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Introduction to OOPS: Introduction, Need of OOP, Principles of Object Oriented Languages,

Procedural languages vs OOP, Applications of OOP, History of Java, JVM, Java Features,
Programming Style, Command Line Arguments, Escape Sequence Comments
Data Types, Variables, Operators and Flow of Control: Variables, Primitive Data types, Constants,
Identifiers- Naming Conventions, Keywords, Literals, Operators- Binary, Unary, Ternary,
Expressions, Precedence rules and Associativity, Primitive Type Conversion and casting, Flow of
Control- Branching, Conditional Loops.

Introduction

Java is a widely used programming language and is designed for the distributed environment of internet. It
is a general-purpose programming language that is concurrent, class-based, and object-oriented. It is free to
access and we can run it on all the platforms. Java follows the principle of WORA (Write Once, Run
Anywhere), and is platform-independent. It is also simple and easy to learn.

Need of OOP, Principles of Object Oriented Languages

Some languages like C, Fortran and Pascal are not object-oriented programming languages and are called
as procedural programming languages. They were having some disadvantages.
1) They were less secure.
2) There are no access modifiers in procedural programming.
3) Procedural programming does not have the concept of inheritance.
4) It gives importance to functions over data.
5) There is not any proper way for data hiding.
6) Code reusability is difficult in procedural programming.
7) There is no concept of virtual class.
8) Polymorphism, Abstraction and Encapsulation were not present in procedural languages.

What are the Principles of Object-Oriented Languages?

Abstraction
Abstraction is first of the object orientation principles. It is defined as hiding the complex details and
presenting only with the relevant or necessary details. Abstraction is used to manage complexity while
writing programs. Encapsulation and inheritance are used to implement abstraction while writing
programs. Abstraction represents the external behavior of the object (what the object does) and
encapsulation represents how it is implemented internally by the object.
As a real-world example for abstraction let’s consider the car example:When you want to purchase a car,
the car dealer gives you the details of available colors, seating capacity, engine, gearbox, type of steering
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and other kinds of general details. The car dealer never tellsyou specific (complex) details of material being
used for the hood,nuts and bolts and such.

The above details are not needed. These details are hidden by the car dealer. Like this, you can think of
other examples in the real world. Abstraction is everywhere.

Encapsulation
Encapsulation is the fundamental principle to achieve abstraction in object -oriented programming.
Abstraction is conceptual and encapsulation is a way to implement abstraction. Wherever you can find
abstraction you can say that encapsulation is there but encapsulation may not always provide abstraction.
Encapsulation is defined as wrapping up or combining the data and code into a single unit. In the
definition data refers to variables and code refers to methods (functions). Every object contains private data
(variables) and public methods which allows other code to access the private data. Private methods are
optional. We can view an object in OOP as shown below:

As a real-world example for encapsulation let’s consider a television. We access the television by using a
remote which provides an interface to communicate with the television. Television manufacturer is hiding
its components (data) under the shell and is providing public interface (remote control) to access its
components.
In our real-world example, television components are analogous to private member variables and public
methods are analogous to buttons on remote control of the television.
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Data hiding or information hiding is the side effect of encapsulation. Whenever we use encapsulation, we
are implicitly hiding the data of an object which is known as data hiding. Encapsulation helps
programmers to write code which is extensible.

Inheritance
Another way to implement abstraction is by using inheritance. In inheritance, entities are arranged as
hierarchies. You might come across situations where even though objects have similar properties are quite
different. In such cases, it is better to move all the common properties and behavior into one common
entity and the specific properties and behavior into special or specific entity. Inheritance is defined as one
object derives or inherits the properties and behavior of another object. Common properties and behavior
are moved into a common class also known as super class or base class or parent class. Specific properties
and behavior are moved into specialized classes also known as sub class or derived class or child class.

As a real-world example, consider a child inheriting the properties (land and other assets) from their
parents. As another example, let’s consider that we are developing a program to work with geometrical
objects like circle, rectangle etc. In the application I can create these objects and perform operations like
move, re size etc. These operations are common for all the objects. So, we can use inheritance in this
context. It provides code reusability. The resultant hierarchy will be as shown below:

Polymorphism
Polymorphism means many forms. More generally it is defined as one interface multiple implementations.
It means that based on the situation or different factors, the same thing exhibits multiple behaviors or the
same thing can be used to carry out different tasks. Here thing is used as a general element.
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As a real-world example for polymorphism, let’s consider
the animal Chameleon. This animal changes its color to
reflect the surroundings to hide from its prey. It is really
cool! Based on the color of the surroundings the same thing
(Chameleon) can change its color from one to another. In
every well written java program, we can find
encapsulation, inheritance and polymorphism.

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Procedural languages vs OOP:

Parameter Procedural Programming Object Oriented Programming

Definition This programming language makes use This programming language uses objects and
of a step by step approach for breaking classes for creating models based on the real-
down a task into a collection of world environment. This model makes it very
routines (or subroutines) and variables easy for a user to modify as well as maintain the
by following a sequence of instructions. existing code while new objects get created by
It carries out each step systematically in inheriting the characteristics of the present ones.
order so that a computer easily gets to
understand what to do.
Security Procedural Programming does not Hiding data is possible with Object Oriented
offer any method of hiding data. Thus, Programming due to the abstraction. Thus, it is
it is less secure when compared to more secure than the Procedural Programming.
Object Oriented Programming.
Division of Procedural Programming divides the Object Oriented Programming divides the
Program program into small programs and program into small parts and refers to them as
refers to them as functions. objects.
Approach The Procedural Programming follows a The Object Oriented Programming follows a
Top-Down approach. Bottom-Up approach.
Inheritance It does not provide any inheritance. It achieves inheritance in three modes- protected,
private, and public.
Overloading The case of overloading isn’t possible Overloading is possible in the form of operator
in the case of Procedural Programming. overloading and function overloading in the case
of Object Oriented Programming.
Reusability No feature of reusing codes is present Object Oriented Programming offers the feature to
of Code in Procedural Programming. reuse any existing codes in it by utilizing a feature
known as inheritance.
Examples Some common examples of Procedural The examples of Object Oriented Programming
Programming are C, Fortran, VB, and languages are Java, C++, VB.NET, Python, and
Pascal. C#.NET.

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History of Java

The history of Java is very interesting. Java was originally designed for interactive television, but it was too
advanced technology for the digital cable television industry at the time.
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The principles for creating Java programming were "Simple, Robust, Portable, Platform-independent,
Secured, High Performance, Multithreaded, Architecture Neutral, Object-Oriented, Interpreted, and
Dynamic". Java was developed by James Gosling, who is known as the father of Java, in 1995.

1) James Gosling, Mike Sheridan, and Patrick Naughton initiated the Java language project in June
1991. The small team of sun engineers called Green Team.
2) Initially it was designed for small, embedded systems in electronic appliances like set-top boxes.
3) Firstly, it was called "Greentalk" by James Gosling, and the file extension was .gt.
4) After that, it was called Oak and was developed as a part of the Green project.
5) Oak is a symbol of strength and chosen as a national tree of many countries like the U.S.A., France,
Germany, Romania, etc.
6) In 1995, Oak was renamed as "Java" because it was already a trademark by Oak
Technologies.
7) Java is an island in Indonesia where the first coffee was produced (called Java coffee).
8) Initially developed by James Gosling at Sun Microsystems (which is now a
subsidiary of Oracle Corporation) and released in 1995.
9) JDK 1.0 was released on January 23, 1996. After the first release of Java, there have
been many additional features added to the language. Now Java is being used in Windows
applications, Web applications, enterprise applications, mobile applications, cards, etc. Each new
version adds new features in Java.

*Note: Below information is just for your reference.

Version Year Major Updates
JDK 1.0 January 1996 1st version
JDK 1.1 February 1997 Java Database connectivity (JDBC), Java Beans, RMI
(Remote method Invocation)
J2SE 1.2 December 1998 Collection framework, swing graphical API was
integrated into the core classes., Audio support in
Applets.
J2SE 1.3 May 8, 2000 Jar Indexing, Java Platform Debugger Architecture
(JPDA)
J2SE 1.4 February 2002 Integrated XML parser and XSLT processor (JAXP),
JDBC 3.0 API, Image I/O API for reading and writing
images in formats like JPEG and PNG, Regular
Expressions, Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) support
J2SE 1.5 September 2004 Enhanced for Loop, Enumerations, Metadata
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(Annotations)
Java SE 6 December 2006 JDBC 4.0 API, Scripting Language Support, Improved
Web Service support through JAX-WS
Java SE 7 July 2011 Strings in switch Statement, Catching multiple
exception types, Timsort is used to sort collections and
arrays of objects instead of merge sort
Java SE 8 March 2014 Lambda Expressions, Date and Time API
Java SE 9 September 2017 The Java Platform module system, jlink: The Java
Linker, jshell: The Java Shell (Read-Eval-Print Loop)
Java SE 10 March 2018 Garbage Collector Interface, Heap Allocation on
Alternative Memory Devices, Bytecode Generation for
Enhanced for Loop
Java SE 11 September 2018 Enhanced KeyStore Mechanisms, Transport Layer
Security (TLS) 1.3, Removal of Java Deployment
Technologies
Java SE 12 March 2019 String Class New Methods, Compact Number
Formatting
Java SE 13 September 2019 ZGC: Uncommit Unused Memory, Dynamic CDS
Archives
Java SE 14 Mar 2020 Helpful NullPointerExceptions, Deprecate the Solaris
and SPARC Ports
Java SE 15 September 2020 Sealed Classes, Pattern Matching Type Checks,
Foreign Memory API
Java SE 16 March 2021 New Packaging Tool, Improved memory
management, UNIX-Domain Socket Channels
Java SE 17 September 2021 Context-specific deserialization filters, Deprecation of
the Security Manager, Removal of the experimental
AOT and JIT compiler

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Applications of OOP:

Java is widespread; the following are some of the areas in which we find java usable:

Desktop applications
Web applications
Mobile applications (Android)
Cloud computing
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Enterprise applications
Scientific applications
Operating Systems
Embedded systems
Real-time software
Cryptography
Smart cards
Computer games
Web servers and application servers
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History of Java
The history of Java is very interesting. Java was originally designed for interactive television, but it was too
advanced technology for the digital cable television industry at the time. The history of Java starts with the
Green Team. Java team members (also known as Green Team), initiated this project to develop a language
for digital devices such as set-top boxes, televisions, etc. However, it was best suited for internet
programming. Later, Java technology was incorporated by Netscape.
The principles for creating Java programming were "Simple, Robust, Portable, Platform-
independent, Secured, High Performance, Multithreaded, Architecture Neutral, Object-Oriented,
Interpreted, and Dynamic". Java was developed by James Gosling, who is known as the father of Java, in
1995. James Gosling and his team members started the project in the early '90s.
Currently, Java is used in internet programming, mobile devices, games, e-business solutions, etc.
Following are given significant points that describe the history of Java.
1) James Gosling, Mike Sheridan, and Patrick Naughton initiated the Java language project in June 1991.
The small team of sun engineers called Green Team.
2) Initially it was designed for small, embedded systems in electronic appliances like set-top boxes.
3) Firstly, it was called "Greentalk" by James Gosling, and the file extension was .gt.
4) After that, it was called Oak and was developed as a part of the Green project.
Why Java was named as "Oak"?
5) Oak is a symbol of strength and chosen as a national tree of many countries like the U.S.A., France,
Germany, Romania, etc.
6) In 1995, Oak was renamed as "Java" because it was already a trademark by Oak Technologies.
7) The team gathered to choose a new name. The suggested words were "dynamic", "revolutionary", "Silk",
"jolt", "DNA", etc. They wanted something that reflected the essence of the technology: revolutionary,
dynamic, lively, cool, unique, and easy to spell, and fun to say.
According to James Gosling, "Java was one of the top choices along with Silk". Since Java was so
unique, most of the team members preferred Java than other names.
8) Java is an island in Indonesia where the first coffee was produced (called Java coffee). It is a kind of
espresso bean. Java name was chosen by James Gosling while having a cup of coffee nearby his office.
9) JDK 1.0 was released on January 23, 1996. After the first release of Java, there have been many additional
features added to the language. Now Java is being used in Windows applications, Web applications,
enterprise applications, mobile applications, cards, etc. Each new version adds new features in Java.
Java JDK, JRE and JVM
What is JVM?
JVM (Java Virtual Machine) is an abstract machine that enables your computer to run a Java program.

When you run the Java program, Java compiler first compiles your Java code to bytecode. Then, the JVM
translates bytecode into native machine code (set of instructions that a computer's CPU executes directly).
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Java is a platform-independent language. It's because when you write Java code, it's ultimately written for
JVM but not your physical machine (computer). Since JVM executes the Java bytecode which is platform-
independent, Java is platform-independent.

What is JRE?
JRE (Java Runtime Environment) is a software package that provides Java class libraries, Java Virtual
Machine (JVM), and other components that are required to run Java applications.

What is JDK?
JDK (Java Development Kit) is a software development kit required to develop applications in Java. When
you download JDK, JRE is also downloaded with it.

In addition to JRE, JDK also contains a number of development tools (compilers, JavaDoc, Java Debugger,
etc).

Relationship between JVM, JRE, and JDK.

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JVM Architectute: refer to below link

https://dzone.com/articles/jvm-architecture-explained
Architecture of JVM.

1) ClassLoader: The class loader is a subsystem used for loading class files. It performs three major
functions viz. Loading, Linking, and Initialization.
2) Method Area: JVM Method Area stores class structures like metadata, the constant runtime pool, and
the code for methods.
3) Heap: All the Objects, their related instance variables, and arrays are stored in the heap. This memory is
common and shared across multiple threads.
4) JVM language Stacks: Java language Stacks store local variables, and it’s partial results.
5) PC Registers: PC register store the address of the Java virtual machine instruction which is currently
executing.
6) Native Method Stacks: Native method stacks hold the instruction of native code depends on the native
library.
7) Execution Engine: It is a type of software used to test hardware, software, or complete systems.
8) Native Method interface: The Native Method Interface is a programming framework. It allows Java code
which is running in a JVM to call by libraries and native applications.
9) Native Method Libraries: Native Libraries is a collection of the Native Libraries (C, C++) which are
needed by the Execution Engine.
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How to execute a java program on a computer?
After we install Java on the computer, Let’s learn how to execute a java program on a computer.
First step is to type the Java source code into a text editor and save it with .java extension.

class Hello
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
System.out.println("Hello World");
}
}
Above Java program prints Hello World on to the console (command prompt in Windows). After typing
the above program save the file as Hello.java. Note that file name Hello is same as the class name.
Let’s assume that the file is saved in the path C:/java. So, full path to the source file is
C:/java/Hello.java.
Next step is to compile the source code file. Open the command prompt (black window) and navigate to
the location C:/java. Type the following command to compile the java file:
javac Hello.java
If there are no errors in the Java program, the program compiles successfully and you will see the prompt
again as shown below:

After compiling the program, you can see the generated file Hello.class which contains the bytecode in the
location C:/java.
Next step is to execute the program. To execute the program, type the following command in the command
prompt:
java Hello
Take care that .class is not added after the class name Hello. You can see the output Hello World as shown
below:
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Now that we have executed our first Java program.

What are the various elements in a java program? (or) Explain the structure of a java program
Public: It is an access specifier. We should use a public keyword before the main() method so that JVM can
identify the execution point of the program. If we use private, protected, and default before the main()
method, it
will not be class Hello
visible to {
JVM. public static void main(String[] args)
{
System.out.println("Hello World");
}
}
static: You
can make a method static by using the keyword static. We should call the main() method without creating
an object.
Static methods are the method which invokes without creating the objects, so we do not need any object to
call the main() method.
Void: In Java, every method has the return type. Void keyword acknowledges the compiler that main()
method does not return any value.
String[] args: The main() method also accepts some data from the user. It accepts a group of strings, which
is called a string array. It is used to hold the command line arguments in the form of string values.
Here, agrs[] is the array name, and it is of String type. It means that it can store a group of string.
Remember, this array can also store a group of numbers but in the form of string only. Values passed to the
main() method is called arguments. These arguments are stored into args[] array, so the name args[] is
generally used for it.
Class: Class keyword is used to declare a class in Java.
System.out.println:It’s normal in a program to do computations, reading data from the user and printing
the results. Reading data from the user in the console window (command prompt) is called Standard Input
and printing/writing data to the console is called Standard Output.
In the above Hello World program, I am printing to the console by using printlnmethod which is provided
by the out object of PrintStream class and the out object is made accessible by System class. Let’s say that
whenever we want to print something on to the console, we have to use System.out.println.
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System and PrintStream are predefined classes which are provided by Java. All these predefined classes
come bundled in packages. A package is a group of related classes. System class is available in java.lang
package and PrintStream is available in java.io package.
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Features of Java Programming
Simple
Object-oriented
High-Performance
Secure
Architecture – Neutral
Portable
Platform Independent
Robust
Dynamic
Multithreaded
Distributed
1)Simple:
Java designers built the language in such way that it is very easy to write programs using Java’s syntax.It is
simple and easy to read and write.
2) Object-oriented
Java is a object oriented programming language which allows the users to solve the given problem in terms
of classes and objects. Writing the solution in terms of classes and objects produces code which is easier to
write, maintain and reuse.
3)High-Performance
Many virtual machines use a JIT (Just-In-Time) compiler that converts the bytecode into platform-specific
instructions as the program executes. This helps to improve the performance of the Java programs.
4)Secure
Java is best known for its security. With Java, we can develop virus-free systems. Java is secured because:There
is No explicit pointer,Java Programs run inside a virtual machine sandbox. This prevents malicious programs to
gain access to sensitive information available on the user’s system.
5)Architecture – Neutral
Java compiler generates bytecode which when run on any machine gives the same output. Java’s goal is to
enable programmers to develop programs which has WORA (Write Once, Run Anywhere) property.
6)Portable
Java is portable because Java code can be executed on all the major platforms. Once you’ve compiled your
Java source code to bytecode, those files can be used on any Java-supported platform without modification
7)Platform Independent
Platform independent means that the java source code can run on multiple operating systems. Java code
should run on any machine that doesn’t need any special software to be installed. Java code is compiled
into bytecode, which is platform-independent. we can run it on Windows, Linux, Mac OS, etc.
8)Robust
Java is robust because:
 It uses strong memory management.
 There is a lack of pointers that avoids security problems.
 Java provides automatic garbage collection which runs on the Java Virtual Machine to get rid of
objects which are not being used by a Java application anymore.
 There are exception handling and the type checking mechanism in Java. All these points make Java
robust.
9)Dynamic
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Java is a dynamic language. It supports the dynamic loading of classes. It means classes are loaded on
demand. It also supports functions from its native languages, i.e., C and C++.
Java supports dynamic compilation and automatic memory management (garbage collection).
10)Multithreaded
A thread is like a separate program, executing concurrently. We can write Java programs that deal with
many tasks at once by defining multiple threads. The main advantage of multi-threading is that it doesn't
occupy memory for each thread. It shares a common memory area. Threads are important for multi-media,
Web applications, etc.
11)Distributed
Java is distributed because it facilitates users to create distributed applications in Java. RMI and EJB are
used for creating distributed applications.
Remote Method Invocation (RMI) which enables a program to access methods across a network.
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Comments
Writing comments is considered a good programming practice. They will help the client programmers to
understand the programs developed by you.
Java comments can be a single line or multiple lines of text which are written by the programmers for
documentation purpose. A programmer can write comments to mention the purpose of the program or a
part of the program or to provide authorship details.

Need for comments

Following are some of the famous reasons for writing comments in programs:
o Provide the purpose of the program along with sample input and output of the program.
o Provide authorship details.
o Mention date and time of creation of the program and when it was last modified.
o Provide details about several parts of the program.
o For generating documentation which will be helpful for other programmers.

Types of comments
In Java, there are three types of comments. They are:
o Single line comments
o Multi-line comments
o javadoc comments
A single line comment as the name implies is a comment containing a single line of text. A single line
comment starts with //. All the characters after the // to the end of the line is treated as a comment.
Syntax for single line comment is as shown below:
// This is a single line comment

To write a comment containing more than one line, we can use a multi-line comment. A multi-line
comment starts with /* and ends with */.
Syntax for writing a multi-line comment is as shown below:
/* This is a
multi-line
comment */
We can use a multi-line comment for writing a single line comment as shown below:
/* This is a single line comment. */

Both single line comments and multi-line comments can be written anywhere in the program.
The third type of comments called javadoc comments can be used to generate HTML documentation which
can be viewed using a browser. This can help the client programmers to understand the classes that you
create. A javadoc comment starts with /** and ends with */. Syntax for writing a javadoc comment is as
shown below:
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/**
* This is a
* javadoc comment
*/

Note that * is not necessary before each line of text. It is widely accepted usage of javadoc comments by
Java developers. Generally javadoc comments are written at the top of the program.
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Java Variables
A variable is a location in memory (storage area) to hold data.
To indicate the storage area, each variable should be given a unique name (identifier).
It is common in programs to store data and process the data to get the required outcome.
Creating or declaring variables in Java:
A variable can be created or declared in Java by using the below syntax:
datatype variable_name;
A variable_name can be any valid identifier in Java. Before using any variable in a Java program, you have
to declare it first as per the syntax given above. The datatype specifies the type of value you are going to
store in the variable.
Example for declaring a variable in Java is shown below:
int x;
In the above example, int is a Java’s primitive data type and x is the name of the variable.

Initializing variables in Java:

After declaring variables, we can initialize them as shown below:
datatype variable_name;
variable_name = value;
So, we can initialize the variable x as shown below:
int x;
x = 10;
For initializing a variable, we use the assignment (=) operator. We can combine variable declaration and
initialization into a single line as shown below:
int x = 10;
Initializing variables with literal values like 10, 2.5, etc… is known as static initialization. We can also
assign an expression to a variable as shown below:
int a = 10;
int b=20;
int c = a+b;
The expression a+b will be evaluated at runtime (execution of the program) and then it will be assigned to
the variable c. This type of initialization is know as dynamic initialization.
We can declare multiple variables of the same type as shown below:
int x, y, z;
//Program to demonstrate variables
import java.util.Scanner;
class Sample
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int x, y;
Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.println("Enter value of x: ");
x = input.nextInt();
System.out.println("Enter value of y: ");
y = input.nextInt();
System.out.println("Sum of x and y is: "+(x+y));
}
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}
 In the above program Scanner is a utility class available in java.util package to read data from
various sources like standard input, files etc…
 To read input from console (standard input) we provide System.in as a parameter to the Scanner’s
constructor.
 nextInt() method available in the Scanner class returns the input entered by the user as an integer.
 The variables x and y are dynamically initialized.
Output of the above program is:
Enter value of x:
10
Enter value of y:
20
Sum of x and y is: 30

Types of variables:
Based on the location where the variable is declared and how it is declared, variables in Java are divided
into three types. They are:
o Instance variables
o Class variables
o Local variables
Instance Variables: A variable which is declared inside a class and outside all the methods, constructors
and blocks is known as an instance variable.
Class Variables: A variable which is declared inside a class and outside all the methods, constructors,
blocks and is marked as static is known as a class variable. More on static keyword in another article.
Local Variables: Any variable which is declared inside a class and inside a block, method or a constructor
is known as a local variable.
Following Java example program demonstrates all the three kinds of variables:
class Sample
{
int x, y;
static int result;
void add(int a, int b)
{
x = a;
y = b;
int sum = x+y;
System.out.println("Sum = "+sum);
}
public static void main(String[] args)
{
Sample obj = new Sample();
obj.add(10,20);
}
}
In the above program x and y are instance variables, result is a class variable; a, b, sum and args are local
variables.
One important point to remember is, every object maintains its own copy of each instance variable and a
shared copy of each class variable.
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Data Types
A data type specifies the type of value a variable can store or the type of an expression. Java is a strongly
typed language means that you should specify the type of a variable before using it in a Java program.
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However the data types are mainly of two categories:

a. Primitive Data Types- Java primitive data types are the ones which are predefined by the programming
language which in this case is Java. Without primitive data types it would be impossible to frame
programs. Primitive data types are also the building blocks of Non-primitive data types. Examples are-
int,float etc.

b. Non-Primitive Data Types- These data types are special types of data which are user defined, Some
examples are- classes, interfaces etc.
Primitive Data Types
There are eight primitive types in Java namely: byte, short, long, int, float, double, char and boolean.

Data Type Size Description

byte 1 byte Stores whole numbers from -128 to 127

short 2 bytes Stores whole numbers from -32,768 to 32,767

int 4 bytes Stores whole numbers from -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647

long 8 bytes Stores whole numbers from -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 to 9,223,372,036,854,775,807

float 4 bytes Stores fractional numbers. Sufficient for storing 6 to 7 decimal digits

double 8 bytes Stores fractional numbers. Sufficient for storing 15 decimal digits

boolean 1 bit Stores true or false values

char 2 bytes Stores a single character/letter or ASCII values

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Command Line Arguments
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Sometimes we might want to pass extra information while running a Java program. This extra
information passed along with the program name are known as command line arguments.
These command line arguments are separated by white spaces.
Command line arguments can be accessed using the string array specified in the main function’s
signature.
For example, if the array name is args, then the first command line argument can be accessed as
args[0] and the second command line argument can be accessed as args[1] and so on.
Let’s see the following Java program which access two command line arguments, multiplies them
and displays the result to the user:
class CommandArgs
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int x = Integer.parseInt(args[0]);
int y = Integer.parseInt(args[1]);
int mult = x * y;
System.out.println("Multiplication of the command line arguments is: " + mult);
}
}
Output:
javac CommandArgs.java
java CommandArgs 2 4
Multiplication of the command line arguments is:8

What do you mean by operators? What are different kinds of operators in java?
Operator in Java is a symbol that is used to perform operations. For example: +, -, *, / etc.
In other words, an operator allows the programmer or the computer to perform an operation on the
operands. An operand can be a literal, variable or an expression.

C=a+b

Operand
Operand
Operator Operand Operator

Arithmetic Operator:
They are used to perform basic mathematical operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division.
Some of the arithmetic operators are + , - , * , / , % , ++ , --

Points to note:
 Unit-I
1) % is for reminder division and returns the reminder part.
2) ++x is pre-increment and x++ is post increment
3) Similarly. –-x is pre-decrement and x-- is post decrement.
1) Post-Increment (y++): we use y++ in our statement if we want to use the current value, and then we
want to increment the value of y by 1.
2) Pre-Increment(++x): We use ++x in our statement if we want to increment the value of x by 1 and then
use it in our statement.
Similarly for decrement operator too.

public class Main

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int x = 5;
int y = 3;
int x1=5;
int y1=3;
System.out.println("Addition is "+(x + y));
System.out.println("Substraction "+(x - y));
System.out.println("Multiplication "+(x * y));
System.out.println("Division "+(x / y));
System.out.println("Reminder division "+(x % y));
System.out.println("pre-Increment "+ (++x));
System.out.println("Post- Increment"+(y++));
System.out.println("pre-Decrement "+ (--x1));
System.out.println("Post- decrement "+(y1--));
}
}

Output of the above code is:

Addition is 8
Substraction 2
Multiplication 15
Division 1
Reminder division 2
pre-Increment 6
Post- Increment3
pre-Decrement 4
Post- decrement 3

Assignment Operators
Assignment operators are used to assign values to variables. In the example below, we use the assignment
operator (=) to assign the value 10 to a variable called x:
 public class AO {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int x = 10; Unit-I
System.out.println(x);
}
}

Output of the above code is

10
We can write short hand assignment operator as follows:

Operator Example Same As

Operator Name Example

= x=5 x=5

+= x += 3 x=x+3

-= x -= 3 x=x-3

*= x *= 3 x=x*3

/= x /= 3 x=x/3

%= x %= 3 x=x%3

A Sample program demonstrating shorthand assignment operators.

public class Short_Assign

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int x = 10;
x += 5;
System.out.println(x);
}
}

Output of above code is:

15

Java Comparison/ Relational Operators

Comparison operators are used to compare two values.The result of comparing two values is always a
boolean value true or false.Unlike C language, true doesn’t refer any positive value other than zero and
false doesn’t refer zero.Comparison operators in java are:
 Unit-I
== Equal to x == y

!= Not equal x != y

> Greater than x>y

< Less than x<y

>= Greater than or x >= y

equal to

<= Less than or x <= y

equal to

Program demonstration operators in java are:

public class Main{

public static void main(String[] args){
int x=3;
int y=5;
System.out.println(x==y); // Equal to
System.out.println(x!=y); // Not equal to
System.out.println(x<y); // Less than
System.out.println(x>y); // Greater than
System.out.println(x<=y); // less than or equal to
System.out.println(x>=y);// Greater than or equal to
}
}

Output of the above code is :

false
true
true
false
true
false
Java Logical Operators
Logical operators are used to check whether an expression is true or false. They are used in decision
making.
These operators are used to perform logical “AND”, “OR” and “NOT” operation.
 Unit-I

Operator Name Description Example

&& Logical and Returns true if both statements are x < 5 && x< 10
true

|| Logical or Returns true if one of the statements x < 5 || x < 4

is true

! Logical not Reverse the result, returns false if !(x < 5 && x < 10)
the result is true

Note that the logical && operator doesn't check the second condition if the first condition is false.
Sample program demonstrating logical operators:

public class Logical_operator

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int x=3;
booleana,b,c;
a=x<5 && x>2;//logical AND
b=x>5 || x>2; //logical NOT
c=!(x<5 && x>2); // logical NOT
System.out.println(a);
System.out.println(b);
Output of above code is;
System.out.println(c);
true
}
}

true
false

Java Bitwise operator

Bitwise operators are used to performing manipulation of individual bits of a number.
Bitwise operator works on bits and performs the bit-by-bit operation. Assume if a = 5 and b = 7; now in
binary format they will be as follows.
a=0101
b=0111
-----------------
a&b0101=5
a|b 0111 =7
a^b0010 =2
~b 1000 =-8
<<a 1010 =a (10)
>>a 0010 =2
 Unit-I
Operator Description

& (bitwise and) Binary AND Operator copies a bit to the result if it exists in both operands.

| (bitwise or) Binary OR Operator copies a bit if it exists in either operand.

^ (bitwise XOR) Binary XOR Operator copies the bit if it is set in one operand but not both.

~ (bitwise
Binary Ones Complement Operator is unary and has the effect of 'flipping' bits.
compliment)

Binary Left Shift Operator. The left operands value is moved left by the number of
<< (left shift)
bits specified by the right operand.

Binary Right Shift Operator. The left operands value is moved right by the
>> (right shift)
number of bits specified by the right operand.

class Main {
public static void main(String[] args) {

int number1 = 5, number2 = 7, result,result1, result2, result3, result4, result5;

result = number1 | number2; //OR

result1=number1 & number2; //AND
result2=number1 ^ number2; //XOR
result3= ~number2; //Complement
result4= number1 << 1; //Left shift
result5=number1 >> 1; //Right shift
System.out.println(result);
System.out.println(result1);
System.out.println(result2);
System.out.println(result3);
System.out.println(result4);
System.out.println(result5);

}
}

Output:
7
5
2
-8
10
2

Operators can also be divided based on the number of operands on which they operate.
1) Unary operators:
The Java unary operators require only one operand.
 Unit-I
2) Binary operators
The java binary operator requires 2 operands
3) Ternary operators
Java ternary operator is the only conditional operator that takes three operands. It’s a one-line replacement
for if-then-else statement and used a lot in Java programming.

Operator type Operator Example

Unary operators ++ (Increment) ++a
-- (Decrement) b--
! (Logical complement operator) !a
~ (Bitwise complement- Negation) ~a
<< and >> (Bitwise Shift operator) <<a
Binary operators +,-,*,/ (Arithmetic operators) a+b
<,><=,>=,== (Relational operators) a<b
&& , || (Logical operator A&&b
&,|, ^ (Bitwise operators) A&b

Ternary operator ?,: (a<b)? “hi”: “go”

What is Primitive Type Conversion and Casting? (or) What is the difference between implicit and
explicit type conversion? (or) what is the difference between widening and Narrowing type casting?
Converting a value from one data type to another data type is known as type conversion.
There are 2 types of type conversion/casting:
1) Implicit type conversion/Automatic conversion/coercion/Widening Casting
2) Explicit type conversion/ Manual conversion/casting/narrowing casting.
Implicit type conversion/Automatic conversion /casting down / Widening Casting:
Converting a lower data type into a higher one is called widening type casting. It is also known as implicit
conversion or casting down. It is done automatically. It is safe because there is no chance to lose data.
byte -> short -> char -> int -> long -> float -> double
Lower Higher
datatype datatype
for example, a variable of int datatype is automatically converted into float.
public class Main
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int myint=3;
float myfloat=myint;
System.out.println(myint);
System.out.println(myfloat);
}
}
 Unit-I

Output of above code is:

3
3.0

Explicit type conversion/ Manual conversion /casting up / narrowing casting:

Converting a higher data type into a lower one is called narrowing type casting. It is also known as explicit
conversion or casting up. It is done manually by the programmer. If we do not perform casting then the
compiler reports a compile-time error. Syntax for explicit type conversion is,
(Destination datatype) Variable

double -> float -> long -> int -> char -> short -> byte
Higher Lower
Datatype datatype

Here, a variable of type doubleis converted into int.

In the below example, a variable mydoubleof type doubleis forcefully converted into integer datatype. This
is done by specifying the desired datatype (in our case int) in brackets before the variable (my double of
type double).

public class Main

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
double mydouble=9.9999948392d;
int myint;
myint=(int)mydouble;
System.out.println(mydouble);
System.out.println(myint);
}
}
Output of above code is:
9.9999948392
9
Why type conversions are named widening and narrowing?
Since a smaller range type is converted into a larger range type this conversion is also known as widening
conversion.
Since we are converting a source type having larger size into a destination type having less size, such
conversion is known as narrowing conversion.
 Unit-I
Expressions, Precedence rules and Associativity

What do you mean by java expressions? Explain with an example

An expression is made up of literals (Constants), variables, and operators.Every expression consists of at
least one operator and an operand. Operand can be either a literal or a variable.
Consider the below code:
public class Main
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int a=5, b=6,c;
c= (a*a)+(b*a)+(a+b)-a;
System.out.println("The result is");
System.out.println(c);
}
}
The output of the above code:
The result is
61
In the above code, (a*a)+(b*a)+(a+b)-a is an expression.
a and b are operands and +,-,* are operators

How are expressions evaluated?

The expressions are evaluated based on:
 Type promotion rules
 Operator precedence
 Associativity rules
Type promotion rules means type casting. (Note: type casting is explained in previous question)
Operator precedence
Operator precedence determines the order in which the operators in an expression are evaluated.
All the operators in Java are divided into several groups and are assigned a precedence level. The operator
precedence chart for the operators in Java is shown below:
 Unit-I

Now let’s consider the following expression.

10 – 2 * 5
Based on the operator precedence chart shown above, * has higher precedence than +. So, 2* 5 is
evaluated first which gives 10 and then 10 – 10 is evaluated which gives 0.
Associativity Rules
What if the expression contains two or more operators from the same group? Such ambiguities are
solved using the associativity rules.
When an expression contains operators from the same group, associativity rules are applied to determine
which operation should be performed first. The associativity rules of Java are shown below:

Now, let’s consider the following expression:

 Unit-I
10-6+2
In the above expression, the operators + and – both belong to the same group in the operator precedence chart.
So, we have to check the associativity rules for evaluating the above expression. Associativity rule for + and –
group is left-to-right i.e, evaluate the expression from left to right. So, 10-6 is evaluated to 4 and then 4+2 is
evaluated to 6.
Use of parenthesis in expressions
Let’s look at our original expression example:

(20 * 5) + (10 / 2) – (3 * 10)

You might think that, what is the need of parenthesis (and) in the above expression. The reason we had included
them is, parenthesis have the highest priority (precedence) over all the operators in Java.
So, in the above expression, (20*5) is evaluated to 100, (10/2) is evaluated to 5 and (3*10) is evaluated to 30. Now,
our intermediate expression looks like:

100 + 5 – 30
Now, we can apply the associativity rules and evaluate the expression. The final answer for the above expression is
75.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________

Flow of Control-Branching, Conditional Loops.

Java compiler executes the code from top to bottom. The statements in the code are executed according to
the order in which they appear. However, Java provides statements that can be used to control the flow of
Java code. Such statements are called control flow statements. It is one of the fundamental features of Java,
which provides a smooth flow of program.
1. Decision Making statements
 Simple if statement
 if-else statement
 if-else-if ladder
 Nested if-else statements
 Ternary operator
 switch statement
2. Loop statements
 do while loop
 while loop
 for loop
 for-each loop
3. Jump statements
 Unit-I
 break statement
 continue statement
Decision making statements
In Java, the "if" statement is used to evaluate a condition. The control of the program is diverted depending
upon the specific condition. The condition of the If statement gives a Boolean value, either true or false.

Simple if Statement
It is the most basic statement among all control flow statements in Java. It evaluates a Boolean expression
and enables the program to enter a block of code if the expression evaluates to true.
Syntax of if statement is given below.
if(condition) {
statement 1; //executes when condition is true
}

Consider the following example in which we have used the if statement in the java code.

public class Abc

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int a=8;
if(a%2==0)
{
System.out.println("Hello");
}
}
}

Output of above code:

Hello
In the above code, print statement is executed only if ifcondition is satisfied.

The if-else statement

It is an extension to the if-statement, which uses another block of code, i.e., else block. The else block is
executed if the condition of the if-block is evaluated as false.
Syntax of if-else statement is given below:
if(condition) {
statement 1; //executes when condition is true
}
else{
statement 2; //executes when condition is false
 Unit-I
}
Consider the following example in which we have used the if-else statement in the java code.

public class Abc

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int a=7;
if(a%2==0)
{
System.out.println("Given number is even");
}
else
{
System.out.println("Given number is odd");
}

}
}

Output of the above code is:

Given number is odd

In the above code, the if part will not be executed. Instead, else part is executed.
if-else-if ladder:
The if-else-if statement contains the if-statement followed by multiple else-if statements. In other words, we
can say that it is the chain of if-else statements where the program may enter in the block of code where the
condition is true.
Syntax of if-else-if statement is given below.
if(condition 1) {
statement 1; //executes when condition 1 is true
}
else if(condition 2) {
statement 2; //executes when condition 2 is true
}
else {
statement 2; //executes when all the conditions are false
}

Consider the following example in which we have used the if-else-if statement in the java code.
 Unit-I

public class Main

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int a=5;
if(a<5)
{
System.out.println("a is less than 5");
}
else if(a==5)
{
System.out.println("a is equal to 5");
}
else
{
System.out.println("a is greater than 5");
}
}
}

Output of above code is:

"a is equal to 5"
Nested if
In nested if-statements, the if statement can contain a if or if-else statement inside another if or else-if
statement.
Syntax of Nested if-statement is given below.

if(condition 1)
{
statement 1; //executes when condition 1 is true
if(condition 2)
{
statement 2; //executes when condition 2 is true
}
else
{
statement 2; //executes when condition 2 is false
}
}

Consider the following example in which we have used the Nested if-else statement in the java code.
 Unit-I
public class Main
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
int i = 10;

if (i == 10)
{
if (i< 15)
System.out.println("i is smaller than 15");

if (i< 12)
System.out.println("i is smaller than 12 too");
else
System.out.println("i is greater than 15");
}
}
}

Output of the above code is:

i is smaller than 15
i is smaller than 12 too

Short Hand If...Else (Ternary Operator)

There is also a short-hand if else, which is known as the ternary operator because it consists of three
operands. It can be used to replace multiple lines of code with a single line. It is often used to replace
simple if else statements:
Syntax of short hand if..else:
variable = (condition) ?expressionTrue : expressionFalse;
Consider the following example in which we have used short hand if.. else in the java code.

public class Main

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int a=20;
String answer;
answer=(a<10)? "Number less than 10": "Number greater than 10";
System.out.println(answer);
}
}

Output of above code is:

"Number greater than 10"
 Unit-I
Switch Statement
Switch statement is used to select one of many code blocks to be executed.
 The switch expression is evaluated once.
 The value of the expression is compared with the values of each case.
 If there is a match, the associated block of code is executed.
 When Java reaches a break keyword, it breaks out of the switch block.
The syntax to use the switch statement is given below.
switch (expression){
case value1:
statement1;
break;
.
.
case valueN:
statementN;
break;
default:
default statement;
}
Consider the following example in which we have used the switch statement in the java code.
public class Main
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
float a=5.0f;
float b=6.0f;
int operation=5;

switch(operation)
{
case 1:
System.out.println("addition is "+ (a+b));
break;

case 2:
System.out.println("Substraction is " + (a-b));
break;

case 3:
System.out.println("Multiplication is "+ (a*b));
break;

case 4:
System.out.println("Division is "+ (a/b));
break;
case 5:
System.out.println("Reminder division "+ (a%b));
break;
default:
System.out.println (" Give correct choice");
}
}
}
 Unit-I

Output of above code is:

Reminder division 5.0

Loop statements/Iterative Statements

Loops can execute a block of code as long as a specified condition is reached. Loops are handy because they
save time, reduce errors, and they make code more readable.

Java While Loop

The while loop loops through a block of code as long as a specified condition is true:
Syntax:
while (condition){
//code to be executed
Increment / decrement statement
}
Example of while loop
public class Main
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int i=0;
while (i<=5)
{
System.out.println("The Number is "+ i);
i++;
}
}
}

Output of above code is:

The Number is 0
The Number is 1
The Number is 2
The Number is 3
The Number is 4
The Number is 5

As long as the condition is true, the statements execute again and again. If the statement to be executed in
any loop is only one, you can omit the braces. As the while loop checks the condition at the start of the
loop, statements may not execute even once if the condition fails. If you want to execute the body of a loop
atleast once, use do-while loop.
 Unit-I
Note: Variable used in the condition should be increased, otherwise the loop will never end!

The Do/While Loop

The do/while loop is a variant of the while loop. This loop will execute the code block once, before
checking if the condition is true, then it will repeat the loop as long as the condition is true.
Syntax:
do
{
Statements;
} while(condition);

Example of do-while loop

public class Main
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int i=20;
do
{
System.out.println(i);
i++;
}
while(i<25);
}
}

Output of above code is:

20
21
22
23
24

for loop
In a for statement, initialization of the loop control variable, condition and modifying the value of the loop
control variable are combined into a single line. When we know exactly how many times you want to loop
through a block of code, the for loop is used instead of a while loop:
Syntax:
for(initialization; condition; iteration)
{
Statements;
}
 Unit-I
In the above syntax, the initialization is an assignment expression which initializes the loop control variable
and/or other variables. The initialization expression evaluates only once. The condition is a boolean
expression. If the condition evaluates to true, the body of the loop is executed. Else, the control quits the
loop.
Every time after the body executes, the iteration expression is evaluated. Generally, this is an increment or
decrement expression which modifies the value of the control variable.
Example of for loop

public class Main

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int i;
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
{
Output of above code is:System.out.println(i);
}
0
}
}
1
2
3
4

for-each Statement
The for-each statement is also known as enhanced for statement. It is a simplification over the for statement
and is generally used when you want to perform a common operation sequentially over an array. The
syntax of for-each statement is as shown below:
Syntax:
for(type var : array name)
{
Statements;
}
The data type of var must be same as the data type of the array. The above syntax is can be read as, for each
value in array, execute the statements. Starting from the first value in the array, each value is copied into
var and the statements are executed. The loop executes until the values in the array completes.
Example of for-each loop
public class Main{
public static void main(String[] args){

String[] branches={"CSE","ECE","MECH","EEE"};
for(String i: branches)
{
System.out.println(i);
}
}
}
 Unit-I

Output of above code is:

CSE
ECE
MECH
EEE

Java Break Statement

When a break statement is encountered inside a loop, the loop is immediately terminated and the program
control resumes at the next statement following the loop.
The Java break statement is used to break loop or switch statement. It breaks the current flow of the
program at specified condition. In case of inner loop, it breaks only inner loop.
We can use Java break statement in all types of loops such as for loop, while loop and do-while loop.
Example program demonstrating break.

public class Main

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int i;
for(i=0; i<10; i++)
{
if(i==5)
{
break;
}
System.out.println("Now the value of i is "+ i);

}
}
}

Output of above code is:

Now the value of i is 0
Now the value of i is 1
Now the value of i is 2
Now the value of i is 3
Now the value of i is 4

Note that loop is not executed till 10.

Java Continue
The continue statement breaks one iteration (in the loop), if a specified condition occurs, and continues
with the next iteration in the loop.
Let’s execute the above code by just changing “break” with “continue”.
 Unit-I

Syntax for continue is :

Loop
{
//Statements;
if(condition)
continue;
//Statements after continue;
}

Example of continue is:

public class Main

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int i;
for(i=0; i<10; i++)
{
if(i==5)
{
continue;
}
System.out.println("Now the value of i is "+ i);

}
}
}

Output:
Now the value of i is 0
Now the value of i is 1
Now the value of i is 2
Now the value of i is 3
Now the value of i is 4
Now the value of i is 6
Now the value of i is 7
Now the value of i is 8
Now the value of i is 9

Notice that, when the loop didn’t execute if the value of i is 5.