Geo Factsheet Number1|

InternationalTourism
international tourism is acommon feature ofmany modern geography svllabuses and examination questions tend to focus on three main
iSSues.

Inesizeand nature ofinternational tourism, including reasons for its variable rate ofgrowthin diflerent parts of
the world.
L.Ihe advantages and disadvantages ofdevelopingan international touristindustry. Here candidates need to be able
to analyse tourism's intertwined impacts -social, environmental and cultural as well as economic.
3. Management strategies for addressingthe negative impact ofinternational tourism.
This Factsheet willsummarise the key points of the above issues and, throuph examples, will consider how some countries have attempted
todealwith the threats and opportunities ofinternational tourism. FinalytheopDortunities and challenges of ecotourismwill bebrielly
discussed through three case studies
The Scope ofInternational Tourism 2. International tourism includes both as vertical integration, e.g. transport
1. The world has shrunk - almost business and leisure tourism, It is highly provider British Airways also acts as atour
everywhere is accessible and travel has complex in its operations, with different sectors operator and owns hotels.
bccome much quicker. Internalional tourism providing travel services, transport, amenities
now involves every country in the world as or accommodation, based in countries 3. Countries may allow these sectors to
sendcrs or recipicnts of tourists. generating tourists and in destinations. grow'adhoc', responding to market demands
Increasingly, large companies operate or they may decide to regulate the nature and
throughout the sectors -a phenomenon known scope of tourism.

Kenya Case Study- An example of government-led tourism growth

Tourism is Kenya's greatest source of foreign exchange and the Kenyan govern1ment have skilfully stimulated the tourist
boom. Kenya made the most of an existing Safari industry and transport infrastructure lefl over from colonial times, rather
than starting from scratch. It succesfully diversified what it had to ofler, so that tourists could combine a safariholiday
with asea/sand holiday on the coast.
ETHIOPIA

Government Action! Laken Kenya has aunique

An entrepreneur was hired lo raise
Turkana wildlife resource
habitats range from
the profile of Kenyan wildlife and müngrove swamps to
UGANDA Samburu $OMALIA
SCCnery mountains.

Tourist officers were posted to

European embassies Lake Africa
Nakurar PrertRift
Lake Valle
Visa and immigration procedures Victoria Ma•tai
were simplified Maas ndjan
Mara Tsavd Ocean
Tax incentives were offered to major Ambosra East
airlines to encourage them to
Malindi Huge inland lakes,
Marine Park dense wet forest and
develop game lodges and hotels. TANZANIA Tsavo extensive savannah
Wcst
Strict guidelines were, and continue National Park grasslands, give rise to
to be, imposed on foreign tour fantastic species
operators Local people must be National Game Reserve diversily
J0% ofland area is
preferentially employed, import of either National Park or
foreign food at game lodges and protected reserve
hotels is restricted
 Intmaoal unm
Geo Factsheet
Reasos for thc Growth of
International Tourism Whydoes thc size and scope of the
vary between countrics?
tourist industry
(hangcs in the nature ofindustrialiscd Astourist
orshrink, fashions and global cconomic trends
in change, national tourist industries grow
has developedconstantly shifting
sINCUcs incrcascd standards of living
aong Innddle and working classes; in a particular patterms. Faclors such as these affect the
Introduction of paid holiday time; ncw country: way tourism
work patlcms, more holidays and carlicr Transport links with major
curcmcnt tourist-sending countries Australia having great success
the
is
Asia-Pacific
well as attractingas
region's affluent tourists
Changes in ransport increasingly Europcans
in part to the and North
sophisticated mechanised transport has
revolutioniscd travel between and within flights. introduction Americans,
of cheap thanks
charter
countries, drastically
times. The introductionreducing journey
of mass formsof
Historical/ colonialrelationships
with other countries 68% of American
transport - e.g. wide-bodied jets, cruise visitors to Ireland in 1994
cited forebears as their
ships and coaches, has made travel Changing tastes reason for visiting
chcaper and more comfortable,o The UK has a
it up to far more
people.
opening mature,
industry whose ageingbroadly based tourist
coastal resorts are now and unfashionable
Changes within the tourist having to find new
ways of attracting visitors.
since Thomas Cook'sfirst industry
new
technologies, e."package
g. tour,
computer Egypt's tourist
systems, have historic heritage,industry has centred on its
holidays can berevolutionised the
sold and organisedwayas Nature and uniqueness of
but
take advantage of the is now diversifying to
products, bringing down prices and cultural and built attractionsnatural, and sports holidays. rise in special interest
making complex arrangements easy.
Changes in socicty - education and the Switzerland'
scenery
s mature industry based on its
mass media have andoutdoor
competition from
sports provision is facing
other places. increased East European countries
Holidays are awareness
of able to offer
not justdesirable but
now seen as priced skiingscenic beauty and competitively
facilities.
consumer items in the annualnecessary Climate
families in employment. budget of The Gambia's
culture has also Consumer based on cheapstagnating
winter suntourist industry
byencouraged
the
development tour operatorsongoing
of new European tourists may be holidays forif
destinations, to satisfy government plans to revitalised
demands fornew places and customer
experiences.
on the encouragetourism
country's wildlife and culturebased
endorsed by foreign tour are
Changes in the
global economy and in Government policy regarding operators.
politics - alongwith the major tourist international tourism Governmentin attitudes to tourism are often a
key
sending regions of North America and factor tourism development, helping or
Europe, the Asia Pacific region is now hindering the
tourist industry.establishment of a
generating an enormous amount
tourism within the region and of wary of
found encouraging
Some governments havethriving
tourism, but most have been
as affluent
sections of their globally, the
economic
adopt the West's consumer societies
such as diffñcult to arguments
encouraging
culture. it for
Kenya's reject and many,
enthusiastically promotedgovernment
it as part have
Nature ofpolitical regime diversifiedeconomy.South
For many years
of a

regime deterred many Africa's Apartheid

tourists.
Slow
opment may result from: lack ofaccelnatural
develpolitical
wars and
erated since the decline of Tourism
has
apartheid.
Islands are wary ofinhestabisocial
lity. costs
Some features or internal
deliberatcly restrained tourism growth. govermment
and
uncertains economic
e.g., those of
some of theconflicts
South
such as
Pacific
benefits and have therefore
 lmpacb
Geo Factsheet
Intemational Tourism

Benefits and Costs.of Tourism

Economic benefits Costs

" The economic benefits of tourismmay be
very selective; only very small arcas
International tourism creates jobs, particularly in of local traders, hoteliers etc. may
ofa country and onlya very small proportion
the service and transport sectors of the receiving generate or deepen local or regional
country. The development of hotels, apartment benefit from any increased trade and this may
blocks, restaurants, taxi and bus services may disparities in standard of living.
dramatically stimulate the local economy. The
spending oftourists may actually reach
provision of temporary and permanent Only a very small proportion of thetotal organisers, especially package tour
employment opportunities has amultiplier effect local people because hotels and holiday
on other labour intensive sectors. In the Tunisian organisers, may be in foreign ownership.
resort of Tozeur each new hotel is estimated to
may be transport related and this
created up to 100new jobs for local people, while Abigh proportion of the total cost ofa holiday little benefit to the locals in the
indirect employment is created by the demand for IS Usually paid for in the home country, bringing
guides,
tour guides and drivers, souvenirs (rugs and carpets), destination country. Tour operators may bring in their own non-local
restaurant and cafe staffand ancillary services such managers and drivers etc. Many jobs may be only part-time or seasonal or
as banking. temporary.

Significant numbers of tourists actually spend little money on local types offood
foreign
Consumption of local food and drink is often cited and drink. In Antigua,although tourism brings ina sizcable amount of and for
food
as onc ofthe greatestpleasures ofa foreign holiday exchange, this is leaked out again, paying for expatriate staff, for
and this increased demand helps to stimulate local, consumer durables demanded by visitors.
regional and national agriculture. The growth of
fermes auberges' (farm restaurants) in France is events in a country, by
agood example of French success in linking local Tourism is strongly influenced by outside reactions to precisely because of
exchange rates and recessions elsewhere, and it is
produce to the tourist industry. currency
wider economic development.
thisthat tourism provides an unstable base forthe collapse of its tourist industry
Political events in The Gambia in 1994 led to
UK (country of origin for 90%
Tourists often have phenomenal spending power and thereby its economy as the government ofthe to avoid the country.
of Gambia's tourist clientele) advised the tour companies
and this injection of capital into the towns, shops
and leisure outlets dramatically stimulates the
local economy and becomes an important infrastructure which
contributor to the national balance of payments. Similarly, the rush to develop the sophisticated and efficient on both the local and
enormous strains
Tourism on the Indonesian island of Bali has many western tourists demand may cause such as those
been an important contributor to the national
nationaleconomy. This may mean that other arcas ofthe economy,state of Goa,
Indian coastal
balance of payments, so much so that the on which local people depend are neglected. In the
giving priority for
there have been numerous protests about govemment policy while
government has now adopted tourism as an season, local village
water supplies to hotels towards the end of the dry
economic strategy throughout the country.
wells run dry.

Finally, the need to attract and accommodate Tourism also brings with it a set of values - consumerism
is the most obvious
and
tourists often stimulates the development culture.The younger
example-and this may be in sharp contrast to the indigenous
improvement oflocal infrastructure suchas roads, western lifestyle and
supplies, generation inparticular are susceptible to the attractions of oflocal populations.
ports, airports and services such as water out-migration and change in
this may lead to the age structure
and domestic waste disposal. society is changing in the
sewage, electricity In Turkey, the traditional and conservative nature of with radically different
The northern coast of Penang Island in Malaysia
twenty new tourist resorts, as young people come in contact
has been transformed by tourism. Where attitudes towomen, nudity and religious
observance. This is creating friction
scattered villages without
five years ago there were between the generations.
and
modern services, there is now a new highway
a highly developed infrastructure.
ecotourism may force local people off lands
The designation ofprotected sites for
In turn, this may mean agricultural
to which they traditionally had open access.
Social benefits firewood are lost and this may disastrously affect the ability
improves, the standard of land and sources of economy. In Acapulco, Mexico, the
As local infrastructure sustainable
also improve. The of local people to develop a were forced as the resort grew.
out Many
living of local people will supplies and reliable people living by the magnificent bay slopes above -miles from sources of work
development of clean water infertile
incidence of disease and now live on the dangerous and have lived for centuries the Thai-Burmese
electricity will reduce the and food. Tribespeople who rainforest now designated as a World Heritage
porters and shopkeepers, will
local people, such as border, within an area of tropical boundaries for reasons of strict conservation.
have dramatically increased spending power, thus Site, have been moved out
of its
have been built.
allowing a higher standard ofliving. allowed in, and lodges for them
However, tourists are being
Intemational Tourism Geo Factsbeet

Managing Tourism
The tounst industr has taken some steps to support cflorts towards sustainable tourism. For cxample, the Intemational
Foderat1onof Tour Operators (1FTO) have proposcd a model of sustainable tourism (ECOMOST) bascd upon studics carried
out in Mallorca Thus model suggests that there are three requirements for sustainable tourism:
IThe local population should remain prosperous and kecp its cultural identity.
2 The area should remain attractive to tourists.
3 The cconomy of the arca should not be damaged.
Below are eamples of stratcgies undertaken by local or national governments. Not al are proving successful, since ihey ate
cxpensive and nccd thewholehcarted commitment of thetourist industry, whose members want to maximise prolns.

EXAMPLES:ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
STRATEGIES
LOCATION IMPACT
Off-road vehicles have severely reduced vegetation cover, Enforced use of primary, secondary
Tbe Mara/Serengeti ccosystem provides a and tertiary roads in addition to
habitat for some of Africa's most spectacular increasing soil erosion; balloonists have frightened or minimum flight levels and maximum
and valued wild life (sce Kenya case study) disturbed the feeding and mating behaviour of cheetahs
and gazelle. flight duration of balloons with fixed
take off and landing sites.

Maintain existing tree cover or afforest

The Swiss Alps Deforestation to create new pistes and holiday
accommodation has increased the incidence of huge sensitive upper slopes. Strict control
avalanches. Snow compaction vehicles have destroyed of ski permits to reduce numbers.
vegetationand darmagedsoil structure, reducing infiltration Careful zoning of skiers.

France and increasing the velocity and errosivity ofrun off, which
has led to flash flooding.

Spain Mediterrancan

Small scale, community based

The Nepalese Foothills Hoards of trekkers have dramatically eroded the most
afforestation schemes involving the
commonpaths and left huge volumes ofnon-biodegradable planting of carefully selected tree
China litter in their path. As the number of trekkers has species which can simultaneously
increased, the number oflodgers has also increased, along
with the demand for firewood to allow tourists to take hot provide fuel wood, fodder and large
construction timber. Tight control of
India showers and indulge in camp fres. One two-month trek
the number of trekking permits with
uses as much firewood as one family in a year. This
Bay unsustainable demand for firewood has led to widespread careful time-zoning on the most heavily
of Bengal deforestation and, inevitably, siltation and flooding. used routes.

The destruction of mangrove forests build tourist Development has been prohibited on
The Caribbean.
accommodation and the construction of marinas and the steepest slopes. Large areas of
harbours has increased sedimentation and therefore the mangrove forest have now been
turbidity of shallow coastal waters, preventing coral designated as protected areas. The
Caribbean emphasis is now on the upgrading of
formation by polyps.
existing hotels to generate greater
revenue, rather than the construction
Wenezuela
of new hotels.

Destruction of coastline landscape through high-rise Stricter implementation of planning

Mallorca controls on the height ofbuildings and
development. A buge increase in demand for water in
France summer, much of which is obtained from ground water the use of sympathetic design. The
government have sponsored amarketing
reserves, has led to over abstraction and loweing of the campaign to smooth seasonal
Spain water tables and salination. There has also been a huge loss
of fertile agricultural land to development. fluctuations in the number of visitors
by movingaway from the image ofsun,
based
sea,sand, sex and sangria to one
environment
upon the beauty of the
historical and cultural
and the
attractions of the island.
 Intermaonal Tounsm GeoFactsheet

Ecotourism 1985 and was the first national park in the successes and failures of current policy and
Ecotourism may be defincd as tourism which world to be run jointly by a national practice in tourism management around the
Is based upon the observation of wildlife or conservation agency (the Australian world.
National Parks and Wildlife Servicc) and
wild areas and which aims to be low impact indigenous pcople.
possible.
and to involve thc locals as much as from
the income gencrated
ldeally, Attracting 300,000 tourists annually,visitor
conserve or
ccotourism is used to help revenue is split between the two managing
provide
prescrvc wild life or wild areas or to groups. However, success has also been at
people in that
revcnuc or compensation for acost; some villagers feel that tourists have
these ideals may be in the minds invaded their privacy and shown litle respect
arca. While wanting
and communities
of governmentsccotourists, it should be for aboriginalbeliefs or sacred areas.
to cncourage loosely
remembered that the term is used very by 3. Botswana.
and even
by the tourist industry show how The government of Botswana has set about
governments. These case studies developing ecotourism as a way of
interpreted.
widely the term can nowbe diversifying an economy which has been
heavily dependant upon
1. Costa Rica diamonds, diamond production and cattle
Rica involves
The Rara Avis project in Costa farming. However, concern that the sheer
international tourists joiningand living ina numberoftourists would damage the ecology
developed,
smallforest village which hasCosta Rican of areas such as the Okovanga Delta, which
with financial aid from the
is currently being considered as a World
government, the concept of open air Heritage Site, has led the government to
classrooms and laboratories in the rainforest develop a high-cost low-density tourism
scientists
itsell. These attract thousands of policy. Cost of entry to game reserves has
tourists and it is
and students as well as been dramatically increased and all visitors
to Costa
estimated that 40% of all tourists must showproofofhotel or safari bookings;
nature
Rica are involved in some sort of cheap and cheerful back-packers are not
oriented activities.
welcome!

The total number of home and foreign Conclusion

tourists have however disrupted forest
wildlife and accordingly the total number of By applying these criteria to new proposals
for tourism development or to existing devel
lourists to any one area is now limited by the
issuing of strictly controlled permits. The opments, it is hoped that some of the cruder
government has also encouraged the
mistakes of the past can be avoided or cor
rected. The future of international tourism
development of private reserves along the
cdges of the Costa Rican National Parks, will depend on many factors outside the
control of the tourist industry itself, and
allowing wildlife to move between the parks
and reserves, thus allowing the reserve to even of national governments. In theory,
act as a buffer. demand for business and leisure travel is set
to grow indefinitely as affluence increases in Acknowledgements;
This Geo Factsheet was researched and
However, Costa Rica's ecotourism image is countries such as China whose populations
gradually being tarnished. With newer, has hardly begun to travel outside its borders. written by Kevin Byrne.

cheaper destinations tempting ecotourists However, economic factors such as changing Geo Press
elsewhere, the government has allowed large 10 St Pauls Square
patterns in world trade, environmental factors
scale tourist development to start. This could such as the availability of fuel for transport, Birmingham
have dire consequences, critics argue. B3 1QU
congestion on land, air and sea and climate
2. Aboriginal tourism change and social factors such as changes Geopress Factsheets may be copiedfree ofcharge
by health by teaching staffor students, provided that their
Pcople's desire to learn about ancient cultures in our consumer fashions caused
or environmental concems may cause the school is a registered subscriber.
has become big business. Nearly 50% of
VisitorstoAustralia in 1993 expressed interest growth of tourist numbers to slow down if
not decrease. No part of these Factsheets may be reproduced,
in lcarning about aboriginal culture. Since storedinaretrievalsystem,or transmitted, in any
this culture is incxtricably linked with Whatever the future holds it will be crucial other form or by any other means, without the
Australia's 'outback", there is potential for prior permission of the publisher.
the perfect ccotourism product. Ayers Rock for governments and decision makers in the
becamc the first aboriginal national park in tourist industry to learn lessons from the
ISSN 1351-5136

5
 what to
Fig. communities. Ecotourism
catered
ecotourism?
'mass What is
cultural ecotourism
particular
changing.
cxpectations Tourism
the
parks Antarcticais the
countrics thc at10%
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ECOTOURISM tourism'. The 1known impressivcly thc closc
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million
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to and
fashion Bul, has global is
as largely The classified biosphere
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In and and been intemational the
ACE andplace
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(Fig. of by
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(ADVENTURE, as reserves. Himalayas occupancy continued of
ADVENTURE ECOTOURISM) of ecotourism tounsts ecotourist is
today'
iss business thc
TOURISM CULTURE,
TOURISM independent part Ecuador, reflected said output
alternative 1). tourists. in
ACE of than world's
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to a
tourism. as
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be is to was fashion
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wilderness projects, growing in: now anyboom. By
within fashion worth leading
small protected to of 1990
CULTURAL
TOURISM
tourism
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FactsheetGeo
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this
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growing ecotourism are scenery, should managed is and protected
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at involved: local the sustainable a Table that a
of human mass on non-consumptive of the
general
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thereby that contribute aspects
traditional move of wildlife, the benefits
experiencing does 15 wide
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of
with tourism. are key 1 definitions
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spectrum
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livelihoodsculture the about embracing Number112
are and 'or individuzl
10
and local
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 (an ccotounsm work?
Geo Factsheet
(ase sudy 1: The Asa Wrigh
The i Nature Centre
Bc\atur (entre
mse teewvitlod Nothen
slwatedn the
upper bia llev cut
stafl are hehcl in avauicN of wavs from raiming to
loans for buldg and renovating homes
nlerest-/ee
Runges of Dndd thee s on-site'recvclne ofrefuse nd waste wuter
Fe. The Arima lalley, much of the food servcd to guests is either grOWn on
Trinidad. Purchased fom local producers
the estate or
(urhhn Sou onlh' l0°0 of the orivmal estule AS
access1ble to
designated troils. The remainder is insulated and sotouwists
N via 5
Port o Amd ndisturbed The total area of the cstate has now been wildlife is left
NZUALA Spain with the graual acquisition of the tracts of exMended
primarv forest.
Atlantic Then is no doubting the success of the AWNC
Ocean
venture in terms of:
meeting 'green and sustainable objectives
raising monev to support cducation projects in the Arima Valley
TRINIDAD acquiring more forest for conscvation
0 km 20 Indced, enough money has been raiscd to buv another old
estate further along the Northern Ranges to the east. This plantation
In 1967 a former as anotlher visitor cente. Howeve, there is mav be uscd
plantation estate of 193 acres one shadow over all this.
poftnakng rust Thc main aims of the Trustswas bouglht by a non The money has been raised. purthy by ahigh
toallon le deared venure were:
ancasifthc plantation tonnert to montanc ninforcst rooms throughout the vear but more so byoccupncy rate of the 24
to consene thus part of the greatly increasing the
nmber of fee-paving day visitors. Those day visitors
Arima are of three vpes
wldl1fe and for thc cnjovnnent of locallallev for the protection of
peoplc local people
to promole publiC Naness of thC ahue of the rainfon:st and its wwildlife Overseas visitors staving in other parts of Triidad
lo provwde tourists on cruise ships that berth at Port of Spain for a dav
accomnnodation for visiors or wo
Te ideaws that profits derived from In recent vears, there has been a
he used to piding guest acconmmodation should tremendous increase in the nåmber
of cruise visitors. It is thev who are
finance the onsenution and cducation work of the Tnust, as well mainhy responsible for the nnual
as to purchase adjaccnt anvas number of day visitors increasing from just
ofprmanrelamchy ntouched) rainforest. 18,000 beween 1995 and 1999. over 10,000 to nearly
During its first seven vcars, the There have heen anumber of umwanted
1974 that it began to make the AI|NC ran at aloss. It was onl' in outcomes:
serious over-use of the Centre s facilities
required profit. This was achieved bv: trails. The disturbance of wildlife along and more importantly its
appomting abooking agent in Nevy York to promote the Centre to some of those
US tourists (non also to reached unacceptable levels trails has
European tourists)
gradually increasing the umber of rooms available for the peace and guiet that
resident visitors come here to enjoy is
now stands at 4 visitors.
It seriously eroded
keepng the Cenre open throughout the vear, rather undue working pressure on staf is beginning to
ubenveen March and
October
than closing cause disaffection
lt appears that the AWNC has
In mam was, AWNC has passed the critical threshold. It may
well be that most ecotourist projects, if
fulfilled virtuallv all of the criteria of they
ccotourisn and sustainable tourism (Tables and 3). For erample: objectives, do have to be constrained both in are to succeed in all their
size and growth. It scems
most of the staf of just under 60 live the
Arina Vallev therefore that ventures such as these do have a
2), unless firm steps are product life-cvcle (Fig.
taken to stav short of the
saturation point.
Case Study 2: Bhutan
This small., land-locked kingdom in the Fig. S Bhutan
nations in the world So fur it has resisted Hinalavas is one of the poorest
the temptation to go all out
to explot its tourism resources -
fine scenery wildlife and a rich N
Buddhistculral heritage - 10 bring in much needed
foreign exchange. CHINA
4fter 300 years of solation, Bhutan
The nunber offoreign visiorsreopened
its doors to tourists in 1974: BHUTAN
4ll tourSts nuust be part of an
41l tors must be
was rationed to 2500 each vear.
escorted tou to specified locations:
NEPAL
organised by known and vetted
Al/ tourst
devclopments, such as lhotels, must companies.
de1yns 0nd naterials use traditional INDIA

In shon the cmphasis is on

the
and culture n arstrc ted, tghtlh consevation of the eionment, wildlife BANGLADESH
contolled nd closcly montored tourism.
I otdnl, scCns that Bhutan has net BURMA
mos of the
eotorism tand of ulhral towism. for thut requrements 0/
matter), but it n0w looks
as if the numlher of
foEn
rus about to he doubled touwists allowel to cnter the coum in a Bay of
mthe Bengul
scah the deaded sutuston pon n omOy (ope, o wll towis so0n
th podu fevle
(ig )
 Can ccotounsm work?

Case sfudy Geo Factsbeet

l: The Asa
The tso ncht righr Nature Centre
ento the renforstNature Centre s located nthe upper stafl are helped in a variety of
Nothen Ronges of Trnidad Arima valley cut
lod loans for building and ways from training to
renovating homes
interest-free
Fig. 4The 4rima there is 'on-site' recvcling of refuse and waste
lalley, Trinidad. much of the food served to guests is
water
Curithean Sea purchased from local producers either grown on the estate or
only 10% of the original
N estate is accessible to tourists via 5
Port ofArmd designated trails. The renainder is
\ENEZUALA ndisturbed. The total area of the insulated and so vildlife is left
Spain with the gradual acquisition of the cstate has now been extended
tracts of priman forest.
Atlantic There is no doubting the success of the
AWNC
Ocean
meeting 'green and sustainable objectives venture in terms of
raising money to support education projects the Arina Vallev
TRINIDAD acquiring more forest for conservation
0 km 20 Indeed, enough money has been raised to
estate further along the Northern Ranges tobuy another old plantation
the east. This may be used
In 1967 aformer
plantation estale of 193 aCres was bought by a non as another visitor centre.
Howeve; there is
pofnaking tnust. The main aims of the Trust s The money has been raised,. partly by a one shadow over all this.
toallon the cleared arcas if the venture were: rooms throughout the year; but more high occupancy rate of the 24
to consene this part of plantation to raert lo montane rainforest so
umber offee-paying day visilors. Those daybyvisitors
greatly increasing the
the
wildlife and for the enjoyment Arima
of
Valley for the protection of
local people are of three types:
to pronote public awareness of the local people Overseas visitors staving in other parts of Trinidad
1o provnde value of the rainforest and its wildlife
accomnodation for visitors tourists on cruise ships that berth at Port of Spain for a
day or wo
The idea was that profilts derived In recent years, there has
fromprovidi1ng guest been a
be used to finance the
consenvation and education workaccomnnodation should of cruise visitors. It is thev who aretremendous increase in the nunber
as to purchase adjacent areas of the Trust, as well mainly responsible for the nnual
number of day visitors increasing from just
ofprimary(relatively untouched) rainforest. 18,000 between 1995 and 1999. over 10,000 to nearly
During ts frst seven years, the AWNC ran at a There have been a number of unwanted
1974 that it began to make the loss. It was only in outcones:
serious over-use of the Centre's facilities
required profiL. This was achieved by: trails. The disturbance of wildlife along and more importantly its
appointing a booking agent in New York to promote the Centre to some of those trails has
US tourists (now ulso to reached unacceptable levels
European tourists) the peace and gquiet that resident
gradually increasing the nunber ofrooms available for visitors. I visitors come here to enjoy is
now stands at 24 seriously eroded
keepng the Centre open throughout the yea, rather than undue working pressure on staff is beginning to cause
tbenween March and October
closing disaffection
It appears that the AWNC has passed the
well be that most ecotourist projects, if critical threshold. It may
In mamv wavs, AWNC has fulfilled they are to succeed in all their
virtuallv all of the
ecotourism and sustainable tourism (Tables 2 and 3). For criteria
of objectives,do have to be constrained both in size and growth. It
example: therefore thatventures suchas these do have a seems
most of the staff of just under 60 live in the Arina Vallev
2), unless firm steps are taken to stay short of product life-cvcle (Fig.
the saturation point.

Case Stuudy 2: Bhutan

Fig. 5 Bhutan
This snall, land-locked kingdom in the Hinalavas is one ofthe
poorest
nattons in the world. So far it has resisted the tenptation to go all
out
to exploit ils lourism resources - fine scenery wildlife and a
rich
Buddhist culural heritage - to hbring in much needed foreign exchange. CHINA
4fter 300 vears of isolation, Bhutan reopened its doors to tourists in 1974: BHUTAN
Thenumber of foreign visitors was rationed to 2500each vear:
All 1owists niust be part of an escorted tour to specified
NEPAL
All tours must be organised by known and vetted
locations:
companies. INDIA
All touIst developments, such as hotels, muUst use traditional
deospno nd aterials
BANGLADESH
In shon, the enphasts is on the cosenation of the
environment, wildlije
dnduure h, artrited, tugh1ly controlled and closcly nonitored touwism. BURMA
I etnly seems that hutan lhas met most of the requirements of
Cotouism lond of lowal towism, for that matter),
but it now looks
as if the nunbe of forcipn tourists allowed to enter Bay of
the countr in a Bengal
vear is about to he doubled Cm the coty Ope, or
wvill tourism soon
eah the deaded sutu atlon pont nthe prodifecycle (Fig 2)?
 Geo Factsbeet
Can ccotourism work?

Lindblad Plan wvlich manages

most cruises follow the s0-called
Case study 3: Antarctica itineraries in such a wav as to ensure that they are ecologically

Fig. 6 Antarctica. 'henign '(i.e. any impacts are negligible).

South Atlantic Ocean Indian Ocean Table 4 The Lindblad Plan
French, Southen & passengers
Falkland Islands
Antarctic Lands *The Plan works best with ships of 700 to 140
Argçntin erperienced captain and cruise leader:
operating under an
adventure expedition, with ship
JChile Heard & * Each voyage is treated as an landings
daily
ANTARCTICA McDonald Islands board lectures, hriefings and one or more
researchesadninistrators.
South Pole Lechuing staff are often eperienced Antarctic
Landing sites are selected for their historical associations,
wildlife or scenic beautv.
South
Pacific
NRoss Passengers ae briefed before their first landing about the vequirements
ofshore.
behaviour
Ocean Shclf of the Antawctic Tieaty and the Protocol about
4South Magnetic possible hzards and ensuwring that wildlife is not disturbed.
km 2,000 Grc TPole
Passengers are landed by zodacs in groups of 10 lo 15 and are
accompanied and supervised by experienced gundes. They awe required
brighth-coloured
to wear gumboots (most landings are wet ones) and
The first tourist ship arrived in 1958. Since then touwrism has increased padded jackets to ensLIe that they can be seen fiom a distance.
slowy, catering mainly for asmall up-market sector of adventure
Iravelles and natural histoy lovers. Numbers have been limited nainly
Ecotourism in Antarctica seems to be working ,uite well. But there are
bv the formidable expenses arising from Antarctica s remoteness. As a potential problems:
destination, itdoes have a number of in-built regulators: about the
the growing number if sunmer visitors and fears
the season runs from mid-November to mid-March when weather disturbance of wildlife and damage to fragile ecosystems
andiceconditions are best and wildlife most spectacular the introduction of larger cruise ships that greatly exceed the
only small sections of the Antarctic coast are accessible (the South recommended maximum of 140 passengers
Americasectoris the most visited) with aound 70 pe mittedlanding sites the possibility of land-based tourism - be it under canvas (this is
the Antarctic Treath (1959) and the later Protocol on Environnent already permitted in afew designated areas), at scientific bases or
Protection set out regulations and guidelines for all activities in perhaps even in hotels.
Antarctica, including tourism
all captains of tour ships are required to observe these and other An unusual aspect of this particular ecotourist destination is that there
ground rules laid down by the International Association of is no local human community to be protected or involved. Many hope
Antarctic Tour Operators (lAATO) when taking parties ashore that Antarctica will remain an unpopulated continent (except for a
specially protected areas have to be avoided; so too discharge of sinall scientific community of nomore than afew hundred people) and
Maste and disposal of rubbish in Antarctic waters that virtually all of the tourism willremain ship-based.

The verdict References and further research

Ecotourism may be able to put right some of the things wrong with mass Chater, E. &Lowman, G. (eds,), Ecotourism: asustainable option? (Wiley, 1994)
tourism, but the potential is limited. The main constraint is scale. That Fennell, D.A. Ecotourism: An introduction (Routledge, 1999)
applies as much to Antarctica and Bhutan as to pioneering ecotourism France, L/ (ed.), Sustainable Tourism (Earthscan, 1997)
projccts like the AWNCdotted around the world. Evidence suggests that Neale,G. The Green Travel Guide (Earthscan, 1998)
small, local projects can work well. But, if ecotourism is to significantly Wan, S. Recreation and Tourism (Stanley Thomes, 1999)
change the nature of global tourism, there will need to be: Williams, S. Tourism Geography (Routledge, 1998)
a huge increase in the number of such grass roots projects. Is this Tourism Concern has a comprehensive website: www.tourismconcern.org. uk
feasible? Scaling up individual projects runs the risk of intensifying
rather than reducing pressure on the environment. It can easily Exam Questions
become self-defeating (the lesson of AWNC) A. Examine the challenge posed by developing rural tourism in a
sustainable way. 10 marks
a loosening grip that the global tour operators and TNCs have on the B. Is developing tourism the best way to sustain rural communities? 10 marks
industry. Is it realistic to expect ecotourism to knock out holidays at
the same low, heavily discounted prices? AS Answer hints
a recognition that NOT everyone wants, or can afford, tO go to
Antarctica or other ecotourist destinations; ACE (adventure, culture In these short extended pieces of writing you have to structure your thoughts in 10
and ccotourism) is not everyone's idea of holiday fun.
minutes. With only one side of writing you have to focus straight on the answer:
A. You need to define sustainable tourisn and then look at the challenge of
Ecotourism may be a growing sector of the tourist market but it is unlikely to conserving the environment, benefiting the community and pleasing the
wcan holidaymakers off the ever-popular diet of 'sun, sea, and sand' (3S tourist. You would only be able to use one detailed case study such as
UAunism). It crtainly cannot begin to meet those needs in a way that is really Trinidad or Antarctica, with as many precise facts as possible.
"fnendly' to the environment and local culture. An additional and longer-term B. You have to look at tourism as one strategy for sustaining rural cormmunities
wory relatcs to the fact that tourism is both an exploitative and a fashion -there are many others, e.g. rural ndustry or farn diversification. Two brief
industry. Remember tha, with the nolable Cxcepion of the brand oftourismjuts case studies of an area, e.g. Costa Rica or S. Shropshire, would work well.
nentioncd, the tourist industry is prone to product cycles of boom arnd decline, Acknowledgements;
cxploitation and cxhaustion (Fig. 2). Why should ecotourisn and ecotourist Southampton Universi
This Factsheet was researched by Dr: M. Witherick. fomally of
Geography department, now working with Ornitholidays as a tour guide.
desunations be any dificrcnt, in having their heyday and then fading away? Geo Press. Unit 305B, The Big Peg. 120 yse Stveet, Birmingham Bl8 6NF
students. provided that
So the answer to the qucstion poscd in the title is 'yes' ccotourism can work, Geopress Factsheets may be copied free of charge by teaching stal]or
their school is a registered subscriber.
am
in amodest way within alternative tourism. But for how long? To what effect? reproduced, stored in a retneval slem, or transmilued, in
No part of these Faclsheets may be 135l-5136
prior permission of tlhe publisher ISSN
And without kill1ng the goose that lays the golden cgg? Only time will tell. olher form or by any olher means, without the
 Geo Facisheet
www.curriculum-press.co.uk Number 204

The environmental impact

of tourism in the Caribbean
Introduction
Tourism is the most important cconomic activity in the
is four times more dependent on Canibbcan. Thc rcgion Othcr impacts include physIcal damagc to corals from divers and frorm
tourism that any
The Canbbcan rcceives 2.9% of the world's stny ovcrothcr rcgion in thc world. boat anchors and sand compaction from the heavy uage of beaches by
of the world's cruise ship passengers. The tourists and around S0% tourists and vchicles Busld1ng toursm fac1l1ttes in ecolsgcally sensitir
industry is thc major forcign arcas is also a conccrn as Is the usage of potable water Tournsts use
exchange camer and, by 2010, Canbbcan tounsm is cxpcctcd to
USS77.5 billion producc significantly morc water than rcsudcTits do
cconomic activity and 3.7 million jobs.
industry rclics on its natural resourccs basc. Howcver, despitc this Thc lourism
the industry has the potential to impact this dcncndcncc. The Car1bbcan is the most tourism deperdcnt rcgson nthe 011d wh
way, as much of the tourism is mass
naturalrcsourcc basc in ancgativc countrics such as St Lucta and Antigua being very dependert fig 1y
tourism basod in conccntratcd cnclaves Thc continucd dccl1nc of thc agr1cultural ectot vet thbe pau t enty yer
has sccn thc cmcTRcncc of tounun and ex patnot renilLarces hecore the
Tourism and he supporting infrastructure that it roquircs posc
thrcats to the
environment and to drinking (potable) water resources. The major impacts Imain sOurcc of forcign crchange earm1nzs fo maTy curtnes en he
from the improper management of liquid waste or wastewater. comc region Curently, tounsm accounts for one tn fox b ard m1 hd
Sewagc trcatnat curCncy carm1ngs comc from ths ccto
and wastewater trcatrnent plants arce the major prpctrators of
this typc of
pollution. 75% of these plants do not function cficicntly cnough to protcct thc The cconomic potcnt1al of tounsn make the enduttry a poter
environment. Conscquently, ncar shore marine water quality has becn wcapon in the battlc against povety and cotnetstune of raloal
significantly dcgradod and coral reefs impacted to the cxtent of rccf dcath. devclopmcnt procCsscs but thc linkage betwcer turuss develupr!
Governments have attempted to reduce thcse impacts by cstablishing scwage and and cnvironmental dcgradatson is ll cstabltited and a buge cLit
waste water treat1ment plants particularly in hcavily populatcd tourist arcas like the for conccm
south and west coasts and Barbados and the Rodney Bay arca in St Lucia.

Fig, 1Contribution of tourism to GDP in the Caribbean.

0 km 1000

Cuba - rapid increase Slow steady growth

1991 - 2001
in tourism, especially Bahamas
cultural tourism.
Most rapidly growing tourist destinaton
in the Canibbean 1991 -2001
Cuba Attracts largest
|Dominican numbers of tourists.
Cayman,. Republic, espescially from USA
Mexico Islands
[Belize Haiti Püerto Rico 8Antigua
e.,;.
Jamaica
(USA)
iGuadeloupe
Key:
Over 35% Honduras. St. Lucia;Barbados
Netherland
25-35% Nicuragua Antilles
15-24.9%
Costa Trinidad
5- 14.9% '& Tobago
<5%
Rica Panama Especially
favoured by
Colombia, Venezuala UK visitors
 Geo Factsheet
The environmental impact of tourism in the Caribbean

The cnvironmental impact of tourism in St Lucia and Barbados Geographically the

dependent on lourism.
St Lucia and Barbados have uscd tounsm as a mcans of diversifying the Both islands are heavily Lucia beine mountainous and of
with St
conom1c base beyond agnculturc and industry. In 1999,travcl and tounsm COuntrics are very different prcdominately
a relativcly lat and is
accountcd for 35°% ofjobs in Barbados and S1% of jobs in St Lucia Visitor volcanic origin while Barbados is
limcstone.
Cxpcnd1ure as a percentage of GDP on Barbados and St Lucia were 35 and composed of sedimentary rocks and coral
ss°, (Table ) while the contribution of the combined industries of travel cvolving from thc
Barbados and St Lucia is
and tounsm were cstimated at 5I and 69% respectively The industry itself in inchude attractions like mounains,
traditional sun-sand-sea tourism to heritage tourism.
nature tourism and cultural
Table 1 Visitor Expenditure as a % of GDP in the Caribbean. other foms of land-bascd or relatively untouched
previously pristinc
% of GDP This is beginning to expose
degradation. Harrison' s Cave in Barbados and the
environmental
areas to examples of such (Figs 2 and 3).
Anguilla 75 Pitons in St. Lucia arc excellent during the mid-1990s to address the
Cayman Islands 60 Harrison's Cave had to be closcd
degradation causcd by the large number of
55 high levels of environmental dioxide
S. Lucia
visitors. The usc of lights and the increascd level of carbon
Antiqua & Barbuda 49
allowed algae to grow and discolour the stalact1tes,
41
generated by visitors
Aruba stalagmites and other limestone formations.
Barbados 35
SL Kitts & Nevis 3 Fig. 3 Map of St. Lucia.
Grenada 28
28
sL Vincent & Grenadines
25
Burgot,Rocks,)Grosl
Pigeon-island'!
|Jamaica
Rodngy BayIslet
Fig. 2 Map of Barbados.
Choc
Bay
Castries

Turner's
HallO
NortMha-reinaest CoastasCto/a Marigot
Harbour:

M
Soufriere4Gimie,
Barbados b Folkestone
Marine: Park Soufriere Bày.
Reserve: o Harrisons Cave Petit Piton Pt
Freshwater Kitridge
Point Piton/
Bay 'Mountains
Beaumont
Point
Bridgetown
Carlisle Graeme Hall vannes
Bay
Bay Swamp St Laurence
Needham's -Gap Maria
Point Island
Anse Reserve:
Gallette
km 10
km 10
Tourism in St. Lucia:
Touism in Barbados: 269,850 visitors in 2000
544,696 Visitors in 2000
Average tourist expenditure per person $956
Average expenditure by tourists $1261 Total revenue received = over $250 million
Total reveriue received = over $700 million 14% of the population directly employed in tourism
15% of the population directly employed in tourism 387 cruise ships called to Castries in 2002
2002
529 cruise ships called at Barbados in

Proposed park or protected area

Key: Reefs
Approximate 100m isobath Park or protected area boundary

Park or protected area

Proposed park or protected area
+ Airport
 2002)
iTigation)
salinization. practices was weretraditional bum The security.
ncar-collapse
141,Forumenvironment and numbers rapidimplications
migratory with the The leads andregion contrast, and through and Impacts The
strategy
degradation disposal;
shrinking industrycountry's
isand Dominican is In Jarague
Naconal
temporar1ly
the sound The limited contrast, Dominican Pa
HAITI Fig. The
contributing anabl e
agriculture, was 2005 an environment, environment,
political concept
long-term cmphasis recfs but abundance ranked expansion over
cconomy fails 4
unsustainable to th e of environmental sound DOMINICAN
REPUBLIC environmcntal
Mlap
model to enforcement inadequate coastal have (e.g. economyEnvironmental pressures time of Beata
Msla Montecrist!
Nockonal
Pargue
underground plagued
and Republic, tourism Agriculture support of urban to
from achicve that
only the
Republic, effectively stability tourism of of
on aggravating hillside its to management,
environmental for arcas; to raised ofhillside country of heightened
of causing cnvironmental
takes the
Dominican environmental poor moving Puerto
VMejo
anthc over high salinization is land the of from environmental
tourism.
a of
infrastructure, by but seen Psantiago Dominican
incrcasing volume population the and in
higher-valued
long environmental
time increasing
a
practices hasfarming,
yields relative insecurityeffective
aquifers there as farming,
Dominican Sustainability
in neighbouring
lacking from poor a govern,
social, the
lack
vulnerability and ensuring and Domingo
Santo
impact
may the the
Republic Atisland tensions, Dominican
viability run, tourism are continue will but a steps security
of of major Western traditional
the economic, sustainable
volumc the deforestation, tountil and resources, clean manage, is Republic.
destroy threatened basic stress also
including surface continue population.
also security
state the of
Dominican
of added implies laws. environmentalengine wellRepublic
grazing. 119Index water same social condition atoward
states
thc of services, to on to
resulted Hemisphere Haiti, vulnerable welfare Romana
BocaLa tourismn
out agricultural and use
tourism, the naturalfragile and extractan to into reinforce and time are turmoil, or creating Republic
industry. and by
water of decline
significant
industry. economic
Unsustainable thThese
improper e was of of itself especially political use in ofthat
Saoñä
Republic
benefit
may more salinization; wetlands, ground in 146 the basic there its of its
a Yuma in
such
and hazards. to de
while concerns. environmental toll. 20basedranked the
struggling ornaturalwhich social, its natural nation -
(11.5% soil farming nations; World base the
Century sanitation. are natural conflict. instability population. a Nacional
Parque
environmentally With
environmental sewer as waters growth links important late EsteDel
undermining erosion or on a Caribbean
solid The
mangroves agricultural lower.Economic increasing toward economic,
resourcesnation resources or
and
systems; Tourism of
excessive between hazards, region,comer km
no GDP systems slash Haiti, with
tourist
waste in in there The that
clear very the the and the in or In
10
and The at
in a
damage
Tourism weak the over
Tourism
theConclusion Thereare
retrieval
permission in
a
their
Geopress
Curriculum
Acknowledgements This websites
Useful
Washington.
America. Tourism
BarbadosDixon,Further
readingshort-term) thatcruise
lacurrent
ck areTourism
unpreparedRecent
andconflicts. environmental
operators
tourism base tends The growth
Changing infrastructure, Rapid of Key: Tourism
school Factsheet for
neptie.orglpcltourism/sust-tourism/eny-global.htm Impact visitors the
orglpc/tourism/sust-tourism/economic.htm
WwW.uneptie.
www.transafricaforum.orglreporsstourism
issuebrief0200,pdf ships regulatory used curent five between
Tourist tourism 3,314,063
Total
141 OnlyAverage
Factsheets the J.and from
expansion of shortstands not upon to Approximate
Proposed ParkIsobath
100m Reefs
of is Press, 2001. nature
system,
the a of acts economic will and infrastructure, dominatethe destroy broad or 5%
cruise revenue in
wasenvironmental Environment dredging, as experience
has the
whose the protected
toout sheltered Tourism
publisherregistered Bank tourism yachts. medium construction even which business park
arrivals oftourist
researched
or may World
to abandon enforcement, of as and policies,challenges 1991 visitors
has brought tourism ships the Dominican
transmitled, prevent tourism the for the or
House, development led or profitseconomic proteced area received
subscriber be
ISSN in Bank. Ifboat has it tourism doubled
and population
expenditure
copied the the to term.likely fed recurring
indicates aesthetic, called
by the inadequate
sanitation industry. depends.
model and in
105
Garrett impacts deforestation,
anchoring become with model face 2000.
1351-5136 in
free water
in Caribbean,natural ,
that Yetengine during and depend area
2000
any No King
Caribbean, Washington. the and services. the Republic:
of call there limits for has in to (2001)
other part
chargeStreet,Nagle. Caribbean: would
environment lack maintenance it
natural environmental, Dominican
of into the is tourism, T
KMain Dominican the directly
crisis. and
of natural increasing the on Scarcity per
tourism of growth
are new difficult on outpaced Dominican =
form theseof
by a
Wellington, and Alrport Proposed Park person
well-known with be improperbeach question a
preparedness disasters
tourism high a the over
or
teaching limited. the host or employed
FacLsheets regions
tourist
disasters.employer
by Drosdo for current tourisms
'slash Republic' protected
any at reference An hope is loss,saltwater facilities, labour of park Republic
a degraded its ofthe vulnerability volume
because the $2,700 $812 Factsheet
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Dependence on Angkor reliant on one particular
Cambodia's tourism scctor remains fragile, because it is highly this vast sprawling
Howevcr, Raider movie,
Angkor. Popularised by the 2001 Tomb
attraction: the ancicnt city of fourteenth centuries.
Cambodian kings between the ninth and
temple complex was built up by former million people, making this the largest urban area in
AULS zenith, Angkor was home to more than one comparison, European cities such as London or Paris
the history of the pre-industrialised world. ByWhilst the civilisation collapsed many centuries ago, and
were home to about 20,000 people at this time.
globally-significant historical site. Angkor Wat
much of the heritage is lost forever, Angkor remains a
became a World Hcritage Sitc in 1992. World Heritage Sites are places of significant cultural or natural
UNESCO. Cambodians are extremely proud of
signifcancc and are designated and administered by their national flag. The stunning structures of Angkor
their illusurious heritage, and even have the largest temple ofAngkor Wat depicted on stops by to see the are world-famous
primary tourist venue in Cambodia - virtually
Itis also the and every international visitor
architccture cdifices of this incredible structure, which is thought to be the largest religious site in
history and often cited as the Eighth Wonder of the World. Three million tourists passed through in 2012.

World Heritage Convention 1972

parts of the world's natural and cultural heritage which are so unique
The philosophy behind the convention is straightforward: there are some
protection for present and future generations is not only a matter
and scientifically important to the wold as a whole that their conservation and
of concern for individual nations but for the international community as a whole.
Figure 4

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