CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

This chapter presents a comprehensive review of relevant literature concerning handwriting

within the educational domain. It establishes a foundational understanding of writing and

handwriting as essential skills, explores the theoretical underpinnings related to their acquisition

and significance, outlines the conceptual relationships between handwriting proficiency and

academic outcomes, and synthesizes empirical findings on the importance of handwriting and

effective teaching methodologies. The review draws upon definitions, theories, and research

findings from various scholars and researchers in linguistics, psychology, and educational

science, providing the necessary context and justification for the current study's focus on

investigating and suggesting ways to improve pupils' handwriting performance.

Defining Writing and Handwriting

To lay the groundwork for this study, it is crucial to define what constitutes "writing." Writing is

fundamentally a system of communication utilizing visible or tactile symbols to represent

language. Florian Coulmas, in the Blackwell Encyclopedia, defines writing as "a set of visible or

tactile signs used to represent units of language in a systematic way with the purpose of

recording messages which can be retrieved by everyone who knows the language in question and

the rules by virtue of which its units are encoded in the writing system." Similarly, the World

Book Encyclopedia describes writing as "a system of human communication by means of visual

symbols or signs." Peter T. Daniels offers a definition emphasizing permanence and recovery: "a
system of more or less permanent marks used to represent an utterance in such a way that it can

be recovered more or less exactly without the intervention of the utterer" (Daniels, cited in

World's Writing System). A simpler definition, as found in Microsoft Encarta Kids 2007,

describes writing as "a method of communication" that "uses marks that we see and understand,"

explaining that "the marks we use to write English are the letters of the alphabet. They stand for

sounds."

While these definitions encompass various forms of written communication, this study

specifically focuses on handwriting, which is the manual, physical act of forming these written

symbols, primarily letters and words, using a writing instrument. Handwriting is a complex

psychomotor skill requiring the coordinated effort of fine motor control and cognitive processes.

2.1 Theoretical Framework

Understanding the development and impact of handwriting proficiency requires consideration of

several theoretical perspectives. This study is primarily informed by theories related to motor

learning, cognitive load, and the interconnectedness of literacy skills.

Firstly, Motor Learning Theories provide a framework for understanding the acquisition of the

physical skill of letter formation. Models such as Fitts and Posner's three-stage model describe

the progression from conscious effort to automaticity in motor skill learning. Initially, children

consciously focus on the movements required to form letters (cognitive stage). With practice,

these movements become smoother and more consistent (associative stage), eventually becoming

largely automatic, requiring minimal conscious attention (autonomous stage). Sheffield (1996)

implicitly supports this by advocating for "direct kinaesthetic steps" to develop handwriting
skills to a point where "forming these letters require low conscious effort," aligning with the goal

of achieving automaticity. Iseng and Cermak (1993) explicitly state that "the goal of direct

treatment is for the child’s writing to become automatic and fluid so that child does not have to

think about letters formation and can produce adequate volume of work in an expected period of

time without undue fatigue." This theoretical lens highlights the importance of practice and

targeted instruction in achieving fluent handwriting.

Secondly, Cognitive Load Theory is highly relevant in explaining the link between handwriting

automaticity and the overall writing process. This theory, which posits that working memory has

a limited capacity, suggests that when handwriting is effortful or not automatic, the significant

cognitive resources dedicated to the mechanical act of forming letters detract from the resources

available for higher-level cognitive tasks involved in composition, such as planning, generating

ideas, organizing thoughts, and attending to grammar and syntax. Steve Graham (2001) provides

empirical support for this, noting that difficulty in letter formation increases the likelihood of

losing information held in working memory. Therefore, effortful handwriting imposes a

cognitive load that can impede a child's ability to translate their thoughts into written form

effectively.

Thirdly, Literacy Development Theories emphasize the reciprocal relationship between reading

and writing. Research by Tierney and Shanahan (1991) and Pearson and Tierney (1984) suggests

that engaging in writing activities can enhance reading skills, and vice versa. Pearson and

Tierney (1984) describe writing as a "constructive process," implying that the act of putting

thoughts into writing helps build understanding. While broad, this perspective suggests that

mastering the foundational physical act of handwriting is a crucial step that enables young

learners to fully engage with the cognitive and constructive aspects of writing, potentially
reinforcing their understanding of linguistic structures relevant to both reading and writing.

Jewel and Karan (1991) support the foundational nature of letter knowledge, identifying it as a

strong predictor of reading success and noting that writing letters helps children focus on the

visual features necessary for discrimination.

In conclusion, integrating motor learning, cognitive load, and literacy development theories

provides a comprehensive theoretical foundation for understanding the processes involved in

handwriting acquisition, the cognitive implications of handwriting proficiency, and its vital role

within the broader context of a child's literacy and academic development.

2.2 Conceptual Framework

Based on the theoretical perspectives and existing literature, this study operates under a

conceptual framework that illustrates the proposed relationships between key variables. The

central concept is Handwriting Proficiency, defined by aspects such as legibility (the readability

of the writing), speed (the rate at which writing is produced), and automaticity (the degree of

effortlessness in letter formation).

This framework posits that a child's level of Handwriting Proficiency directly impacts their

engagement with the Writing Process. When handwriting is effortful or slow (low proficiency), it

consumes a significant portion of the child's limited working memory capacity, imposing a high

Cognitive Load. This excessive cognitive load diverts mental resources away from higher-level

writing tasks, such as brainstorming ideas, structuring arguments, selecting appropriate

vocabulary, and applying grammatical rules.

Written Output. Children with poor handwriting may produce shorter pieces, avoid complex

sentence structures, struggle to articulate their ideas fully, and their work may be difficult for

others (including teachers) to read and evaluate accurately. As highlighted by Handley-More,

Deitz, Billingsley, and Coggins (2003), poor handwriting can significantly "detract from the

students ability to convey information and ideas."

Ultimately, the challenges faced in the writing process and the resulting impact on the quality

and quantity of written output directly influence a child's overall Academic Performance. Legible

and efficient handwriting is crucial for success in various academic tasks, including note-taking,

completing assignments, and performing well on timed tests (Rosenblum & Weiss, 2003).

Empirical evidence suggests that legible handwriting can positively influence teachers' grading

(Hammar Schmidt & Sudsawad, 2004). Deficiencies in handwriting can limit a child's ability to

fully participate in academic activities and demonstrate their knowledge across subjects

(Preminger, Weiss, & Weintraub, 2004).

The framework also recognizes that Effective Handwriting Instruction and Practice are critical

factors that can enhance Handwriting Proficiency. Targeted teaching strategies focusing on

correct formation, automaticity, and sufficient practice are expected to improve a child's

handwriting skills.

In essence, the conceptual framework suggests a pathway where effective instruction leads to

improved handwriting proficiency, which in turn reduces cognitive load during writing, enhances

the writing process, improves the quality and quantity of written output, and ultimately

contributes positively to academic performance and participation. This framework guides the
investigation into how improving handwriting can contribute to better academic outcomes for

pupils.

2.3 Empirical Evidence

Empirical research provides substantial evidence supporting the importance of handwriting in

education and identifying effective teaching practices.

Importance and Impact of Handwriting

Studies consistently demonstrate that handwriting is a fundamental skill with significant

implications for academic success. Marr and Cermak (2002) note that handwriting is a crucial

functional task beginning in kindergarten, with increasing demands for legibility throughout

elementary school. Children spend a considerable portion of their school day engaged in fine

motor tasks, with handwriting serving as the primary medium for communicating their learning

to teachers (Hammar Schmidt & Sudsawad, 2004).

The influence of handwriting legibility on academic evaluation is well-documented. Hammar

Schmidt and Sudsawad (2004) found that teachers awarded better grades to papers with superior

handwriting, even when content was held constant. This highlights how illegible handwriting can

negatively impact a student's perceived performance, regardless of their actual understanding.

Beyond teacher evaluation, handwriting efficiency affects a child's ability to complete tasks

within time constraints (Rosenblum & Weiss, 2003). Slow or effortful handwriting can impede

performance in timed tests and limit the volume of work a student can produce.
Crucially, difficulties in handwriting are not merely cosmetic; they interfere with the cognitive

processes of writing. Handley-More, Deitz, Billingsley, and Coggins (2003) assert that "one of

the most serious effect of poor handwriting occurs when the quality of handwriting detracts from

the students ability to convey information and ideas." This aligns with the cognitive load theory,

as effortful handwriting consumes mental resources needed for generating and organizing

thoughts.

Preminger, Weiss, and Weintraub (2004) further underscore the pervasive consequences of poor

handwriting, including academic and social challenges that limit a child's successful participation

in school activities. They emphasize that handwriting is a core "occupation" for students.

Research also supports the reciprocal relationship between writing and reading. Studies by

Tierney and Shanahan (1991) and Pearson and Tierney (1984) indicate that writing contributes to

improved reading and vice versa. This suggests that strengthening foundational writing skills like

handwriting can positively influence overall literacy development. Jewel and Karan (1991) found

that knowledge of letters is a strong predictor of reading success, noting that the act of writing

letters helps children focus on the visual features crucial for both reading and writing

discrimination.

General Information on the Teaching of Handwriting

Empirical insights and expert recommendations guide effective handwriting instruction.

Sheffield (1996) advocates for "direct kinaesthetic steps," arguing this method is highly effective

and helps children learn to write "more expeditiously," leading to automaticity where letter

formation requires "low conscious effort." Iseng and Cermak (1993) concur, stating that the goal
of intervention is automatic and fluid writing, enabling children to produce adequate work

volume without fatigue. They stress that practice with letter formation is essential.

Jewel and Karan (1991) highlight the importance of teaching letter knowledge and visual

discrimination. They recommend teaching visually similar letters separately before contrasting

them to reduce confusion and suggest that teaching uppercase and lowercase letters separately

can also be beneficial (Adams, cited by Jewel & Karan, 1991). Writing letters, especially with an

emphasis on formation, helps children focus on their visual features, and instructional

approaches that group letters with distinctive labels and visual clues are considered ideal for

teaching formation (Jewel & Karan, 1991).

An international perspective, as reflected in the 1948 International Conference on Public

Education, views writing as both an educational technique and a means of expression and art,

aiming to enable children to write well at a reasonable speed. This emphasizes a balance between

legibility, speed, and personal style.

Modern handwriting instruction methods prioritize the learner. The CCEUCC (2000) outlines

widely accepted principles, including:

a. Focusing on the learner and adapting teaching procedures to individual differences.

b. Providing preliminary training to ensure readiness for writing.

c. Basing initial writing experiences on words rather than isolated elements.

d. Using simplified forms (like print) before cursive in early years.

e. Recognizing that skill development is a gradual process influenced by both maturation and

practice.
These empirical findings and established instructional principles provide a strong foundation for

understanding the factors that influence handwriting development and performance, guiding the

design of effective interventions to improve pupils' handwriting skills.

Summary of Chapter Two

This chapter has provided a comprehensive review of the literature relevant to handwriting in the

context of primary education. It commenced by defining writing and handwriting, establishing

the specific skill under investigation. The theoretical framework, integrating motor learning,

cognitive load, and literacy development theories, explained the mechanisms by which

handwriting skills are acquired, the cognitive implications of handwriting fluency, and its role

within broader literacy development. The conceptual framework mapped the relationships

between handwriting proficiency, the writing process, cognitive load, and academic outcomes,

illustrating the pathway through which handwriting impacts a child's educational journey.

Finally, the empirical evidence synthesized research findings on the critical importance of legible

and efficient handwriting for academic success and outlined key principles and methods

supported by experts for effective handwriting instruction. This literature review underscores the

multifaceted significance of handwriting and provides a robust foundation for the current study,

which seeks to investigate specific factors related to improving pupils' handwriting performance

and proposes practical suggestions based on the evidence.