the design
of cutting wheels tailored to the geological conditions for efficient tunnel advancement.
Tunnel excavation and construction methods vary depending on the geological conditions,
tunnel length and diameter, and other factors. Here are some of the most common tunnel
excavation and construction methods:

1. Drill and blast method: This method involves drilling boreholes into the rock
face, then blasting the rock using explosives. The resulting debris is removed by
loading and hauling equipment.
2. Tunnel boring machine (TBM) method: This method uses a machine that
excavates the tunnel while simultaneously installing the tunnel lining. TBMs can
be used for both hard rock and soft ground tunnels.
3. New Austrian Tunnelling Method (NATM): This method involves excavating
the tunnel in small sections, then supporting the excavated section with a
temporary lining, such as sprayed concrete or rock bolts, before moving on to the
next section.
4. Cut and cover method: This method is used for shallow tunnels and involves
excavating a trench, constructing the tunnel, and then backfilling the trench.
5. Sequential excavation method (SEM): This method involves excavating the
tunnel in small sections, using ground support and reinforcement measures to
control deformation and stabilize the tunnel.
6. Shield tunneling: This method uses a shield or a similar specialized piece of
equipment to excavate and support the tunnel at the same time.
The choice of the excavation method depends on various factors such as tunnel length,
diameter, geology, groundwater conditions, available resources, and environmental
considerations.

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Drill and blast method

The drill and blast method is a traditional technique used for the excavation of tunnels and
involves drilling holes into the rock or soil, filling the holes with explosives, and then
detonating the explosives to fragment the rock or soil. The fragmented rock or soil is then
removed using machinery or manual labor.

In the drill and blast method, a series of holes are drilled into the rock or soil face using
specialized equipment such as rock drills or tunnel boring machines. The holes are typically
spaced at regular intervals and arranged in a pattern designed to achieve the desired
excavation profile. Once the holes are drilled, they are loaded with explosives, which are then
detonated using a remote trigger.

After the explosion, the fragmented rock or soil is removed using excavators or loaders, and
the tunnel is stabilized using a support system. The support system may include rock bolts,
steel arches, or concrete linings, depending on the nature of the rock or soil and the
requirements of the project.

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The drill and blast method can be highly effective for excavating tunnels in hard rock, but it
can also be time-consuming and expensive, particularly in densely populated areas where
noise and vibration from blasting may be a concern.

Tunnel boring machine (TBM) method

The Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM) method is a popular technique used for excavating
tunnels in a variety of geological conditions. A TBM is a large cylindrical machine that can
excavate through various types of soil and rock by using a rotating cutterhead with disc
cutters, which can excavate the tunnel face while simultaneously installing the tunnel lining.

The TBM method is generally preferred for tunnels that are long and straight, as it is less
labor-intensive and can work at a much faster rate than other tunneling methods. The TBM
method is also preferred in urban areas where there is a need to minimize the impact on the
surrounding community, as it produces less noise, vibration, and dust than other methods.

Cut-and-cover method

The cut-and-cover method is a technique used for the construction of shallow tunnels or
underground structures. In this method, a trench is excavated in the ground and the structure
is built inside it. The trench is then covered back with the excavated material or a precast
concrete slab

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This method is suitable for constructing tunnels in urban areas or areas where surface traffic
is a concern. It is also an effective technique for constructing underground railway stations,
pedestrian walkways, and stormwater drainage tunnels. However, the method has some
limitations, such as the high cost of construction, disruption to surface traffic during
excavation, and limitations on the depth of excavation.

New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM)

The New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM) is a method of tunnel construction that was
developed in the 1960s in Austria. It is also known as the sequential excavation method
(SEM). NATM involves excavating the tunnel in small sections or “drifts,” usually around 3-

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4 meters in length, and then immediately reinforcing the excavated section with a layer of
shotcrete and rock bolts or steel ribs. The surrounding rock or soil provides additional support.
This method allows for flexibility in adapting to the geological conditions encountered during
excavation and is particularly suitable for soft or unstable ground. NATM also has the
advantage of being relatively fast and economical, since it does not require the extensive use
of heavy machinery. However, it requires a high level of skill and expertise from the
construction team to be effective.

Disposal of Excavated Material from Tunnels

Disposal refers to the process of safely managing, transporting, and depositing waste or
surplus materials generated from construction, mining, or excavation activities. In the context
of tunnel excavation, disposal involves handling the large volumes of soil, rock, and debris
removed during tunneling operations in an environmentally responsible and efficient manner.

Sources of Excavated Material in Tunneling

Excavated materials come from various tunneling activities, including:

 Drilling and blasting (common in hard rock tunneling)

 Mechanical excavation using tunnel boring machines (TBMs)
 Earthworks related to tunnel approach and support structures

Methods of Disposal

Disposal methods depend on material type, environmental regulations, and potential for reuse.
The common methods include:

a) Reuse and Recycling

 Land reclamation – Using excavated materials for filling low-lying areas

 Construction purposes – Utilizing suitable materials for roadbeds, embankments, or
backfilling
 Concrete production – Processing rock fragments for use in concrete and aggregate

b) Controlled Landfill Disposal

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  Transporting materials to designated landfill sites
 Ensuring proper compaction and environmental protection measures
 Managing potential contamination risks

c) Marine or River Disposal

 In some cases, materials may be disposed of in deep-sea or river locations (subject to

regulations)
 Used for coastal protection or artificial reef creation

d) Stockpiling for Future Use

 Storing excavated material temporarily for potential use in future projects

 Requires designated storage sites to prevent environmental hazards

Environmental and Regulatory Considerations

 Compliance with national and local environmental laws

 Prevention of soil and water contamination
 Dust and noise control measures during transportation and disposal
 Environmental impact assessments (EIAs) before selecting disposal sites

Challenges in Disposal of Excavated Tunnel Material

 High transportation costs for moving materials to disposal sites

 Limited availability of disposal sites in urban or environmentally sensitive areas
 Potential for hazardous materials (e.g., contaminated soil, asbestos-containing rock)
 Public opposition to disposal sites near residential areas

Sustainable Disposal Practices

 Maximizing reuse and recycling to minimize waste

 Developing circular economy approaches where materials are repurposed
efficiently
 Using eco-friendly transportation methods to reduce carbon emissions
 Employing advanced sorting and processing techniques to separate reusable
materials from waste

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By implementing sustainable and responsible disposal methods, tunnel excavation projects
can minimize environmental impact while maximizing the efficient use of excavated
materials.

Tunnel support systems

Tunnel support systems are used to stabilize the ground and prevent collapse during tunnel
excavation. The choice of support system depends on a variety of factors, including the
geology of the ground, the type of tunnel being constructed, and the excavation method being
used. Some common types of tunnel support systems include:

1. Rock bolts: These are long, steel rods that are inserted into boreholes and grouted
into place. They provide reinforcement and stabilization of the rock mass by
transferring the loads between the rock blocks.
2. Shotcrete: This is a spray-on concrete mixture that is applied to the exposed rock
surface to form a thin shell, which acts as a temporary support until the final lining
is constructed.
3. Steel arches: These are pre-fabricated or custom-fabricated steel arches that are
used to support the roof and walls of the tunnel.
4. Reinforced concrete: This is a common lining material for tunnels. Reinforced
concrete is cast in place or prefabricated off-site and then installed in the tunnel.
5. Steel ribs and lagging: This is a method of tunnel support in which steel ribs are
installed and then wooden lagging is placed between them. The lagging helps to
hold the ground in place until the final lining is constructed.
6. Ground freezing: This is a method of support used in soft ground conditions where
the soil is frozen using liquid nitrogen or other refrigerants. This creates an ice
wall around the tunnel, which provides temporary support until the final lining is
installed.
The choice of support system depends on the geological conditions, excavation method, and
the design of the tunnel. The support system must provide temporary support during
excavation and construction, and also long-term support to maintain the stability of the tunnel
throughout its life.

Tunnel description/characteristics

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1. Made into natural material (rocks)
2. Empty inside
3. Carry the loads itself
4. Both ends are open to atmosphere
5. Generally horizontal
6. Thick-walled structure looks like cylinder
The tunnel is classified according to opening purposes and terrain type;
• To shorten transportation
• To bring water
• Turning river water into dam lake
• To evacuate city waste and sewage
• To reduce traffic jam
• Underground passage
• Providing water to hydroelectric power plants
• Removing stone-earth-mine from underground
• Storing liquid fuel underground
• It is used for factory-parking-market or military purposes.
Factors Affecting Costs During Tunnelling
1. Geological and hydrogeological status of the tunnel route
2. Tunnel support and type of support
3. Depth from surface to tunnel
4. The diameter and shape of the tunnel
5. The length of the tunnel
6. Workmanship
7. Working days
8. Machine malfunctions
Merits of tunnel.
i. Tunnels prove to be more economical than the open cuts beyond certain depths.
ii. Tunnels avoid disturbing and interfering with surface life and traffic during construction
iii. Tunnels prove to be better protected than bridges during war times and bombing
operations.
iv. Tunnels prove to be cheaper for carrying water, sewage, gas, etc as compared to their
being taken in open cuts.
v. Tunnels do not occupy any space on the surface.

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Demerits
i) The construction of tunnels is a costly process
ii) It requires skilled labour and technical supervision.
iii) Tunnelling requires specialized and sophisticated equipment.
iv) The excavation of tunnels takes long period.
Shape and size of tunnel cross-sections.
Shapes of tunnel cross-section
The tunnels may be constructed in different shapes depending on the nature of soil/rock and
other practical considerations. The three types of sections, which are commonly adopted,
are:-
i) D-shape
ii) Circular shape
iii) Horse –shoe shape

(i) D-shape

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(ii) Circular shape

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(iii) Horse-shoe shape
i) D-Shaped tunnel.

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This is usually adopted in rocks, where unlined tunnels are proposed to be constructed. Such
a section has an arch roof and straight vertical sides. The arch roof can easily take vertical
loads and transfer them to the sides.
The sides may be constructed in R.C.C in case of soft soils. This section is suitable for
subways and for navigation tunnels. This section has a nearly flat invert, which provided
additional working floor space, helpful during driving and a flat floor for moving equipment.
These are the principal advantages for this section and make it the usually adopted section for
highway and railway tunnels (subways)
ii) A circular section.
This is usually lined and offers strong resistance to external pressure from water bearing soils
or soft grounds; as well as to the internal pressure of fluids, if passing through the tunnel.
Such a shape is most suitable to withstand internal and external forces and provides the
largest cross- sectional area for the least perimeter. It is therefore, most suitable for sewers,
water conducts, etc. Circular section, however, is not suitable for roads and railways, as more
filling will be required for obtaining a flat base. This is best suitable for non-cohesive soils
and for tunnels driven by shield-method.
iii) A horse shoe section
This is a popular shape, having a semi-circular roof together with arched sides and a curved
invert. When lined, this cross section offers good resistance external ground pressure and
serves to combine the advantages of both the D-shaped and circular sections. It is the best
shape suitable for traffic tunnels, as the floor of the tunnel is nearly flat, which also provides
working space to the contractor, for storing materials during construction, besides providing
flat base for moving traffic. This section is found to be most suitable for soft rocks and is also
suitable
for carrying water or sewage. This shape is very commonly used for highway and railway
tunnels in all countries of the world.
Size of Tunnel cross-section.

The size of the tunnel is determined from its utility requirements aspect. For highway and
railway tunnels, the size will depend upon the number of lanes and tracks to be passed
through the tunnel. To avoid too large sizes, sometimes twine tunnels, placed side by side,
may be constructed, at suitable spacing, such that the disturbance caused in the ground due to
the construction of one tunnel does not affect the other.

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The size of the section in general, will however, be governed by the thickness of lining,
provisions required for drainage, the clear opening required for drainage, the clear opening
required for passing the volume and nature of traffic, the opening required for passing the
designed discharge, etc.

Types of tunnels

Depending upon their use, the tunnels may be classified into the following groups; -

a) Traffic tunnels

b) Hydropower tunnels

c) public utility tunnels

a) Traffic tunnels.

The traffic tunnels include all those tunnels, which are constructed for passing railway tracks,
roads, pedestrians, or even navigational traffic. A traffic tunnel, thus, provides a direct
transportation link between two places, separated by obstacles such as a mountain, a hill, a
water body like rive or sea, or even densely populated land. Traffic tunnels may vary in
length from a few meters to many kilometers.

b) The Hydro power tunnels.

The tunnels which are excavated through rocks for the purpose of conveying water from one
point to another, in connection with hydro-power generation, are called hydro-power tunnels.

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When such a tunnel is excavated through a hill to carry water from one point to another by
gravity, it is called a discharge tunnel and when the tunnel is steeply graded to feed water
under great pressure to turbines, etc. it is called a pressure tunnel as shown below.

c) The Public Utility Tunnels

All other tunnels excavated for other public uses, such as for carrying sewage, cables, oil
supplies, drinking water, etc. are classified under this category.
Geological factors affecting tunnel construction
Geological factors play a significant role in the feasibility and design of a tunnel construction
project. Some of the important geological factors that affect tunnel construction include:

1. Rock or soil type: The type of rock or soil through which a tunnel is constructed
will significantly impact its design, stability, and construction method.
2. Rock mass quality: The quality of the rock mass, including its strength, stability,
and deformation characteristics, can affect tunnel design, excavation method, and
support requirements.
3. Geological structures: Geological structures such as faults, joints, bedding planes,
and folds can significantly affect tunnel design, excavation method, and support
requirements.
4. Groundwater: The presence and flow of groundwater can affect tunnel
construction by increasing the risk of water ingress and causing instability of the
surrounding rock or soil.
5. Seismicity: Tunnels constructed in seismically active regions must be designed to
withstand the stresses and strains caused by earthquakes.

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 6. Slope stability: The stability of the surrounding slopes and hillsides can impact
tunnel construction and safety.
7. Environmental considerations: Tunnels constructed in environmentally sensitive
areas must be designed to minimize their impact on the surrounding ecosystem.
Overall, a detailed site investigation is crucial for understanding the geological factors that
may impact tunnel construction and developing an appropriate tunnel design and construction
plan.

Tunnel design

Tunnel design is the process of determining the most effective and efficient means of
excavating a tunnel based on the geologic conditions and intended use of the tunnel. The
design process generally involves the following steps:

1. Establish the purpose of the tunnel: The purpose of the tunnel should be clearly
defined in order to determine the appropriate size, shape, and alignment of the
tunnel.
2. Geologic and geotechnical investigation: This step involves collecting data on
the geologic and geotechnical characteristics of the site, such as rock type, strength,
and stability, groundwater conditions, and the presence of any faults or other
geologic features that could impact the design and construction of the tunnel.
3. Tunnel alignment: The tunnel alignment is based on factors such as the intended
use of the tunnel, the geologic and topographic conditions of the site, and any
environmental considerations. Factors that influence the alignment of a tunnel
include the presence of faults or other geologic features, the location of surface
structures, and the need to minimize environmental impacts.
4. Tunnel cross-section: The tunnel cross-section is determined by the purpose of
the tunnel, the anticipated traffic or other loads, and the geologic conditions. The
cross-section can be circular, elliptical, horseshoe-shaped, or other shapes
depending on the site conditions.
5. Support system: The support system is designed to stabilize the tunnel during and
after excavation. The support system can include rock bolts, shotcrete, steel ribs,
and/or concrete lining.

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 6. Ventilation and drainage: Ventilation and drainage systems are designed to
ensure safe and efficient operation of the tunnel. Ventilation systems are used to
remove exhaust gases and provide fresh air for workers and passengers, while
drainage systems are used to remove water from the tunnel and prevent flooding.
7. Construction methods: Various construction methods can be used for tunnel
excavation, including drill and blast, tunnel boring machines (TBMs), and
sequential excavation methods (SEM). The selection of the appropriate
construction method depends on the geologic conditions, the intended use of the
tunnel, and the available equipment and resources.
8. Cost estimation: The final step in the tunnel design process is to estimate the cost
of construction based on the design specifications, the selected construction
method, and the anticipated site conditions.
Overall, tunnel design is a complex process that requires the expertise of geologists,
engineers, and other specialists to ensure safe and efficient construction of tunnels that meet
the intended purpose.

Design parameters and considerations

The design of a tunnel depends on a number of factors, including:

1. Purpose of the tunnel: The design of the tunnel will depend on its intended use.
For example, a highway tunnel will have different design requirements than a
tunnel used for water transport.
2. Site conditions: The geology and topography of the site will influence the design
of the tunnel. Factors such as rock strength, water inflow, and ground support
requirements will all need to be considered.
3. Tunnel dimensions: The diameter of the tunnel, its length, and its alignment will
all need to be determined based on the site conditions and the purpose of the
tunnel.
4. Excavation method: The method used to excavate the tunnel will also influence
the design. Methods such as drill and blast, tunnel boring machines (TBM), and
cut-and-cover will have different requirements.
5. Ventilation: The design of the tunnel will need to include provisions for
ventilation to ensure the safety of workers and users of the tunnel.

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 6. Drainage: The tunnel design will also need to include provisions for drainage to
manage groundwater inflow and prevent flooding.
7. Fire protection: Fire protection measures will need to be incorporated into the
design of the tunnel to ensure the safety of users.
8. Traffic and safety systems: Traffic and safety systems such as lighting, signage,
and emergency phones will also need to be included in the design.
9. Environmental considerations: The design of the tunnel will need to consider the
potential impact of construction and operation on the environment and take steps
to minimize these impacts.
Tunnelling in consolidated rocks
Tunnelling in hard crystalline and massive rocks like Granites, Diorites, Gabbro, Basalts,
sandstones, Quartzite, Granitic Gneisses and Marbles usually present no major problems.
These are excavated by using conventional rock blasting methods which involve exploding
suitable quantities of right type of explosive in especially drilled blast holes. Each blasting
round is usually followed by a Mucking period during which the blasted fragments are
removed. Excavations so created in these rocks are mostly self-supporting and no major
support required. Although cost of blasting may be high with hard rocks, it is often more than
compensated by the self- supporting character of the rocks.
In soft rocks like lime stones, Dolomites, argillaceous, sand stones, schists and slates, etc.
blasting costs are comparatively lower, but involves a lot of expenses and delays in erecting
temporary and even permanent living, which become a major consideration for safety reasons.
Tunneling in unconsolidated rocks
Tunneling in unconsolidated rocks or loose sediments is known as soft-ground tunneling and
is comparatively complicated than in solid rocks. The complications arise because of:-
i) Structural weakness of the sediments forming the ground.
ii) Low cohesion and internal friction of the particles of ground.
iii) Uncertainty of ground-water conditions
Tunnel drainage systems
Tunnel drainage systems are essential for removing water that may enter the tunnel during
construction and operation. There are various types of tunnel drainage systems, including:

1. Dewatering wells: These are installed near the tunnel to intercept and collect
groundwater before it enters the tunnel. Dewatering wells can be either permanent
or temporary.

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 2. Drainage galleries: These are drainage systems built into the tunnel lining that
collect water and channel it to a sump or pump station.
3. Sumps: These are chambers built at low points in the tunnel where water can
collect and be pumped out.
4. Pumps: Pumps are used to remove water from the tunnel sumps and drainage
galleries and discharge it to the surface or to a water treatment facility.
The type of drainage system used depends on the geology and hydrology of the area, as well
as the construction method and tunnel alignment. Proper design and installation of tunnel
drainage systems are important to ensure the safety and long-term durability of the tunnel.

Tunnel construction challenges and solutions

Tunnel construction can present many challenges that need to be addressed to ensure
successful completion of the project. Some of the common challenges in tunnel construction
include:

1. Geotechnical conditions: The geological conditions of the site can greatly affect
the construction process, making it more challenging to excavate the tunnel. For
example, tunnels constructed through hard rock formations are easier to excavate
than those constructed through soft soil.
2. Groundwater: Groundwater can pose a challenge during tunnel construction, as it
can weaken the tunnel support systems and cause instability. Adequate drainage
and dewatering systems must be installed to prevent flooding and damage to the
tunnel.
3. Ventilation: Ventilation is crucial in tunnel construction to provide fresh air and
remove dust, fumes, and gases that can accumulate in the tunnel. Proper
ventilation is necessary for the safety of workers and the efficient operation of
equipment.
4. Limited space: The limited space in the tunnel can make it difficult to maneuver
heavy equipment and materials, which can slow down the construction process.
Innovative solutions, such as remote-controlled equipment and robotic systems,
can help mitigate this challenge.

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 5. Safety: Tunnel construction can be dangerous due to the risks of collapse, rock
falls, flooding, fires, and explosions. Stringent safety measures must be
implemented to protect workers and the public.
To address these challenges, tunnel construction projects require careful planning and
execution. Modern technologies such as computer-aided design, simulation models, and real-
time monitoring can aid in the planning and execution of tunnel construction projects.
Additionally, experienced tunneling professionals who understand the geology and
engineering of tunnels can help to identify potential challenges and develop effective
solutions.

Tunnel maintenance and rehabilitation

Tunnel maintenance and rehabilitation are important aspects of tunnel management to ensure
their safe and efficient operation over their design life. Some of the key activities involved in
tunnel maintenance and rehabilitation are:

1. Routine inspection and monitoring: Regular inspection and monitoring of tunnel

structures, linings, and support systems are necessary to detect any signs of
deterioration or damage.
2. Cleaning and debris removal: Regular cleaning of the tunnel and removal of debris,
sediment, and other obstructions from drainage systems, access tunnels, and
ventilation systems is important to ensure smooth and safe operation.
3. Repairs and maintenance: Repairs and maintenance activities such as grouting,
crack filling, and replacement of damaged or corroded components are essential to
maintain the integrity of the tunnel structure.
4. Upgrades and modernization: Upgrades and modernization of tunnel systems such
as lighting, ventilation, and communication systems may be required to improve
safety and efficiency.
5. Rehabilitation and strengthening: Rehabilitation and strengthening of tunnel
structures may be necessary due to deterioration or changes in the tunnel’s usage.
6. Risk management and emergency preparedness: Risk management and emergency
preparedness plans are important to ensure the safety of tunnel users and to
minimize the impact of any incidents or accidents.

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Overall, tunnel maintenance and rehabilitation activities require careful planning and
execution to ensure their effectiveness and to minimize disruption to tunnel users.

References

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Planning, Design, Construction, and Operation of the Underground Space.
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4. National Ground Water Association. (2019). Groundwater and Wells. CRC Press.
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6. Robery, P. C. (2013). Introduction to tunnelling. CRC Press.
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tunnelling. CRC Press.
8. Terzaghi, K., Peck, R. B., & Mesri, G. (1996). Soil mechanics in engineering
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of seismic data. Society of Exploration Geophysicists.

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