1. What is deadlock and necessary conditions for deadlock?

2.

An Operating System can be defined as an interface between user and

hardware.
It provides an environment to the user so that, the user can perform its task in
convenient and efficient way.
The operating system manages the overall resources and operations of the
computer.
Functions of the Operating System
 Resource Management: The operating system manages and allocates
memory, CPU time, and other hardware resources among the various
programs and processes running on the computer.
 Process Management: The operating system is responsible for starting,
stopping, and managing processes and programs. It also controls the
scheduling of processes and allocates resources to them.
 Memory Management: The operating system manages the computer’s
primary memory and provides mechanisms for optimizing memory
usage.
 Security: The operating system provides a secure environment for the
user, applications, and data by implementing security policies and
mechanisms such as access controls and encryption.
 Job Accounting: It keeps track of time and resources used by various jobs
or users.
 File Management: The operating system is responsible for organizing
and managing the file system, including the creation, deletion, and
manipulation of files and directories.
 Device Management: The operating system manages input/output
devices such as printers, keyboards, mice, and displays. It provides the
necessary drivers and interfaces to enable communication between the
devices and the computer.
 Networking: The operating system provides networking capabilities such
as establishing and managing network connections, handling network
protocols, and sharing resources such as printers and files over a
network.
 User Interface: The operating system provides a user interface that
enables users to interact with the computer system. This can be
a Graphical User Interface (GUI), a Command-Line Interface (CLI), or a
combination of both.
 Backup and Recovery: The operating system provides mechanisms for
backing up data and recovering it in case of system failures, errors, or
disasters.
 Virtualization: The operating system provides virtualization capabilities
that allow multiple operating systems or applications to run on a single
physical machine. This can enable efficient use of resources and
flexibility in managing workloads.
 Performance Monitoring: The operating system provides tools for
monitoring and optimizing system performance, including identifying
bottlenecks, optimizing resource usage, and analyzing system logs and
metrics.
 Time-Sharing: The operating system enables multiple users to share a
computer system and its resources simultaneously by providing time-
sharing mechanisms that allocate resources fairly and efficiently.
 System Calls: The operating system provides a set of system calls that
enable applications to interact with the operating system and access its
resources. System calls provide a standardized interface between
applications and the operating system, enabling portability and
compatibility across different hardware and software platforms.
 Error-detecting Aids: These contain methods that include the production
of dumps, traces, error messages, and other debugging and error-
detecting methods.
Type of Operating System
Batch operating system-
The batch operating system grouped jobs that perform similar
functions. These job groups are treated as a batch and executed
simultaneously.

ADVANTAGE- reduces CPU idle time

Disadvantage-
1. Batch processing suffers from starvation.
2. Not Interactive-Batch Processing is not suitable for jobs that are
dependent on the user's input.
Multiprogramming Operating System
Each process needs two types of system time: CPU time and IO time.
In a multiprogramming environment, when a process does its I/O, The CPU can
start the execution of other processes. Therefore, multiprogramming improves
the efficiency of the system.
Advantages of Multiprogramming OS
o Throughout the system, it increased as the CPU always had one program
to execute.
o Response time can also be reduced.
Disadvantages of Multiprogramming OS
o Multiprogramming systems provide an environment in which various
systems resources are used efficiently, but they do not provide any user
interaction with the computer system.
Time-Sharing/mutitasking Operating System
In the Time Sharing operating system, computer resources are allocated in a
time-dependent fashion to several programs simultaneously. Thus it helps to
provide a large number of user's direct access to the main computer. In time-
sharing, the CPU is switched among multiple programs given by different users
on a scheduled basis.

A Real-Time Operating System (RTOS) is designed to process data and execute

tasks within a strict time frame, ensuring timely and predictable responses.
RTOS is commonly used in systems where timing is critical, like in medical
devices, automotive controls, and industrial automation.
Types of RTOS:
 1. Hard RTOS: Guarantees strict adherence to deadlines (e.g., in
pacemakers, aerospace systems).
2. Soft RTOS: Deadlines are important but not absolute; occasional delays
are tolerable (e.g., video streaming).
3. Firm RTOS: Deadlines can be missed occasionally, but frequent misses
degrade system quality (e.g., banking systems).

Process- A program in execution is called a process.

Attributes of a process are stored in the PCB(process control block)

1. Process ID-When a process is created, a unique id is assigned to the process

which is used for unique identification of the process in the system.
2. Program counter- A program counter stores the address of the last
instruction of the process on which the process was suspended. The CPU uses
this address when the execution of this process is resumed.
3. Process State-The Process, from its creation to the completion, goes through
various states which are new, ready, running and waiting. We will discuss about
them later in detail.
4. Priority-Every process has its own priority. The process with the highest
priority among the processes gets the CPU first.
5. General Purpose Registers-Every process has its own set of registers which
are used to hold the data which is generated during the execution of the
process.
6. List of open files-During the Execution, Every process uses some files which
need to be present in the main memory. OS also maintains a list of open files in
the PCB.
7. List of open devices-OS also maintain the list of all open devices which are
used during the execution of the process.

process states
Q. What is file and its types. Explain File access methods?
File’ is nothing but a logical storage unit of information
File types-
File Type Description Example File Extensions
Text Contain plain, human-readable text. Used for documents, logs, .txt, .cs
Files or configuration. v

Binary Store data in a non-readable format, meant for programs .bin, .jpg, .m
Files to interpret. p4

Executable Contain machine code instructions that can be .exe, .out, .

Files directly executed by the OS. apk

Source Code Contain code written in programming languages. Must .c, .java, .
Files be compiled/interpreted. py

Object Intermediate compilation files, not directly executable, linked to .o, .ob
Files form programs. j

Library Contain reusable code or functions for .dll (Windows), .so

Files multiple programs. (Linux)

Archive Bundle and compress multiple files together for storage or .zip, .tar, .r
Files transmission. ar

Device Represent hardware devices as files in Unix/Linux, /dev/sda,

Files allowing interaction. /dev/tty

Log Record system or application events for debugging or monitoring

.log
Files purposes.

Database Store structured data for databases, allowing querying .db, .sql, .m
Files and management. db

Configuration Contain settings for applications or the operating .conf, .ini, .j

Files system, often editable. son

File Access Methods-various ways to access files stored in secondary memory.

Sequential Access
 Data is accessed in a specific order.
 Operations like read and write happen sequentially.
 Common for simple text files or log files.
 Example: Reading a file line by line.
Direct Access
 Allows jumping to any part of the file directly.
 Each file block has a unique address, enabling quick access.
 Useful for databases and large files where specific data needs to be retrieved
quickly.
 Example: Accessing a specific record in a file without reading from the start.
The sequential access can be very slow and inefficient in such cases.

Indexed Access
 Uses an index table with pointers to file blocks.
 The index helps in quick data retrieval, similar to a book’s index.
 Ideal for large files with many searches and updates.
 Example: A search engine or large database.
Indexed Sequential Access Method (ISAM):
 Combines sequential and indexed access.
 First, the index is used to locate the data, then data is accessed
sequentially.
 Example: Bank records where both specific lookups and sequential scans
are needed.
A directory structure is the way files and directories (folders) are organized
within a file system of an operating system
It helps in organizing, allowing easy retrieval, storage, and access.
Types of Directory Structures:
1. Single-Level Directory:
 All files are stored in a single directory. There is no hierarchy; everything
is placed at the same level.
 Simple to implement and easy to understand but Difficult to manage a
large number of files; filenames must be unique.
Root Directory
├── file1
├── file2
└── file3
2. Two-Level Directory:
 Each user has their own directory. Files are organized under user-specific
directories, providing a separate working space for each user.
 Files are better organized as each user has their own space, and filename
conflicts are avoided between users.
 Users cannot share files easily, as there is no concept of shared
directories.
 Example: Used in early multi-user systems.
Root Directory
├── User1
│ ├── file1
│ └── file2
├── User2
│ ├── file1
│ └── file3

3. Tree-Structured Directory:
 Organizes directories in a hierarchical tree structure, where the root
directory is at the top, and subdirectories and files branch out below it.
  Allows for better organization, flexibility, and easy file searching. Files can
be grouped into directories and subdirectories.
 Complex to manage as the directory tree grows.
 Example: Most modern file systems like Windows, macOS, and Linux.
Root Directory
├── home
│ ├── user1
│ │ ├── documents
│ │ └── pictures
└── bin
├── file1
└── file2
4. Acyclic-Graph Directory:
 Similar to a tree structure but allows directories and files to have
multiple parents. Files or directories can be shared among multiple users
or locations using links.
 Enables file sharing between users or programs, without duplicating
files.
 Managing links can be complex. There is a possibility of dangling pointers
if linked files are deleted.
 Example: Unix and Linux systems allow symbolic (soft) and hard links.
Root Directory
├── User1
│ └── shared_file (link to /Shared/file)
├── User2
└── Shared
└── file
5. General Graph Directory:
  Description: Extends the acyclic-graph structure by allowing cycles (i.e.,
a file or directory can link back to an earlier directory).
 Advantages: Flexible and allows for complex relationships between
directories.
 Disadvantages: Can lead to issues like infinite loops during traversal if
cycles are not managed.
 Example: Rarely used due to the complexity in managing cycles but can
be implemented with symbolic links in Unix/Linux.
Root Directory
├── dir1
│ └── dir2
│ └── dir1 (link back to /dir1)
6. Shared (Multiple-Level) Directory:
 Description: In this structure, files and directories are organized in
multiple levels, with shared directories available to all users.
 Advantages: Combines the benefits of multiple-level directory structures
with shared access to files.
 Disadvantages: Managing file permissions and access control can
become complex.
 Example: Common in enterprise or networked systems where multiple
users need to access shared resources.

Types of File Allocation Methods:

1. Contiguous Allocation: Each file occupies a set of contiguous blocks on
disk.The system assigns a starting block and the number of blocks required to
store the file.
Simple: Easy to implement and understand.
Fast access: Sequential access is fast
Disadvantages: External fragmentation:
Fixed file size required:
 Example: Older MS-DOS used contiguous allocation.

2. Linked Allocation: Files are stored as a linked list of blocks scattered across
the disk. Each block contains data and a pointer to the next block in the file.
The last block has a null pointer indicating the end of the file.
No external fragmentation: Any free block can be used.
Dynamic file size: Files can grow dynamically by adding new blocks.
Disadvantages:
Slow access: pointers, making access slower compared to contiguous
allocation.
Space overhead: Each block needs extra space to store the pointer.
Reliability: If a pointer is corrupted, the entire file could be lost.
Example: Used in Unix-based systems for managing files.
3. Indexed Allocation: An index block is created for each file, and this index
contains pointers to all the blocks that make up the file.
The index block allows random access to file data.
o Direct access: Provides fast random access to file blocks.
o No external fragmentation: Any free block can be used.
 Disadvantages:
o Overhead: Requires extra space for index blocks.
o Large files: For very large files, the index can become large,
requiring additional levels of indexing (multi-level indexing).
 Example: modern operating systems like Unix/Linux with i-nodes.
Q. EXPLAIN Layers design in File System
A file system in an operating system is organized into multiple layers, each
responsible for different aspects of file management and storage.

Layers in File System

1.Application Programs: T
 this is the topmost layer where users interact with files.
 It provides the user interface for file operations like creating, deleting,
reading, writing, and modifying files.
 Examples include text editors, file browsers, and command-line
interfaces.
2.Logical File system –
 It manages metadata information about a file i.e includes all details
about a file except the actual contents of the file.
 It also maintains file control blocks. File control block (FCB) has
information about a file – owner, size, permissions, and location of file
contents.
3.File Organization Module –
  It has information about files, the location of files and their logical and
physical blocks.
 Physical blocks do not match with logical numbers of logical blocks
numbered from 0 to N. It also has a free space that tracks unallocated
blocks.
 Manages file allocation methods(contiguous,linked ,indexed)
 Maps the logical blocks to physical blocks on to the storage device.
 Free space management
4.Basic File system –
 It Issues general commands to read and write physical blocks on disk.
 It manages the memory buffers and caches.
 A block in the buffer can hold the contents of the disk block and the
cache stores frequently used file system metadata.
 Send commands to drivers
5.I/O Control level –
 Device drivers commands to hardware specific instructions.
 Manages eevice specific operations like reading,writing to storage
hardware.
6,Devices Layer:
 The bottommost layer, consisting of the actual hardware devices.
 This includes hard drives, SSDs, optical disks, and other storage devices.
In a Unix-based operating system (like Linux or macOS),
file permissions control who can read, write, and execute a file.
These permissions are assigned using either the symbolic method or the
numeric method.
1. Symbolic Method (Using letters like r, w, x)
In the symbolic method, you change the permissions by specifying the type of
permission (r, w, x) and which user class (owner, group, or others) you want to
modify.
Users:
 u (user): The owner of the file.
 g (group): Other users in the file's group.
 o (others): All other users on the system.
 a (all): All user classes (user, group, and others).
operator: Specifies what action to take
+ to add permission,
- to remove permission,
= to set exact permissions.
Permission Types:
 r (read): Allows reading the file
 w (write): Allows modifying the contents of the file
 x (execute): Allows running the file as a program
Syntax:
chmod [who][operator][permissions] file_name
 who: Specifies which user class to apply the changes to (u, g, o, a).
 operator: Specifies what action to take (+ to add permission, - to remove
permission, = to set exact permissions).
 permissions: The permissions to add, remove, or set (r, w, x).
Add execute permission for the user (owner) only:
chmod u+x file.txt
Remove write permission for others:
chmod o-w file.txt
Remove all permissions for others:
chmod o= file.txt
Numeric Method (Using Numbers)- also known as the octal method,
Each permission is assigned a number:
 Read (r): 4
 Write (w): 2
 Execute (x): 1
Example: For rwx (read, write, execute), the sum is 4 (r) + 2 (w) + 1 (x) = 7.
For rw- (read, write, no execute), the sum is 4 (r) + 2 (w) + 0 (x) = 6.
The permissions for owner, group, and others are represented by three digits.
777: Read, write, and execute permissions for owner, group, and others
755: Read, write, execute for the owner, read and execute for group & others.
644: Read and write for the owner, and read-only for the group and others.
chmod [permissions] file_name
 Set permissions to rwxr-xr-x (755):
chmod 755 file.txt
This gives the owner full access (read, write, execute), and the group and
others only read and execute permissions.
 Set permissions to rw-r--r-- (644):
chmod 644 file.txt
This gives the owner read and write permissions, and the group and others
read-only permissions.
Q. EXPLAIN File Protection Methods in Operating Systems (in Points)
1. File Permissions (Access Control):
o Defines who can read, write, or execute a file.
o Applies permissions for the file owner, group, and others.
o Commonly implemented with commands like chmod in
Unix/Linux.
2. Access Control Lists (ACLs):
o More granular control over file permissions.
o Allows multiple users or groups to have different access rights to
the same file.
o Provides detailed permission settings beyond simple
owner/group/others.
3. File Encryption:
o Converts file content into unreadable format.
o Requires decryption key for authorized access.
o Protects data confidentiality even if files are accessed by
unauthorized users.
4. User Authentication and Access Control:
o Verifies user identity before allowing file access (e.g., passwords,
biometrics).
o Implemented through various models like DAC (Discretionary
Access Control), MAC (Mandatory Access Control), and RBAC
(Role-Based Access Control).
5. Backup and Version Control:
o Regularly copies files to secure storage to prevent data loss.
o Version control systems (like Git) allow tracking file changes and
restoring previous versions.
6. Audit Trails and Logging:
o Records access and modifications of files for accountability.
 o Helps administrators monitor who accessed files and what actions
were performed.
7. File Locking:
o Prevents multiple users or processes from accessing or modifying
a file simultaneously.
o Ensures data consistency and prevents corruption.
8. Virus and Malware Protection:
o Scans files for viruses, malware, or other threats.
o Prevents file corruption, unauthorized changes, and malicious
access.
These methods, when used together, provide a comprehensive security system
for protecting files from unauthorized access, modification, or loss.