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Oxidants (disinfectants)
Any reducing agent in the distribution network will create chlorine
demand and therefore lower the disinfecting capacity of water.
Further, leaks in the distribution system can lead to contamination
with pathogens, which is why it is important to monitor the level of
RAW WATER residual disinfectants until the water reaches the end user.

Disinfection by-products (DBPs)

Turbidity
MONITORING KEY PARAMETERS Disinfection by-products are formed from the reaction of natural
organic matter with chlorine or chloramines. Even though this process
can be monitored and controlled in the water treatment plant, this
Turbidity is an optical property of solutions resulting from light interac- reaction can be active for up to several days. Also, due to possible
tion with suspended solids such as silt, clay, algae, organic matter or contamination in the distribution system, there may be additional
microorganisms. These particles scatter and absorb light that passes Low range turbidity organic matter getting in the water and reacting with residual chlorine
through water, and measuring the light reflected at a 90 degree angle Turbidity is measured after each filter to ensure to form DBPs.
is the method for quantifying turbidity. Turbidity does not specify adequate degree of filtration in order to comply
any particular compound, it simply tells the effects that the suspended with regulatory requirements for drinking water. By Nitrification prevention
particles create. Measuring turbidity allows for early detection of FLOCCULATOR measuring turbidity after each filter, instead of only When chloramination is the main disinfection method, the distribution
changes in the incoming water quality. once for all filters combined, a facility can ensure system must be monitored for signs of nitrification. Nitrification may
CLARIFIER timely detection of possible filter breakthrough. happen when water is warm and stagnant, which leads to excessive
Natural Organic Matter (NOM) consumption of residual disinfectant. Reactions with monochloramine
Natural Organic Matter (also known as Dissolved Organic Carbon – can release ammonia, which is consumed by the nitrifying bacteria
DOC) represents any organic material that exists in the natural water that produce nitrites and nitrates. To monitor for early signs of nitrifi-
source (primarily surface water), and one of the main goals of the cation, total chlorine and monochloramine residual, free ammonia,
drinking water treatment process is to remove these dissolved organics. nitrite, and pH should be monitored.
This is especially important when chlorine is used as a disinfectant, MIXER
as NOM’s reaction with chlorine leads to the formation of carcinogenic
disinfection by-products (i.e. THMs). Alkalinity
Alkalinity defines the capacity of water to neutralise acids, also FILTERS
Total Organic Carbon (TOC) referred to as its buffering capacity. The presence of bicarbonates
Total Organic Carbon is comprised of a variety of organic compounds determines one major form of alkalinity, but there are other ions
in various oxidation states. Most TOC in surface source waters is fulvic contributing to the alkalinity depending on the water pH. However,
andhumic acid originating from decaying plant materials. Levels can pH is not a measure of alkalinity or vice versa. It is important to
fluctuate depending on seasonal conditions, weather events and water- know water alkalinity because it affects the amount and type of
shed topography. TOC removal is important for control of disinfection chemicals required to provide effective coagulation.
by-product control.
Nitrates Pre-oxidants (chlorine, chlorine dioxide, ozone)
Ammonia Nitrates are nitrogen-oxygen chemical units that combine with Pre-oxidation can be used for various reasons, such as to help
When chlorine is used in the pre-oxidation (primary disinfection) step, various organic and inorganic compounds and in high levels remove metals (e.g. Fe, Mn), aid coagulation, and increase contact
and there is naturally occurring ammonia in the source water, this can be harmful for human health. Nitrates can be present in both
ammonia provides chlorine demand that consumes the disinfectant.
time (i.e. the time required for the disinfectant to destroy harmful SLUDGE REMOVAL
surface and ground water, especially in areas with developed substances). There are different types of oxidizers, and plants can
The reaction of ammonia with chlorine leads to the formation of agriculture, and they are some of the most commonly tested use either one or a combination of different disinfectants. Pre-
chloramines, which are weaker disinfectants than free chlorine.
Turbidity
parameters in drinking water plants. During heavy rains, their oxidation is further part of enhanced coagulation. For plants At the clarification stage (filter influent), turbidity is measured in order tomonitor the coagulation/
levels can further elevate in surface water, which calls for careful using raw water with high level of natural organic matter (NOM),
Metals (Iron, Manganese) monitoring.
flocculation efficiency. Higher turbidity levels would lead to faster clogging of the filters, which in Chlorine + pH
it is important to not use chlorine in the pre-treatment phase, as turn leads to wasting more water to backwash filters and higher power consumption.
Ground water can often have higher than acceptable levels of metals, It is important to monitor both pH and chlorine residual
this could lead to high rate of formation of harmful disinfection
such as iron and manganese. These metals produce mainly aesthetic pH in the clear well, as changes in either of these parameters
bi-products (DBPs). Suspended Solids
problems (brownish colour of the water, black deposits in showers, pH is an index of the hydrogen ion (H+) concentration in water, could create an environment conducive to pathogen
Measuring suspended solids in water (also referred to as Lamellar return) helps monitor the sludge formation.
sinks) as well as taste and odour issues and therefore need to be moni- and it is measured throughout the drinking water treatment blanket inside the clarifier. This in turn helps a facility optimize both the frequency and the
tored and removed. process. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14 and is said to be neu-
tral at pH of 7. Acidic pH has a higher concentration of hydrogen
duration of the backwash process. The level of these suspended solids can be monitored with Hardness + Alkalinity
Hardness a turbidimeter or a total suspended solids sensor. Hardness and alkalinity provide an indication of water
ions (pH < 7), while a basic pH has lower concentration of hydro-
Water hardness is a measure of the concentration of dissolved calcium stability and corrosivity. Unstable water could cause either
and magnesium salts. It can be one of two types: carbonate or temporary-
gen ions (and respectively pH > 7). pH affects the effectiveness Chlorine scaling (high hardness) or corrosion (low alkalinity) and DISTRIBUTION
of coagulation and disinfection, which is why it is important to It is important to monitor the chlorine level in the clarification step, as ammonia and natural
containing bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium, or non-carbonate leach out lead and copper, which are regulated substances
measure and adjust it. organic matter that create chlorine demand can consume the added chlorine. Lower disinfection
or permanent-containing other calcium and magnesium salts, e.g. in drinking water.
sulfates, nitrates, and chlorides.
effectiveness could in turn lead to higher bacterial growth. Bacteria then form a biofilm that CONTACT TANK
Conductivity clogs the filters, decreases their efficiency and causes potential contamination. If the facility
Conductivity of water is defined as its ability to conduct or support chloraminates, it is important to measure monochloramine in filter influent for better process
electric current. Electric current is supported by the ions present control. If there is another pre-oxidant (e.g. ClO2) used for primary disinfection, it may be
in water, and therefore conductivity is a measure of total dissolved necessary to measure its residual to prevent the formation of DBP.
solids (TDS). Changes in the water conductivity at the influent can
indicate changes in the composition of the source water. pH
pH is monitored and adjusted to assure adequate disinfection.

Metals
Metal salts are often used as coagulants to help remove suspended particles from the water.
However, if the coagulant dose is excessive, it may produce higher metal concentrations that
need to be monitored and controlled to comply with regulatory requirements.

DOC140.52.10050.Mar17
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