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Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

Daniel Abebe Beyene

Addis Ababa Science and Technology University
Department of Electro-mechanical Engineering
Preface

These lecture notes were inspired mainly by two seminal books on the topic by
Matthew N.O. Sadiku [1] and Nathan Inda [2]. The lecture note presents theo-
retical aspects and mathematical tools used in electromagnetics. The notes have
then been used during a teaching of the author at Debre Berhan University, Debre
Berhan, Ethiopia.

What is electromagnetic field? What is a field? Why do we say electromagnetic

field instead of saying electric field and magnetic field? Aren’t they distinct? Why
do we need to know it anyway? To put this question into perspective consider the
following quote,

”In the beginning GOD said!, the four dimensional divergence of an anti-symmetric,
second rank tensor is equal to zero and there was light.” (Professor Michio Kaku,
the city University of New York).

Electromagnetic field is so important that every physicist and engineers dealing

with radio, nuclear energy, telecommunication, radar, computers, electronics, PET
scan, X-rays, MRI scan, electric motors, electric generators, transformers, relays,
etc should understand how electromagnetic fields behave in free space and material
space. For a long time it is believed that electric field and magnetic field are in-
dependent quantities, but Michael Faraday came along and shows that indeed they
are not independent. Faraday has no formal education to formulate an equation for
electromagnetism, it is Maxwell who state the glorious relation between electric and
magnetic field using mathematical equations.

The behavior of light was a big debate between famous scientists for many years,
is light a particle or a wave? Using photoelectric effect it is shown that light is a
particle, while double slit experiment definitely shows us that light is a wave. The
speed of light is 3 × 108 m/s, which happens to be the speed at which electromag-
netic wave propagate in free space. Does this imply that light is an electromagnetic
wave? Even if the main concern of this question is for Physicists, electrical engineers
should know the answer for the question, as we electrical engineers deals with,

• Electrical machines and electronic devices.

• Electrical power generation, transmission and distribution systems.

• Electro-mechanical energy conversion systems.

• Telecommunication systems.

i
 • Data transmission and remote controlled systems.

• Bio-medical devices like X-rays, MRI scan, PET scan, and so forth.

which require the knowledge of electromagnetic wave. Thus it is mandatory for

any electrical engineer to understand the basic principle of electromagnetism, this
lecture note cover mathematical tools used in analyzing electromagnetic field.

Any field is characterized by a vector or a scalar in a region of space, to iden-

tify the vector or the value of the scalar in the region uniquely, it is mandatory to
select a reference point or reference frame in the region of space. Thus in chap-
ter one a review on vector field and the concept of vector calculus are discussed
to lay the foundation for the course, including coordinates systems. The second
chapter discuss the effect of stationary charge distributions. In this chapter the two
fundamental laws for static electric field are explained and Maxwell’s equation for
electrostatic field are derived. The third chapter extends the effect of electrostatic
field from free space (chapter two) to material space. The fourth chapter is sim-
ilarly the extension of chapter three, this chapter explains the ways to determine
electrostatic field inside a material, given that one or more electrostatic parameters
are given at a boundary between two or more materials. This chapter concludes the
effect of stationary charges.

Chapter five discuss the effect of charge distributions moving with constant velocity
or direct current. Charges moving with constant velocity cause static magnetic field
in their surrounding. The fundamental laws for static magnetic field are explained
and Maxwell’s equation for static-magnetic field are derived. Chapter six discuss the
force and torque caused by magnetostatic fields, classification of magnetic materials
and magnetostatic boundary conditions. The last chapter introduces the concept of
time varying electromagnetic field and the relation between electric field and mag-
netic field.

These lectures were thoughts for students without a strong background on Elec-
tromagnetic field, so in the presentation of the topics I deliberately avoid, when
possible, to introduce the basic concepts in electromagnetic field. This is a great
lack, but I hope that the people who will use these notes will be not too critical to me.

Moreover, these are only introductory lectures and some examples on the topic.
Many important aspects and applications, for lack of time and because there are
many other books (see e.g. [3], [1]). This choice has been done with the aim of
making the discussion more interesting from both the numerical and geometrical
point of view. I do hope that after this brief introduction, interested students will
be encouraged explore more on this fascinating mathematical tool for describing and
understanding all phenomenon in electromagnetism.

Daniel Abebe, February 13, 2025

ii
Symbols and Constants

Symbol Description Value

ϵ Permittivity of a material -
ϵo Permittivity of free space 8.854 × 10−12 N m2 /C 2
ϵr Relative permittivity of a material -
µ Permeability of a material -
µo Permeability of free space 4π × 10−7 H/m
µr Relative permeability of a material -
qe Charge of an electron 1.6 × 10−19 C
me Mass of an electron 9.11 × 10−31 kg
c Speed of light 3 × 108 m/s

iii
Contents

Preface i

Symbols and Constants iii

1 Review on Vector Field 1

1.1 Review On Vector and Scalar Quantity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 What is a Field? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Coordinates Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Coordinates Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4.1 Rectangular to cylindrical coordinates system transformation
and vice-verse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4.2 Spherical to rectangular coordinates system transformation
and vice-verse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5 Differential Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5.1 Differential elements in cartesian coordinates system . . . . . 11
1.5.2 Differential elements in cylindrical coordinates system . . . . . 12
1.5.3 Differential elements in spherical coordinates system . . . . . . 14
1.6 Line, Surface and Volume Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.6.1 Line integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.6.2 Surface integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.6.3 Volume integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.7 Gradient and Del-Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.7.1 Gradient of a scalar field in cartesian coordinates system . . . 16
1.7.2 Gradient of a scalar field in cylindrical coordinates system . . 17
1.7.3 Gradient of a scalar field in spherical coordinates system . . . 17
1.7.4 Properties of gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.8 Flux and Divergence Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.8.1 Divergence of a vector field in cartesian coordinates system . . 19
1.8.2 Divergence of a vector field in cylindrical coordinates system . 21
1.8.3 Divergence of a vector field in spherical coordinates system . . 22
1.8.4 Properties of divergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.9 Curl of a Vector Field and Stokes’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.9.1 Curl of a vector field in cartesian coordinates system . . . . . 24
1.9.2 Curl of a vector field in cylindrical coordinates system . . . . . 26
1.9.3 Curl of a vector field in spherical coordinates system . . . . . 28
1.9.4 Properties of curl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.9.5 Classification of vector fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.10 Second Order Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

iv
 1.11 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.12 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

2 Electrostatic Field 39
2.1 Electrostatic Force and Coulomb’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.2 Electric Field Intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.2.1 Electric field intensity due to continuous charge distributions . 42
2.3 Electric Flux Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.4 Gauss Law and Maxwell’s Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.5 Application of Gauss Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.6 Electric Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.7 Electric Dipole and Electric Flux Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.8 Energy Density in Electrostatic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.9 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.10 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

3 Electric Field in Material Space 68

3.1 Electrical Property of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.2 Convection, Conduction and Displacement Current . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.2.1 Convection Current Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.2.2 Conduction Current Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.3 Polarization in Dielectrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.4 Classification of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.5 The Conservation of Electric Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.6 Electrostatic Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.6.1 Dielectric-Dielectric boundary condition . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.6.2 Conductor-Dielectric/Free space boundary condition . . . . . 78
3.7 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

4 Electrostatic Boundary-Value Problems 87

4.1 Laplace and Poisson’s Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.2 The Uniqueness Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.2.1 Proof of uniqueness theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.3 General Procedures to Solve Laplace or Poisson Equation . . . . . . . 88
4.4 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

5 Magnetostatic Field 98
5.1 Biot-Savarts Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.1.1 Magnetic field intensity due to current carrying segment . . . 100
5.1.2 Magnetic field intensity due to current carrying loop . . . . . 101
5.1.3 Magnetic field intensity inside current carrying solenoid . . . . 102
5.2 Ampere’s Circuit Law and Maxwell’s Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.3 Application of Amperes Circuit Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.4 Magnetic Flux Density and Maxwell’s Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.5 Magnetic Scalar and Vector Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.6 Vector Poisson’s Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.7 Maxwell’s Equation for Static EM Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

v
 5.8 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.9 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

6 Magnetic Forces and Materials 124

6.1 Magnetic Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
6.2 Magnetic Torque and Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
6.3 Magnetic Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
6.4 Magnetization in Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
6.5 Classification of Magnetic Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.6 Magnetic Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
6.7 Magnetic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.8 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
6.9 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

7 Introduction to Time Varying EM Field and Maxwell Equations 143

7.1 Time Varying Electric field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
7.2 Time Varying Magnetic field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
7.3 Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
7.4 Maxwell equations for Time varying EM field . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
7.5 Gauge Condition and Coulomb’s Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
7.6 Wave Equations for Electromagnetic field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
7.6.1 Wave equation for EM field vector potential . . . . . . . . . . 148
7.6.2 Wave equation for EM field scalar potential . . . . . . . . . . 149
7.7 Energy Carried by Electromagnetic Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
7.8 Gauge Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
7.9 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
7.10 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
7.11 Why you should know about EMF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

Appendices i

Previous Exams ii
A Quiz-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii
B Quiz-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
C Quiz-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
D Mid-Exam-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv
E Mid-Exam-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
F Final Exam-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
G Final Exam-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
H Final Exam-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii
I Final Exam-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

vi
Chapter 1

Review on Vector Field

1.1 Review On Vector and Scalar Quantity

A vector is a quantity with a magnitude and direction while scalar is a quantity
defined only by a magnitude.

Magnitude of a Vector: is a length of the vector. For a vector A in cartesian

coordinates system having Ax , Ay , Az components along x, y, z axes respectively, the
magnitude of this vector is defined as:
q
|A| = A2x + A2y + A2z (1.1.1)
Unit Vector: A unit vector is a vector having unit magnitude. For any vector A
a unit vector of A is defined as the vector divided by its magnitude.
A
UA = (1.1.2)
|A|
Addition and Subtraction of Vectors: Consider two Vectors in cartesian co-
ordinates system A = Ax ax + Ay ay + Az az and B = Bx ax + By ay + Bz az , the
addition/subtraction of vector B to/from vector A is given as:
A ± B = (Ax ± Bx )ax + (Ay ± By )ay + (Az ± Bz )az (1.1.3)
Scalar or Dot product of Vectors: is defined as the product of the magnitudes
of the two vectors and the cosine of the angle between them. Mathematically:
A · B = |A||B| cos α (1.1.4)
A · B = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz (1.1.5)
Where α is the angle between vector A and vector B. The dot product of any two
vector result in a scalar quantity.

Vector or Cross product of Vectors: is defined as the product of the mag-

nitudes of the two vectors and the sine of the angle between them. Mathematically:
A × B = |A||B| sin α (1.1.6)
ax ay az
A × B = Ax Ay Az U(A×B) (1.1.7)
Bx By Bz

1
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

Where α is the angle between vector A and vector B. The cross product of any
two vector result in a vector quantity. The direction of A × B is normal to the area
enclosed by the two vectors.

Vector projection: The component of one vector in the direction of another vec-
tor. For two vectors A and B, the projection of vector A over vector B is given
as:
 
A A·B
P rojB = (|A| cos α)UB = UB (1.1.8)
|B|
Scalar triple product: Given three vectors A, B and C the scalar triple product
of these vectors is defined as:
A · (B × C) = B · (C × A) = C · (A × B) (1.1.9)
Vector triple product: Given three vectors A, B and C the vector triple product
of these vectors is defined as:
A × (B × C) = B(A · C) − C(A · B) (1.1.10)

1.2 What is a Field?

A field is a region of space where every point is associated with a scalar or a vector
quantity. If the points in a region of space is associated with scalar quantity the
field is called a scalar field, and if the points are associated with a vector quantity
the field is called a vector field. Examples are,
• Temperature Field
• Gravitational Field
• Electric Field
• Magnetic Field
In this course the only field considered is electromagnetic field. Electricity and mag-
netism are coupled concepts, the existence of one of them ensures the existence of
the other. Electromagnetism is the study of moving charges and charges at rest.
Charges cause dynamic electric field or static electric field depending on the state of
the charge (whether the charge is moving or at rest). If the charge is at rest then it
create a static electric field in its surrounding. Charges moving with variable speed
cause a time varying magnetic field, while charges moving with constant speed cause
static magnetic field in their surrounding.

Electromagnetic field is applicable in different areas of

• Power System
• Communication Engineering
• Nuclear Research
• Fiber Optics
• Electromechanical Energy Conversion

Chapter 1 2
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

1.3 Coordinates Systems

Since a field can be a scalar or vector associated with a region of space, there must
be a universal or acceptable reference frame or reference point to describe a vector
or a point correctly. The reference frame or coordinates system uniquely identify a
location of any position in space with respect to a reference origin.

Any point is defined uniquely by an intersection of three mutually perpendicular

surfaces in space. The normal to the three surfaces at the point are called the axes
of the coordinates system. Coordinates system doesn’t affect the problem in hand,
but the choice of appropriate coordinates system will simplify the complexity of the
problem. There are linear or nonlinear coordinates systems based on the problem
in hand. But in this course we consider three commonly used linear coordinates
systems, namely rectangular coordinates system, cylindrical coordinates system and
spherical coordinates system.

1. Rectangular (Cartesian) Coordinates System: - This coordinates system

is the most commonly used coordinates systems. It has three mutually per-
pendicular planes, constant x-plane (y-z plane), constant y-plane (x-z plane)
and constant z-plane (x-y plane). The three axes are denoted by x, y, z and
the unit vectors along this axes are denoted by ax , ay , az respectively. The
range of this axes is:

−∞ < x < ∞
−∞ < y < ∞
−∞ < z < ∞

z-axis

x axis

y axis

Figure 1.1: Cartesian coordinates system

Chapter 1 3
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

2. Cylindrical Coordinates System: This coordinates system is also defined

by the intersection of three mutually perpendicular planes namely constant ρ
plane, constant ϕ plane and constant z plane. If the problem in hand has a
symmetry about a line, cylindrical coordinates system is preferable. The three
axes are denoted by ρ, ϕ, z and the unit vectors along this axes are denoted by
aρ , aϕ , az respectively having ranges,

0<ρ <∞
0 < ϕ < 2π
−∞ < z < ∞

z-axis

 axis

 axis

Figure 1.2: Cylindrical coordinates system

3. Spherical Coordinates System: Similarly this coordinates system is also

defined by the intersection of three mutually perpendicular planes namely
constant r plane, constant θ plane and constant ϕ plane. If the problem in
hand has a symmetry about a point, spherical coordinates system is preferable.
The three axes are denoted by r, θ, ϕ and the unit vectors along this axes are
denoted by ar , aθ , aϕ respectively. The range of the axes is:

0<r< ∞
0<θ <π
0 < ϕ < 2π

Chapter 1 4
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

r axis

 axis

 axis

Figure 1.3: Spherical Coordinates System

1.4 Coordinates Transformation

Sometimes it is necessary to tackle a problem by changing the coordinates system
which simplify the complexity of the problem. The vector or point in one coordinates
system must be represented in the new coordinates system. The components of the
vector or the coordinates of the point are not exactly the same in both coordinates
system. This doesn’t mean that the vector is different, the vector is the same vector
but its components change as we transform the vector from one coordinates system
to the other.

1.4.1 Rectangular to cylindrical coordinates system transformation and

vice-verse
Point transformation
Given a point at P (ρ, ϕ, z) in cylindrical coordinates system, we can determine the
location of this point in cartesian coordinates system.

az

P

ay
ax 

Figure 1.4: Point transformation from rectangular to cylindrical coordinates system

and vice-verse

Thus from Figure 1.4, decomposing the distance of ρ into its components in cartesian
coordinates system,

x = ρ cos ϕ
y = ρ sin ϕ
z=z

Chapter 1 5
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

The converse of this transformation is:

p
ρ = x2 + y 2
−1 y
 
ϕ = tan
x
z=z

Vector transformation
The angular position of aρ axis is always measured in counterclockwise direction
from ax axis and aϕ is tangent to constant ρ curve at any point. Consider a unit
vector aρ at ϕ angle in cartesian coordinates system, since aϕ is the tangent vector
to the curve at a point is is always normal to the radius of the curve (i.e normal to
aρ ). We can translate aϕ to origin without affecting the vector since translation is a
linear transformation as shown in Figure 1.5.

az

' a

ax 
a ay

Figure 1.5: Vector transformation from rectangular to cylindrical coordinates system

and vice-verse

The components of aρ in-terms of its components in cartesian coordinates system

can be written as:

aρ = aρ cos ϕ ax + aρ sin ϕ ay

While aϕ can be written as:

′ ′
aϕ = aϕ cos ϕ (−ax ) + aϕ sin ϕ ay
= −aϕ cos(180 − 90 − ϕ) ax + aϕ sin(180 − 90 − ϕ) ay
= −aϕ cos(90 − ϕ) ax + aϕ sin(90 − ϕ) ay
= −aϕ sin ϕ ax + aϕ cos ϕ ay

and

az = az

Chapter 1 6
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

Generally the coordinates axes of cylindrical coordinates system can be represented

by cartesian coordinates system axes as:
    
aρ cos ϕ sin ϕ 0 ax
    
aϕ  = − sin ϕ cos ϕ 0 ay  (1.4.1)
    
    
az 0 0 1 az

The reverse transformation is:

   −1  
a cos ϕ sin ϕ 0 a
 x    ρ
ay  = − sin ϕ cos ϕ
     
0 aϕ 
     
az 0 0 1 az
  
cos ϕ − sin ϕ 0 a
   ρ
=  sin ϕ cos ϕ (1.4.2)
  
0 aϕ 
  
0 0 1 az

Thus for any vector A = Ax ax + Ay ay + Az az in cartesian coordinates system, its

representation in cylindrical coordinates system is:
    
A cos ϕ sin ϕ 0 Ax
 ρ   
Aϕ  = − sin ϕ cos ϕ 0 Ay  (1.4.3)
    
    
Az 0 0 1 Az

and for any vector A = Aρ aρ + Aϕ aϕ + Az az in cylindrical coordinates system, its

representation in cartesian coordinates system is:
    
A cos ϕ − sin ϕ 0 A
 x    ρ
Ay  =  sin ϕ cos ϕ 0 Aϕ  (1.4.4)
    
    
Az 0 0 1 Az

Chapter 1 7
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

1.4.2 Spherical to rectangular coordinates system transformation and

vice-verse
Point transformation
Given a point at P (r, θ, ϕ) in spherical coordinates system, we can determine the
location of this point in cartesian coordinates system.

az


P
r

ax  ay

Figure 1.6: Point transformation from rectangular to spherical coordinates system

and vice verse

Thus from Figure 1.6, decomposing the distance of r into its components in cartesian
coordinates system,

x = r sin θ cos ϕ
y = r sin θ sin ϕ
z = r cos θ

The converse of this transformation is:

p
r = x2 + y 2 + z 2
p !
x 2 + y2
θ = tan−1
z
y
ϕ = tan−1
x

Chapter 1 8
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

Vector transformation
The angular position of ar axis is always measured in clockwise direction from az
axis. aθ is tangent to constant r curve at any point and aϕ is tangent to the projection
of a circle made by ar in x − y plane. Consider a unit vector ar at angle θ angle from
z axis and its projection make angle ϕ with x axes in cartesian coordinates system,
since aθ is the tangent vector to the curve at a point is always normal to ar and aϕ
is normal to the radius of the curve made by projection of ar on x − y plane. We
can translate aϕ and aθ to origin without affecting the vector since translation is a
linear transformation as shown in Figure 1.7.

az
ar

' a


ax ay


'
a

Figure 1.7: Vector transformation from rectangular to spherical coordinates system

and vice verse

The components of ar in-terms of its components in cartesian coordinates system

can be written as:
ar = ar sin θ cos ϕ ax + ar sin θ sin ϕ ay + ar cos θaz
and aθ is written as:
′ ′ ′
aθ = aθ sin θ cos ϕ ax + aθ sin θ sin ϕ ay + aθ cos θ (−az )
= aθ sin(180 − 90 − θ) cos ϕ ax + aθ sin(180 − 90 − θ) sin ϕ ay
+ aθ cos(180 − 90 − θ)(−az )
= aθ sin(90 − θ) cos ϕ ax + aθ sin(90 − θ) sin ϕ ay − aθ cos(90 − θ)az
= aθ cos θ cos ϕ ax + aθ cos θ sin ϕ ay − aθ sin θaz

since aϕ has same direction as in cylindrical coordinates system

aϕ = −aϕ sin ϕ ax + aϕ cos ϕ ay

Chapter 1 9
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

Generally the coordinates axes of spherical coordinates system can be represented

by cartesian coordinates system axes as:
    
ar sin θ cos ϕ sin θ sin ϕ cos θ a
     x
 aθ  = cos θ cos ϕ cos θ sin ϕ − sin θ ay  (1.4.5)
    
    
aϕ − sin ϕ cos ϕ 0 az

The reverse transformation is:

   −1  
a sin θ cos ϕ sin θ sin ϕ cos θ a
 x    r
ay  = cos θ cos ϕ − sin θ  aθ 
     
cos θ sin ϕ
     
az − sin ϕ cos ϕ 0 aϕ
  
sin θ cos ϕ cos θ cos ϕ − sin ϕ a
   ρ
=  sin θ sin ϕ (1.4.6)
  
cos θ sin ϕ cos ϕ  aϕ 
  
cos θ − sin θ 0 az

Thus for any vector A = Ax ax + Ay ay + Az az in cartesian coordinates system, its

representation in spherical coordinates system is:
    
A sin θ cos ϕ sin θ sin ϕ cos θ A
 r    x
 Aθ  = cos θ cos ϕ cos θ sin ϕ − sin θ Ay  (1.4.7)
    
    
Aϕ − sin ϕ cos ϕ 0 Az

and for any vector A = Ar ar + Aθ aθ + Aϕ aϕ in spherical coordinates system, its

representation in cartesian coordinates system is:
    
A sin θ cos ϕ cos θ cos ϕ − sin ϕ A
 x    r
Ay  =  sin θ sin ϕ cos θ sin ϕ cos ϕ   Aθ  (1.4.8)
    
    
Az cos θ − sin θ 0 Aϕ

Chapter 1 10
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

1.5 Differential Elements

Differential elements are small change in a function or a functional. This include
differential length, surface and volume.

1.5.1 Differential elements in cartesian coordinates system

Consider a point P (x, y, z) in rectangular coordinates system, let us increase the
coordinates by differential amount (dx, dy, dz). This differential increment result in
a new point P ′ (x + dx, y + dy, z + dz). The vector pointing from P to P ′ is called
elementary vector length or differential length and it is given as:

dl =(x + dx, y + dy, z + dz) − (x, y, z)

dl =dx ax + dy ay + dz az (1.5.1)

The surface formed by either of the two differential length components is called
differential surface. As there are three planes in cartesian coordinates system we
have three differential surfaces as shown in Figure 1.8. The surfaces are named by
the normal vector to them.

dsax = dydz ax
dsay = dxdz ay
dsaz = dxdy az (1.5.2)

az

dz
dsa dsax
y

dx dy

ax dsa ay
z

Figure 1.8: Differential surfaces in rectangular coordinates system

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Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

The differential volume formed by the three differential distance components is:

dν = dxdydz (1.5.3)

az

dz
ax

dx dy

ay

Figure 1.9: Differential volume in cartesian coordinates system

1.5.2 Differential elements in cylindrical coordinates system

Consider a point P (ρ, ϕ, z) in cylindrical coordinates system, let us increase the
coordinates by differential amount (dρ, ρdϕ, dz). This differential increment result
in a new point P ′ (ρ + dρ, ϕ + ρdϕ, z + dz). Note that the incremental in ϕ result
in an arc having length ρdϕ. The elementary vector length or differential length
pointing from P to P ′ is given as:

dl =(ρ + dρ, ϕ + ρdϕ, z + dz) − (ρ, ϕ, z)

dl =dρ aρ + ρdϕ aϕ + dz az (1.5.4)

The differential surfaces in cylindrical coordinates system are shown in Figure 1.10.

dsaρ = ρdϕdz aρ
dsaϕ = dρdz aϕ
dsaz = ρdρdϕ az (1.5.5)

The differential volume formed by the three differential distance components is:

dν = ρdρdϕdz (1.5.6)

Chapter 1 12
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

d

d

dz
dz
d
d

Figure 1.10: Differential Surfaces in cylindrical coordinates system

d

dz
d

Figure 1.11: Differential volume in cylindrical coordinates system

Chapter 1 13
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

1.5.3 Differential elements in spherical coordinates system

Consider a point P (r, θ, ϕ) in spherical coordinates system, let us increase the coor-
dinates by differential amount (dr, rdθ, r sin θdϕ). This differential increment result
in a new point P ′ (r + dr, θ + rdθ, ϕ + r sin θdϕ). Note that the incremental in ϕ result
in an arc having length r sin θdϕ and the incremental in θ result in an arc having
length rdθ. The elementary vector length or differential length pointing from P to
P ′ is given as:

dl =(r + dr, θ + rdθ, ϕ + r sin θdϕ) − (r, θ, ϕ)

dl =dr ar + rdθ aθ + r sin θdϕ aϕ (1.5.7)

The surface formed by either of the two differential length components in spherical
coordinates system are shown in Figure 1.12.

dsar = r2 sin θdθdϕ ar

dsaθ = rsinθdrdϕaθ
dsaϕ = rdrdθ aϕ (1.5.8)

dr
rd

r sin  d dr

rd

r sin  d

Figure 1.12: Differential surfaces in spherical coordinates system

Chapter 1 14
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

The differential volume formed by the three differential distance components is:

dν = r2 sin θdrdθdϕ (1.5.9)

dr

rd 

 d
r s in

Figure 1.13: Differential volume in spherical coordinates system

1.6 Line, Surface and Volume Integrals

The concept of integral can be extended to integral of a function (either scalar valued
function or vector valued function) over a surface, line or volume.

1.6.1 Line integral

A line integral of a vector field A along a curve l is the integral of the tangential
component of the vector along the curve l. Mathematically:
Z Z
A · dl = |A| cos αdl (1.6.1)
l l

Where α is the angle the vector makes with the path. If the path is closed loop
then:
I I
A · dl = |A| cos αdl (1.6.2)
l l

is called the circulation of vector A around l.

Chapter 1 15
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

1.6.2 Surface integral

Consider a vector field A in a region containing smooth surface S, the surface integral
of flux of vector A through S is given as:
Z Z
ψ = A · an ds = |A| cos αds (1.6.3)
s s

Where α is the angle the vector makes with the unit vector normal to the surface.
If the surface is closed surface, then
I
ψ = A · an ds (1.6.4)
s

is a net outward flow of flux of A from S.

Note:- A closed path result in an open surface while close surface result in a volume.

1.6.3 Volume integral

Volume integral of a scalar quantity is the total amount of a scalar quantity in a
volume.
Z
ρv dν (1.6.5)
ν

The physical meaning of line integral, surface or volume integral depend on the
nature of the physical quantity represented by vector field A or scalar quantity ρv .

1.7 Gradient and Del-Operator

1.7.1 Gradient of a scalar field in cartesian coordinates system
From basic mathematics, the total differential of a scalar function f (x, y, z) in rect-
angular coordinate system is given as:
∂f ∂f ∂f
df = dx + dy + dz (1.7.1)
∂x ∂y ∂z
this can be written as:
 
∂f ∂f ∂f
df = ax + ay + az · (dxax + dyay + dzaz ) (1.7.2)
∂x ∂y ∂z

the first term in equation 1.7.2 is called the gradient of the function f . Denoted as
gradf = ∇f . The symbol ∇ is called Del-operator. Thus the gradient of a function
f in cartesian coordinates system is:
∂f ∂f ∂f
∇f = ax + ay + az (1.7.3)
∂x ∂y ∂z
and Del-operator in cartesian coordinates system is:
∂ ∂ ∂
∇= ax + ay + az (1.7.4)
∂x ∂y ∂z

Chapter 1 16
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

1.7.2 Gradient of a scalar field in cylindrical coordinates system

In cylindrical coordinates system, the total differential of a scalar function f (ρ, ϕ, z)
is:
∂f ∂f ∂f
df = dρ + dϕ + dz (1.7.5)
∂ρ ∂ϕ ∂z
this can be written as:
 
∂f 1 ∂f ∂f
df = aρ + aϕ + az · (dρaρ + ρdϕaϕ + dzaz ) (1.7.6)
∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z

Thus the gradient of a function f in cylindrical coordinates system is:

∂f 1 ∂f ∂f
aρ + aϕ + az (1.7.7)
∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z
and Del-operator in cylindrical coordinates system is:
∂ 1 ∂ ∂
∇= aρ + aϕ + az (1.7.8)
∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z

1.7.3 Gradient of a scalar field in spherical coordinates system

In spherical coordinates system, the total differential of a scalar function f (r, θ, ϕ)
is:
∂f ∂f ∂f
df = dr + dθ + dϕ (1.7.9)
∂r ∂θ ∂ϕ
this can be written as:
 
∂f 1 ∂f 1 ∂f
df = ar + aθ + aϕ · (drar + rdθaθ + r sin θdϕaϕ ) (1.7.10)
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ

Thus the gradient of a function f in cylindrical coordinates system is:

∂f 1 ∂f 1 ∂f
ar + aθ + aϕ (1.7.11)
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ
and Del-operator in cylindrical coordinates system is:
∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂
∇= ar + aθ + aϕ (1.7.12)
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ

Chapter 1 17
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

1.7.4 Properties of gradient

• Gradient of a scalar function at any point is always perpendicular to the surface
passing through the point.

• Gradient of a scalar function points in the direction of the maximum rate of

change of the function.

• The magnitude of the gradient of a function is the maximum rate of change

of the function.

• If A = ∇V , A is called vector potential of V while V is called scalar potential

of vector field A.

• Gradient of a vector field is senseless.

• For any two scalar functions f and g

– ∇(f + g) = ∇f + ∇g
– ∇(f g) = f ∇g + g∇f
 
g f ∇g − g∇f
– ∇ =
f f2
– ∇f n = nf n−1 ∇f

1.8 Flux and Divergence Theorem

A flux of a vector field is a net outflow of the field through a surface S denoted as:
I
ψ = A · ds

If the flux has the same direction with a unit vector normal to the surface, then it
has positive contributions, else it has negative contribution. If the flux leaving the
volume is greater than the flux entering the volume then there is a source in the
volume (perhaps positive charge). If the flux leaving the volume is smaller than the
flux entering the volume there is a sink in the volume (perhaps negative charge).

The flux lines normal to the surface are the only flux lines contributing to the
flux of a vector field A through the surface S, the tangential components has no
effect.

The divergence of a vector field A at a point P is defined as the outward flux

per unit volume as the volume shrinks about point P . Mathematically:
H
A · ds
divA = lim (1.8.1)
∆ν→0 ∆ν

Chapter 1 18
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

1.8.1 Divergence of a vector field in cartesian coordinates system

Consider a unit cube placed in cartesian coordinates system with one edge at origin.
The net flux out flowing from the volume is equal to the sum of flux through all
six surfaces (front face, side face, top face and their opposite sides). Using equation
1.8.1,
I Z Z Z Z
A · ds = A · ds + A · ds + A · ds + A · ds
′ ′
s1 s1 s2 s2
Z Z
+ A · ds + A · ds
′
s3 s3

az
dS 3

dz
dS1 dS 2
dy dx ay
ax

Figure 1.14: Unit length cube

′
ds1 = dydzax ds1 = −dydzax
′
ds2 = dxdzay ds2 = −dxdzay
′
ds3 = dxdyaz ds3 = −dxdyaz

Even if the length of each side is small, the variation of the vector field over this range
should be considered while evaluating the divergence of the vector field. Hence:
I Z Z Z
A · ds = Ax (x + dx)dydz − Ax (x)dydz + Ay (y + dy)dxdz
′
s1 s1 s2
Z Z Z
− Ay (y)dxdz + Az (z + dz)dxdy − Az (z)dxdy
′ ′
s2 s3 s3
Z Z
= (Ax (x + dx) − Ax (x)) dydz + (Ay (y + dy) − Ay (y)) dxdz
Z
+ (Az (z + dz) − Az (z)) dxdy

Chapter 1 19
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note
Z  
Ax (x + dx) − Ax (x)
I
A · ds = dxdydz
dx
Z  
Ay (y + dy) − Ay (y)
+ dxdydz
dy
Z  
Az (z + dz) − Az (z)
+ dxdydz (1.8.2)
dz

From the definition of differential of a function,

∂f f (t + dt) − f (t)
= lim
∂t dt→0 dt
replacing dxdydz = dν and using the concept integral of function over a small region1
equation 1.8.2 can be written as:
I Z  
∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Az
A · ds = + + dν
∂x ∂y ∂z
I  
∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Az
A · ds ≈ + + ∆ν (1.8.3)
∂x ∂y ∂z

So,the divergence of a vector field A can be written as:

 
I
A · ds
∂Ax
∂x
+ ∂A
∂y
y
+ ∂Az
∂z
∆ν
divA = lim = lim (1.8.4)
∆ν→0 ∆ν ∆ν→0 ∆ν
Hence the divergence of a vector field A is:
∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Az
divA = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
∂ ∂ ∂
= (Ax ax + Ay ay + Az az ) · ax + ay + az
∂x ∂y ∂z
=∇·A (1.8.5)

From equation 1.8.3 and equation 1.8.5,

I Z
A · ds = ∇ · A dν (1.8.6)

Equation 1.8.6 is called divergence theorem.

Divergence Theorem:- State that the closed loop integral of a vector field A
is equal to the volume integral of the divergence of A.

1
The integral of a function over a small incremental region can be approximated
Z by the product
of the value of the function at the point and the magnitude of the incremental ( f dt ≈ f (t)∆t).

Chapter 1 20
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

1.8.2 Divergence of a vector field in cylindrical coordinates system

Consider a differential volume in cylindrical coordinates system as shown in Figure
1.15.

d dS3

dz dS1

(   d  ) d

dS 2

Figure 1.15: Differential volume in cylindrical coordinates system

The net flux out flowing from the volume is equal to the sum of flux through all six
surfaces. Using equation 1.8.1,
I Z Z Z Z
A · ds = A · ds + A · ds + A · ds + A · ds
′ ′
s1 s1 s2 s2
Z Z
+ A · ds + A · ds
′
s3 s3

Assuming the top and bottom surface are almost a square, the six surfaces are,
′
ds1 = (ρ + dρ)dϕdzaρ ds1 = −ρdϕdzaρ
′
ds2 = dρdzaϕ ds2 = −dρdzaϕ
′
ds3 = ρdϕdρaz ds3 = −ρdϕdρaz
Even if the length of each side is small, the variation of the vector field over this range
should be considered while evaluating the divergence of the vector field. Implying,
I Z Z Z
A · ds = (ρ + dρ)Aρ (ρ + dρ)dϕdz − ρAρ (ρ)dϕdz + Aϕ (ϕ + dϕ)dρdz
′
s1 s1 s2
Z Z Z
− Aϕ (ϕ)dρdz + ρAz (z + dz)dρdϕ − Az (z)dρdϕ
′ ′
s2 s3 s3

(1.8.7)
I Z
A · ds = ((ρ + dρ)Aρ (ρ + dρ) − ρAρ (ρ)) dϕdz
Z
+ (ρAϕ (ϕ + dϕ) − ρAϕ (ϕ)) dρdz
Z
+ ρ (Az (z + dz) − Az (z)) dρdϕ

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Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note
Z  
(ρ + dρ)Aρ (ρ + dρ) − ρAρ (ρ)
I
A · ds = ρdρdϕdz
ρdρ
Z  
Aϕ (ϕ + dϕ) − Aϕ (ϕ)
+ ρdρdϕdz
ρdϕ
Z  
Az (z + dz) − Az (z)
+ ρdρdϕdz (1.8.8)
dz
From the definition of differential of a function,
∂f f (t + dt) − f (t) ∂(tf ) (t + dt)f (t + dt) − tf (t)
= lim , = lim
∂t dt→0 dt ∂t dt→0 dt
replacing ρdρdϕdz = dν and using the same approximation for integral over small
region, equation 1.8.8 can be written as:
I Z   Z
1 ∂(ρAρ ) 1 ∂Aϕ ∂Az
A · ds = + + dν = ∇ · Adν (1.8.9)
ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z
Hence the divergence of a vector field A in cylindrical coordinates system is:
1 ∂(ρAρ ) 1 ∂Aϕ ∂Az
∇·A= + + (1.8.10)
ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z

1.8.3 Divergence of a vector field in spherical coordinates system

Consider a a differential volume in spherical coordinates system as shown in Figure
1.16.

dS '3 dr
r sin  d
r rd

dS1
dS '2

Figure 1.16: Differential volume in spherical coordinates system

The net flux out flowing from the volume is equal to the sum of flux through all six
surfaces. Using equation 1.8.1,
I Z Z Z Z
A · ds = A · ds + A · ds + A · ds + A · ds
′ ′
s1 s1 s2 s2
Z Z
+ A · ds + A · ds
′
s3 s3

Chapter 1 22
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

Assuming the top and bottom surface are almost a square, the six surfaces are,
′
ds1 = (r + dr) sin θdϕdθar ds1 = −r sin θdϕdθar
′
ds2 = r sin(θ + dθ)drdϕaθ ds2 = −r sin θdrdϕaθ
′
ds3 = rdrdθaϕ ds3 = −rdrdθaϕ

Even if the length of each side is small, the variation of the vector field over this range
should be considered while evaluating the divergence of the vector field. Hence:
I Z Z
2
A · ds = (r + dr) sin θAr (r + dr)dϕdθ − r2 sin θAr (r)dϕdθ
′
s s
Z1 Z 1
+ r sin(θ + dθ)Aθ (θ + dθ)drdϕ − r sin θAθ (θ)drdϕ
′
s2 s2
Z Z
+ rAϕ (ϕ + dϕ)drdθ − rAϕ (ϕ)drdθ
′
s3 s3

(r + dr)2 sin θAr (r + dr) − r2 sin θAr (r) 2

I Z  
A · ds = r sin θdrdθdϕ
r2 dr
Z  
r sin(θ + dθ)Aθ (θ + dθ) − r sin θAθ (θ) 2
+ r sin θdrdθdϕ
r sin θ
Z  
Aϕ (ϕ + dϕ) − Aϕ (ϕ) 2
+ r sin θdrdθdϕ (1.8.11)
r sin θdϕ
From the definition of differential of a function,
∂f f (t + dt) − f (t) ∂(tf ) (t + dt)f (t + dt) − tf (t)
= lim , = lim
∂t dt→0 dt ∂t dt→0 dt
replacing r2 sin θdrdθdϕ = dν and using the same approximation for integral over
small region, equation 1.8.11 can be written as:
1 ∂(r2 Ar )
I Z   Z
1 ∂(Aθ sin θ) 1 ∂Aϕ
A · ds = + + dν = ∇ · Adν
r2 ∂r r sin θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ
(1.8.12)

Hence the divergence of a vector field A in cylindrical coordinates system is:

1 ∂(r2 Ar ) 1 ∂(Aθ sin θ) 1 ∂Aϕ
∇·A= + + (1.8.13)
r2 ∂r r sin θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ

1.8.4 Properties of divergence

For a scalar function f and a vector fields A and B
• Divergence of scalar field is senseless

• It produce scalar field

• ∇ · (A + B) = ∇ · A + ∇ · B

• ∇ · (f A) = f (∇ · A) + ∇f · A

Chapter 1 23
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

1.9 Curl of a Vector Field and Stokes’s Theorem

The curl of a vector field A is an axial vector whose magnitude is the maximum
circulation of A per unit area as the area tend to zero. Its direction is the normal to
the area when there area is oriented in such a way that the circulation is maximum.
Mathematically:
H
A · dl
curlA = lim (1.9.1)
∆s→0 ∆s

1.9.1 Curl of a vector field in cartesian coordinates system

Consider a closed path around a point P in y-z plane as shown in Figure 1.17.

az

dz P
P

dx dy
P
ax ay

Figure 1.17: Maximum rotation of a vector field in cartesian coordinates system

Using equation 1.9.1 the maximum circulation of vector A about point P is:
I Z Z Z Z
A · dl = A · dl1 + A · dl2 + A · dl3 + A · dl4 (1.9.2)

Taking ⊙ as starting point, the differential elements are,

dl1 = −dzaz dl2 = dyay dl3 = dzaz dl4 = −dyay

Replacing for the differential distances and evaluating the vector field at each seg-
ment
I Z Z Z Z
A · dl = − Az (y)dz + Ay (z)dy + Az (y + dy)dz − Ay (z + dz)dy
Z Z
= (Az (y + dy) − Az (y))dz − (Ay (z + dz) − Az (y))dy
Az (y + dy) − Az (y) Ay (z + dz) − Az (y)
Z Z
= dydz − dydz
dy dz
Z  
∂Az ∂Ay
= − dydz (1.9.3)
∂y ∂z

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Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

using the same approximation for integral over small region, equation 1.9.3 can be
written as:
I  
∂Az ∂Ay
A · dl ≈ − ∆Sax (1.9.4)
∂y ∂z

Applying same method to a point in x − z plane will have Taking ⊙ as starting

point, the differential elements are,

dl1 = −dzaz dl2 = −dxax dl3 = dzaz dl4 = dxax

Replacing for the differential distances and evaluating the vector field at each seg-
ment
I Z Z Z Z
A · dl = − Az (x + dx)dz − Ax (z)dx − Az (x)dz + Ax (z + dz)dx
Z Z
= − (Az (x + dx) − Az (x))dz + (Ax (z + dz) − Ax (y))dx
Az (x + dx) − Az (x) Ax (z + dz) − Ax (z)
Z Z
=− dxdz + dxdz
dx dz
Z  
∂Az ∂Ax
= − dxdz (1.9.5)
∂x ∂z

using the same approximation for integral over small region, equation 1.9.5 can be
written as:
I  
∂Az ∂Ax
A · dl ≈ − ∆Say (1.9.6)
∂x ∂z

Similarly for a point in x − y plane taking ⊙ as starting point, the differential

elements are,

dl1 = −dyay dl2 = dxax dl3 = dyay dl4 = −dxax

Replacing for the differential distances and evaluating the vector field at each seg-
ment
I Z Z Z Z
A · dl = − Ay (x)dy + Ax (y)dx + Ay (x + dx)dy − Ax (y + dy)dx
Z Z
= − (Ax (y + dy) − Ax (y))dx + (Ay (x + dx) − Ay (x))dy
Ax (y + dy) − Ax (y) Ay (x + dx) − Ay (x)
Z Z
=− dxdy + dxdy
dy dx
Z  
∂Ay ∂Ax
= − dxdy (1.9.7)
∂x ∂y

using the same approximation for integral over small region, equation 1.9.7 can be
written as:
I  
∂Ay ∂Ax
A · dl ≈ − ∆Saz (1.9.8)
∂x ∂y

Chapter 1 25
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

Combining the results from all planes

   
∂Az ∂Ay ∂Az ∂Ax

∂Ay ∂Ax
∂y
− ∂z
∆sa x + ∂x
− ∂z
∆sa y + ∂x
− ∂y
∆saz
curlA = lim
∆s→0
   ∆s
  
∂Az ∂Ay ∂Az ∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Ax
= − ax + − ay + − az
∂y ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂y
ax ay az
∂ ∂ ∂
= =∇×A (1.9.9)
∂x ∂y ∂z
Ax Ay Az

from the equation 1.9.3, 1.9.5 and 1.9.7, the closed loop integration of a vector field
A is equal to the surface integral of the curl of the vector field over the open area
enclose by the path, which is stokes theorem. Mathematically stated as:
I Z
A · dl = (∇ × A)dsan (1.9.10)

1.9.2 Curl of a vector field in cylindrical coordinates system

Consider a closed path around a point P in one of the planes in cylindrical coordi-
nates system as shown in Figure 1.18.

d
P

d

dz P
P
dz
d
d

Figure 1.18: Maximum rotation of a vector field in cylindrical coordinates system

Using equation 1.9.1 the maximum circulation of vector A about a point P in con-
stant ϕ plane is:
I Z Z Z Z
A · dl = A · dl1 + A · dl2 + A · dl3 + A · dl4 (1.9.11)

Taking ⊙ as starting point and rotating anticlockwise, the differential elements are,

dl1 = dρaρ dl2 = −dzaz dl3 = −dρaρ dl4 = dzaz

Chapter 1 26
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

Replacing for the differential distances and evaluating the vector field at each seg-
ment
I Z Z Z Z
A · dl = Aρ (z + dz)dρ − Az (ρ + dρ)dz − Aρ (z)dρ + Az (ρ)dz
Z Z
= (Aρ (z + dz) − Aρ (z))dρ − (Az (ρ + dρ) − Az (ρ))dz
Aρ (z + dz) − Aρ (z) Az (ρ + dρ) − Az (ρ)
Z Z
= dρdz − dρdz
dρ dz
Z  
∂Aρ ∂Az
= − dρdzaϕ (1.9.12)
∂z ∂ρ
Applying same method to a point in ρ plane, taking ⊙ as starting point, the differ-
ential elements are,
dl1 = −dzaz dl2 = ρdϕaϕ dl3 = dzaz dl4 = −ρdϕaϕ
Replacing for the differential distances and evaluating the vector field at each seg-
ment
I Z Z Z Z
A · dl = − Az (ϕ)dz + Aϕ (z)ρdϕ + Az (ϕ + dϕ)dz − Aϕ (z + dz)ρdϕ
Z Z
= (Az (ϕ + dϕ) − Az (ϕ))dz − (Aϕ (z + dz) − Aϕ (z))ρdϕ
Az (ϕ + dϕ) − Az (ϕ) Aϕ (z + dz) − Aϕ (z)
Z Z
1
= ρdϕdz + ρdϕdz
ρ dϕ dz
Z  
1 ∂Az ∂Aϕ
= − ρdϕdzaρ (1.9.13)
ρ ∂ϕ ∂z
Similarly for a point in constant z plane, taking ⊙ as starting point, the differential
elements are,
dl1 = dρaρ dl2 = (ρ + dρ)dϕaϕ dl3 = −dρaρ dl4 = −ρdϕaϕ
Replacing for the differential distances and evaluating the vector field at each seg-
ment
I Z Z Z Z
A · dl = Aρ (ϕ)dρ + Aϕ (ρ + dρ)(ρ + dρ)dϕ − Aρ (ϕ + dϕ)dρ − Aϕ (ρ)ρdϕ
Z Z
1
= − (Aρ (ϕ + dϕ) − Aρ (ϕ))dρ + ((ρ + dρ)Aϕ (ρ + dρ) − ρAϕ (ρ))ρdϕ
ρ
Aρ (ϕ + dϕ) − Aρ (ϕ) (ρ + dρ)Aϕ (ρ + dρ) − ρAϕ (ρ)
Z Z
1
=− ρdρdϕ + ρdρdϕ
ρdϕ ρ dρ
Z  
1 ∂(ρAϕ ) ∂Aρ
= − ρdρdϕaz (1.9.14)
ρ ∂ρ ∂ϕ
Combining the results from all planes in cylindrical coordinates system
      
1 ∂Az ∂Aϕ ∂Aρ ∂Az 1 ∂ρAϕ ∂(ρAρ )
curlA = − aρ + − aϕ + − az
ρ ∂ϕ ∂z ∂z ∂ρ ρ ∂ρ ∂ϕ
aρ ρaϕ az
1 ∂ ∂ ∂
= =∇×A (1.9.15)
ρ ∂ρ ∂ϕ ∂z
Aρ ρAϕ Az

Chapter 1 27
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

1.9.3 Curl of a vector field in spherical coordinates system

Consider a closed path around a point P in one of the planes of spherical coordinates
system as shown in Figure 1.19.

dr
rd
P

r sin  d
P

dr

rd P

r sin  d

Figure 1.19: Maximum rotation of a vector field in spherical coordinates system

Using equation 1.9.1 the maximum circulation of vector A about a point P in

constant ϕ plane is:
I Z Z Z Z
A · dl = A · dl1 + A · dl2 + A · dl3 + A · dl4 (1.9.16)

Taking ” • ” as starting point and rotating anticlockwise, the differential elements

are,

dl1 = drar dl2 = (r + dr)dθaθ dl3 = −drar dl4 = −rdθaθ

Replacing for the differential distances and evaluating the vector field at each seg-
ment
I Z Z Z Z
A · dl = Ar (θ)dr + Aθ (r + dr)(r + dr)dθ − Ar (θ + dθ)dr − Aθ (r)rdθ
Z Z
1
= [(r + dr)Aθ (r + dr) − rAθ (r)] rdθ − (Ar (θ + dθ) − Ar (θ))dr
r
(r + dr)Aθ (r + dr) − rAθ (r) Ar (θ + dθ) − Ar (θ)
Z Z
1
= rdrdθ − rdθdr
r dr rdθ
Z  
1 ∂(rAθ ) ∂Ar
= − rdθdraϕ (1.9.17)
r ∂r ∂θ

Applying same method to a point in θ plane, taking ” • ” as starting point, the

differential elements are,

dl1 = drar dl2 = (r + dr) sin θdϕaϕ dl3 = −drar dl4 = −r sin θdϕaϕ

Chapter 1 28
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

Replacing for the differential distances and evaluating the vector field at each seg-
ment
I Z Z
A · dl = Ar (ϕ)dr + Aϕ (r + dr)(r + dr) sin θdϕ
Z Z
− Ar (ϕ + dϕ)dr − Aϕ (r)r sin θdϕ
Z Z
= − (Ar (ϕ + dϕ) − Ar (ϕ))dr + ((r + dr)Aϕ (r + dr) − rAϕ (r)) sin θdϕ
Ar (ϕ + dϕ) − Ar (ϕ)
Z
=− r sin θdrdϕ
r sin θdϕ
(r + dr)Aϕ (r + dr) − rAϕ (r)
Z
1
+ r sin θdrdϕ
r dr
Z  
1 ∂(rAϕ ) 1 ∂Ar
= − r sin θdrdϕ(−aθ ) (1.9.18)
r ∂r r sin θ ∂ϕ

Similarly for a point in constant r plane, taking ”•” as starting point, the differential
elements are,

dl1 = r sin(θ + dθ)dϕaϕ dl2 = −rdθaθ dl3 = −r sin θdϕaϕ dl4 = rdθaθ

Replacing for the differential distances and evaluating the vector field at each seg-
ment
I Z Z Z
A · dl = Aϕ (θ + dθ)r sin(θ + dθ)dϕ − Aθ (ϕ + dϕ)rdθ − Aϕ (θ)r sin θdϕ
Z
+ Aθ (ϕ)rdθ
Z Z
= (Aϕ (θ + dθ) sin(θ + dθ) − Aϕ (θ) sin θ)rdϕ − (Aθ (ϕ + dϕ) − Aθ (ϕ))rdθ
Aϕ (θ + dθ) sin(θ + dθ) − Aϕ (θ) sin θ 2
Z
= r sin θdθdϕ
r sin θdθ
Aθ (ϕ + dϕ) − Aθ (ϕ) 2
Z
+ r sin θdθdϕ
r sin θdϕ
Z  
1 ∂(Aϕ sin θ) ∂Aθ
= − r2 sin θdθdϕar (1.9.19)
r sin θ ∂θ ∂ϕ

Combining the results from all planes in spherical coordinates system

   
1 ∂(Aϕ sin θ) ∂Aθ 1 ∂Ar 1 ∂(rAϕ )
curlA = − ar + − aθ
r sin θ ∂θ ∂ϕ r sin θ ∂ϕ r ∂r
 
1 ∂(rAθ ) ∂Ar
+ − aϕ
r ∂r ∂θ
ar raθ r sin θaϕ
1 ∂ ∂ ∂
= 2 =∇×A (1.9.20)
r sin θ ∂r ∂θ ∂ϕ
Ar rAθ r sin θAϕ

Chapter 1 29
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

1.9.4 Properties of curl

For a scalar field f and a vector fields A and B,
• Curl of a vector field result in an other vector field.

• Curl of Scalar field makes no sense.

• ∇ × (A + B) = ∇ × A + ∇ × B

• ∇ × (A × B) = A(∇ · B) − B(∇ · A) + (B · ∇)A − (A · ∇)B

• ∇ × (f A) = f (∇ × A) + ∇f × A

1.9.5 Classification of vector fields

If the divergence of a vector field is zero ∇·A = 0, the vector field is called solenoidal
(divergence-less) field. If the curl of a vector field is zero ∇ × A = 0 the vector field
is called irrotational vector field.

The two null identities:- The divergence of curl of any vector field A is always
zero ∇ · (∇ × A) = 0 and the curl of gradient of any scalar field f is always zero
∇ × (∇f ) = 0.

Vonhelmholtz’s Theorem:- Any vector can uniquely described within a region

by its divergence and its curl. Assuming that the source of the field is sufficient to
specify the vector field and the field vanish at infinity. Consider a scalar field f and
vector fields A and B,

B = −∇f + ∇ × A (1.9.21)

B must be defined by its divergence and its curl

∇ · B = ∇ · (−∇V ) + ∇ · (∇ × A)
= −∇ · (∇V ) = ρν (1.9.22)

Where ρν is volume source density. Since divergence of B is non zero the vector
field is non selonoidal, i.e it has volume source (scalar source).

∇ × B = ∇ × (−∇V ) + ∇ × (∇ × A)
= ∇ × (∇ × A) = ρs (1.9.23)

Where ρs is surface source density. Since curl of B is non zero the vector field is
rotational, i.e it has surface source (vector source). Hence a vector field B can be
written as:

B = −∇ · (∇V ) + ∇ × (∇ × A) (1.9.24)

A vector field is uniquely characterized by its divergence and curl neither the curl
nor the divergence is sufficient to completely describe the vector field. Based on
their curl and divergence vector fields are classified into:
a). ∇ · A = 0 and ∇ × A = 0 is parallel field (has no source).

Chapter 1 30
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

b). ∇ · A ̸= 0 and ∇ × A = 0 diverging or converging field (has scalar source).

c). ∇ · A = 0 and ∇ × A ̸= 0 circulating field (has vector source).

d). ∇ · A ̸= 0 and ∇ × A ̸= 0 circulating and diverging or converging field (has

both scalar and vector source).

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 1.20: Classification of vector fields

1.10 Second Order Operators

The Del operator as well as the gradient, divergence, and curl are first-order opera-
tors; the result is first-order partial derivatives of the scalar or vector functions. It
is possible to combine two first-order operators operating on scalar function f and a
vector function A. By doing so, we obtain second-order expressions, some of which
are very useful. The valid combinations are,

a. ∇ · ∇f (1.10.1)
b. ∇ × ∇f (1.10.2)
c. ∇(∇ · A) (1.10.3)
d. ∇ · (∇ × A) (1.10.4)
e. ∇ × (∇ × A) (1.10.5)

Equation 1.10.2 and equation 1.10.4 are null identities. While equation 1.10.1 is
called Laplacian of a scalar field. The laplacian of a scalar field is denoted as:

∇2 f = ∇ · ∇f (1.10.6)

Equation 1.10.3 and equation 1.10.5 together form laplacian of a vector field. Lapla-
cian of a vector field is defined as ∇2 A,

∇2 A = ∇(∇ · A) − ∇ × (∇ × A) (1.10.7)

Chapter 1 31
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

1.11 Examples
1. The temperature in an auditorium is given by T = x2 + y 2 − z. A mosquito
located at (1, 1, 2) in the auditorium desires to fly in such a direction that it
will get warm as soon as possible. In what direction must it fly?

Solution
∂ ∂ ∂
∇T = T ax + T ay + T az
∂x ∂y ∂z
= 2xax + 2yay − az
∇T@P (1,1,2) = 2ax + 2ay − az

1
2. Given vector A= 3cos(ϕ) aρ + aϕ + ρϕ az is:
ρ
(a) Transform the vector to cartesian coordinates.
(b) Find the scalar components of the vector in spherical coordinates

Solution

(a) Cartesian coordinates system representation

       
A cos ϕ − sin ϕ 0 A cos ϕ − sin ϕ 0 ρ sin ϕ
 x    ρ   1 
= =
      
Ay   sin ϕ cos ϕ 0 Aϕ   sin ϕ cos ϕ 0  
  ρ 
      
Az 0 0 1 Az 0 0 1 ρϕ
 sin ϕ   
3 cos2 ϕ − 2
3x − y
 ρ 
 cosϕ  1  
= 3 cos ϕ sin ϕ +  = x2 + y 2 
 
  x(3y + 1) 
 ρ   
−1 2 2 3/2
ρϕ tan (y/x)(x + y )

Chapter 1 32
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

(b) Spherical coordinates system representation

    
A sin θ cos ϕ sin θ sin ϕ 0 A
 x    ρ
Ay  = cos θ sin ϕ cos θ cos ϕ 0 Aϕ 
    
    
Az sin ϕ cos ϕ 0 Az
  
sin θ cos ϕ sin θ sin ϕ 0  ρ sin ϕ
  1  
= cos θ sin ϕ cos θ cos ϕ 0 
  
  ρ 


sin ϕ cos ϕ 0 ρϕ
sin ϕ
 
3 sin θ cos2 ϕ + + rϕ sin θ cos ϕ
 sin ϕ  
 r 
2
3 cos ϕ −

 
 ρ   
 cosϕ  
 = 3 cos θ cos2 ϕ + cot θ sin ϕ 
= 3 cos ϕ sin ϕ + − rϕ sin θ sin ϕ

 ρ
 
  r 

 
ρϕ  
 1 
−3 sin ϕ cos ϕ + cot θ
r

3. The force F = (2x − y) ax + (x + y + z)ay + (2z − x)az N is given. Calculate

the total work required to move a body in a circle of radius 1m, centered at
the origin. The circle is in the x-y plane at z=0.

Solution
Applying Stokes’s theorem,
I Z
F · dl = ∇ × F · ds

∇ × F = −1ax + 1ay + 2az

ds = dxdyaz

hence:
Z Z 1 Z √1−y2
∇ × F · ds = √ (−1ax + 1ay + 2az ) · (dxdyaz )
0 − 1−y 2
Z 1 p
= 4 1 − y 2 dy
0

π
Let y = sin θ ⇒ dy = cos θdθ, y → 0 ⇒ θ → 0, y → 1 ⇒ θ → , using this
2
π
Z 1 Z
p
2
2 1 + cos 2θ
4 1 − y dy = dθ
0I 0 2
F · dl = 2π
l

Chapter 1 33
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

4. A vector is given as A =5ρ aϕ . Calculate the flux of the vector A through a

surface defined by 0 < ρ < 1 and −3 < z < 3, ϕ constant. Assume the vector
produces a positive flux through this surface.

Solution
I Z 3 Z 1
ψt = A · ds = 5ρaϕ · dρdzaϕ
−3 0
= 2.5(ρ2 )|10 (z)|3−3 = 15

5. Find the derivative of xy 2 + y 2 z at P (1,1,1) in the direction of the vector

A= 3ax + 4ay .

Solution
 
3 4
(∇f · A) uA = ((ax + 4ay + az ) · (3ax + 4ay )) ax + ay
5 5
= 10.8ax + 14.4ay

6. A scalar field is given as f (ρ, ϕ, z) = ρϕ + 3ϕz.

(a) Calculate the slope of the scalar field in the direction of the vector A
= 2aρ + az .

Solution
  
3z 2aρ + az
(∇f · A) uA = (ϕaρ + (1 + )aϕ + (3ϕ + ρ)az ) · (2aρ + az ) √
ρ 5
5ϕ + ρ
= √ (2aρ + az )
5
π
(b) What is the slope of the field at a point P (2, , 1) in the direction of
2
vector A?
5ϕ + ρ
(∇f · A) uA = √ (2aρ + az )
5
2.5π + 2
= √ (2aρ + az )
5
π π
7. Vector A=2 cos(θ)ar + 3r sin(θ)aθ , find the curl of A at P (4, , ).
6 4
Solution

ar raθ r sin θaϕ ar raθ r sin θaϕ

1 ∂ ∂ ∂ 1 ∂ ∂ ∂
∇×A= 2 = 2
r sin θ ∂r ∂θ ∂ϕ r sin θ ∂r ∂θ ∂ϕ
2
Ar rAθ r sin θAϕ 2 cos θ 3r sin θ 0
1
= (−2 − 6r ) aϕ
r2
−13
∇ × A@P =
8

Chapter 1 34
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

8. Calculate the divergence of the following vector fields:

(a) A=x2 ax + y 2 ay + z 2 az at (1,–1,2).
π 1
(b) A=2ρ cos(ϕ)aρ − ρ sin(ϕ)aϕ + 4zaz at (2, , ).
6 2
3 2 2 π
(c) A=0.2r ϕ sin (θ)(ar + aθ + aϕ ) at (2, , 1).
2
Solution
(a)
∂ ∂ ∂
∇·A= Ax + Ay + Az
∂x ∂y ∂z
= 2x + 2y + 2z ⇒ @P ∇ · A = 4
(b)
1 ∂ 1 ∂ ∂
∇·A= (ρAρ ) + Aϕ + Az
ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z
√
3
= 3 cos ϕ + 4 ⇒ @P ∇ · A = 3 +4
2
(c)
1 ∂ 2 1 ∂ 1 ∂
∇·A= (r A r ) + (A θ sin θ) + Aϕ
r2 ∂ρ r sin θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ
= r3 ϕ2 sin2 θ + 0.6r2 ϕ2 sin θ cos θ + 0.4r2 ϕ sin θ
8π 2 1.6π
∇ · A@P = +
36 6
9. Calculate the Laplacian for the following vector fields:
(a) A=3yax + (5 − 2x)ay + (z 2 − 2)az
(b) A=ρ cos(ϕ) + 4ρ sin(ϕ) + 3az

Solution
(a)
∇2 A = ∇(∇ · A) − ∇ × (∇ × A)
∇(∇ · A) = 2az
∇ × (∇ × A) = 0
∇2 A = −2az
(b)
∇2 A = ∇(∇ · A) − ∇ × (∇ × A)
− cos ϕ (1 + 4ρ) sin ϕ
∇(∇ · A) = a ρ + aϕ
ρ2 ρ2
(ρ + 4) cos ϕ 4 sin ϕ
∇ × (∇ × A) = 2
aρ + aϕ
ρ ρ2
−(ρ + 5) cos ϕ (−3 + 4ρ) sin ϕ
∇2 A = 2
aρ + aϕ
ρ ρ2

Chapter 1 35
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

10. Given the scalar field f (x, y, z) = 2x2 + y and the vector field R =xax + yay +
zaz , find:

(a) The gradient of f and Laplacian of f.

(b) The divergence, curl and vector laplacian of fR.

Solution

(a)

∇f = 4xax + ay
∇2 f = ∇ · ∇f = 4

(b)

∇ · (f R) = f (∇ · A) + ∇f · R = 10x2 + 4y
∇ × (f R) = f (∇ × R) + ∇f × R = zax − 4xzay + (4xy − x)az
∇2 (f R) = ∇(∇ · (f R)) − ∇ × ∇ × (f R) = 20xax + 4ay

11. A vector field A= 5xax + 2yay + az . What type of field is this according to
the Helmholtz theorem?

Solution

∇×A=0
∇·A=7

Hence the field is diverging vector field. It has volume source.

12. The following vector fields are given:

(a) A=xax + yay

(b) B=cos(ϕ)aϕ + cos(ϕ)aρ
(c) C=yax + yaz :
(d) D=kar :
i. Which of the fields are solenoidal?
ii. Which of the fields are irrotational?
iii. Classify these fields according to the Helmholtz theorem.

Solution

(a)

∇×A=0
∇·A=2

A is irrotational field having volume source.

Chapter 1 36
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

(b)

cos ϕ + sin ϕ
∇×B= az
ρ
cos ϕ − sin ϕ
∇·B=
ρ

B is rotational field and non solenoidal field having both surface and
volume source.
(c)

∇ × C = 1az
∇·C=0

C is solenoidal field having surface source.

(d)

∇×D=0
∇·D=0

D is irrotational as well as solenoidal field hence it has no source. It is

parallel field.

1.12 Exercises
1. The expression of a vector field is given by A = xyax +(x2+yz)ay −(y2+2z)az .
Determine the (1) vector A at point P(1, 2, 3), (2) unit vector A at point Q(-1,
2, 5)and (3) unit vector directed from point P(1, 2, 3) to point Q(-1, 2, 5).

2. Two points in cylindrical coordinates are given by P(ρ = 1, ϕ = 650 , z = 2) and

Q(ρ = 1.4, ϕ = 350 , z = 2.4). Determine the RP Q in cylindrical coordinates
and its unit vector.

3. Two vectors are given in cylindrical coordinates by A = 2aρ − 3aϕ + 1az and
B = 1aρ + 2aϕ − 3az . Determine the dot product and cross product of the two
vectors, respectively.
xz x
4. A vector is given by A = ax + ay . Convert this vector into cylindrical
y y
coordinates.

5. A point in cartesian coordinates is Q(x = 2, y = 2.5, z = 1.2). Convert this

point into cylindrical coordinates and spherical coordinates.

6. A point in spherical coordinates is P (r = 2, θ = 1200 , ϕ = 2300 ). Convert this

point into cartesian and cylindrical coordinates.

Chapter 1 37
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

7. Find the gradient of gravitational potential energy of an object at height h

above the earth surface.What physical quantity do the result represent.

8. Find the divergence and Curl of the following vector fields at P (-1, -1,2).

(a) A = yxax − 2zyay + za2z

(b) A = ρzaρ − cos ϕzaϕ + 2ρzaz
(c) A = rar + sin ϕra2θ + sin ϕaϕ

9. Using stokes’ theorem prove that

I Z
F · dl = (∇ × F ) · ds
s

I Z
f dl = − ∇f × ds
s

10. Using divergence theorem prove that

Z I
(a) ∇f dν = f ds
ν S
Z I
(b) ∇ × Fdν = − F × ds
ν S
(c) Using the result onI (10a) show that the integral of the normal vector over
a surface is zero ( ds=0) and it also hold for sphere.
S

Chapter 1 38
Chapter 2

Electrostatic Field

Electrostatic field is the study of the property of stationary charges. The funda-
mental electric charge in nature is the charge of the electron. Electric charge is
measured by Coulomb [C]. One coulomb of charge contain 6.25 × 1028 electrons.
Electric charges may exist as

a). Point Charge:-A charge that occupies a volume in space is considered as

point charge as long as the volume is small compared to the surrounding
dimension.

b). Line Charge:- When a charges are distributed in a linear fashion on a linear
thin wire, having charge density given by charge per unit length.

∆Q dQ [C]
ρL = lim = = (2.0.1)
∆L→0 ∆L dl [m]

c). Surface Charge:-When a charges are distributed in a linear fashion on a

linear thin sheet of metal, having charge density given by charge per unit
area.
∆Q dQ [C]
ρs = lim = = (2.0.2)
∆s→0 ∆s ds [m2 ]

d). Volume Charge:-When a charges are distributed over a volume, such as

volume of cloud having charge density given by charge per unit volume.

∆Q dQ [C]
ρν = lim = = (2.0.3)
∆ν→0 ∆ν dν [m3 ]

39
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

2.1 Electrostatic Force and Coulomb’s Law

Coulomb’s law is an experimental law obtained by Charles Agustin de Coulomb that
defines quantitatively the force between two charges. It states that:
A force between two point charges Q1 and Q2 is proportional to the product of the
two charges, inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the two
charges and directed along the line connecting the two charges. Mathematically:
Q1 Q2
F= ar (2.1.1)
4πϵo R2
Nm
Where ϵo = 8.854 × 10−12 , is called permittivity of free space.
C2

 Q1

r12

r1
 Q2

r2

Figure 2.1: Coulomb’s law

Consider Q1 and Q2 in cartesian coordinates system shown in Figure 2.1, the force
on Q2 by Q1 , F12 is given by,
Q1 Q2
F12 = a
2 r12
(2.1.2)
4πϵo r12
From Figure 2.1,

r2 = r1 + r12 ⇒ r12 = r2 − r1 (2.1.3)

and , ar12 is:

r12 r2 − r1
ar12 = = (2.1.4)
|r12 | |r2 − r1 |
Hence F12 can be written as:
Q1 Q2
F12 = (r2 − r1 ) (2.1.5)
4πϵo |r2 − r1 |3

Chapter 2 40
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

 Q2
 Q1

r2
r1
 Q4
q
r4

r3  Q
3

Figure 2.2: Coulomb’s law for multiple charges

If a force is exerted on point charge q by different charges (multiple number of

charges) as shown in Figure 2.2, the net exerted is the supper position of each
charges force exerted on q.
Let us define the position vector from origin to q be r and the position vectors from
origin to each charges be ri , the net force on q is:

F = F1q + F2q + F3q + · · · + Fnq

Q1 q Q2 q Qn q
= 3
(r − r1 ) + 3
(r − r2 ) + · · · (r − rn )
4πϵo |r − r1 | 4πϵo |r − r2 | 4πϵo |r − rn |3
n
q X Qi
= (r − ri ) (2.1.6)
4πϵo i=1 |r − ri |3

Note:-Coulombs law is invalid for irregular shape charges, because determining valid
position vector for irregular charges are impossible.

Chapter 2 41
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

2.2 Electric Field Intensity

The electric field intensity or electric field strength at a point is defined as a force
per-unit charge at that point.
F
E = lim (2.2.1)
q→0 q

For multiple charges the electric field intensity at any point P is the superposition
of electric field intensity due to each charge at that point. Hence:
n
1 X Qi
E= (r − ri ) (2.2.2)
4πϵo i=1 |r − ri |3

2.2.1 Electric field intensity due to continuous charge distributions

A). Electric Field intensity at point P due to line charge distribution with charge
density ρL is given as:
Z
1 ρL dl
E= ar (2.2.3)
4πϵo r2
Consider a line segment with uniform charge density ρL extending from A and
B along z axis as shown in Figure 2.3.


(0,0, z) P
 2  1

(0,0, z ' )

Figure 2.3: Electric field intensity due to line charge distribution

The electric field intensity at point P (x, y, z) due to differential length at

′
(0, 0, z ) at R distance from P is:
′ ′
R = (x, y, z) − (0, 0, z ) = xax + yay + (z − z )az (2.2.4)
′
xa + ya+y + (z − z )az
ar = px (2.2.5)
x2 + y 2 + (z − z ′ )2

Chapter 2 42
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

From cartesian to cylindrical coordinates system conversion,, ρaρ = xax + yay ,

replacing xax + yay = ρaρ in equation 2.2.5,
′
ρa + (z − z )az
ar = pρ (2.2.6)
ρ2 + (z − z ′ )2
hence:
B ′
ρaρ + (z − z )az ′
Z
1 ρL
E= ′ p dz
4πϵo A ρ2 + (z − z )2 ρ2 + (z − z ′ )2
B ′
ρaρ + (z − z )az
Z
ρL ′
= 2 ′ 3/2
dz (2.2.7)
4πϵo A (ρ + (z − z ))
Using trigonometric substitution method,
′
z−z ′
tan α = ⇒ z − z = ρ tan α
ρ
d ′ d
′ (z − z ) = (ρ tan α)
dz dz ′
′
dz = −ρ sec2 αdα
′ ′
As z → A, α → α1 and as z → B, α → α2 , using this concept and replacing
′ ′
for dz and z − z , equation 2.2.7 will be
Z α2
ρL ρaρ + (ρ tan α)az
E= (−ρ sec2 αdα)
4πϵo α1 (ρ2 + (ρ tan α)2 )3/2
Z α2
ρL ρaρ + (ρ tan α)az
= (−ρ sec2 αdα)
4πϵo α1 (ρ2 (1 + tan2 α))3/2
(2.2.8)
From basic trigonometry, 1 + tan2 α = sec2 α,
Z α2
ρL ρaρ + (ρ tan α)az
E= (−ρ sec2 αdα)
4πϵo α1 ρ3 sec3 α
−ρL α2 aρ + tan αaz
Z
= dα
4πϵo α1 ρ sec α
Z α2
−ρL
= (cos αaρ + sin αaz )dα
4πϵo ρ α1
ρL  
= (sin α2 − sin α1 )aρ + (cos α2 − cos α1 )az (2.2.9)
4πϵo ρ
For semi-finite line oriented from origin to +∞ z axis, with uniform line charge
−π
distribution, α1 → and α2 = α2 , with this electric field intensity due to
2
semi-finite line charge distribution at point P is:
ρL  
E= (1 + sin α2 )aρ − (cos α2 )az (2.2.10)
4πϵo ρ
−π π
For infinite line with uniform charge distribution α1 → and α2 → , with
2 2
this electric field intensity due to infinite line charge distribution at point P
is:
ρL
E= aρ (2.2.11)
2πϵo ρ

Chapter 2 43
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

B). Electric field intensity due to uniform charge distribution on surface of infinite
metal sheet placed at z = 0 plane at point P at h distance above the surface
as shown in Figure 2.4 is equal to the sum of electric field intensity due to
each hemisphere of the surface.

dE1 dE2
 P

R2
h
 R1
dQ2


dQ1

Figure 2.4: Electric field intensity due to infinite surface charge distribution

Considering dE1 and dE2 , electric field intensity at P due to the differential
elements on each side dQ1 at R1 and dQ2 at R2 from point P respectively.
The total electric field intensity at P is:

dE = dE1 + dE2
 
1 dQ1 dQ2
= ar + 2 ar 2 (2.2.12)
4πϵ0 R12 1 R2

dQ
But dQ1 = dQ2 = , and
2
−ρa + haz
R1 = −ρaρ + haz ⇒ aR1 = p ρ
( ρ2 + h2 )2
ρa + haz
R2 = ρaρ + haz ⇒ aR2 = p ρ
( ρ2 + h2 )2

Replacing for R1 , R2 , ar1 and ar2 in equation 2.2.12,

" #
dQ −ρaρ + haz ρaρ + haz
dE = p +p
8πϵo [ρ2 + h2 ]2 [ρ2 + h2 ]2
" #
dQ h
= p az (2.2.13)
4πϵo [ρ2 + h2 ]2

Since we have said that the surface is infinite ρ → ∞, and to completely

include all parts we have to rotate each differential segment at every radius

Chapter 2 44
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

180 degrees in any direction.

ρs h ∞ π ρdρdϕ
Z Z
E= 2
a
2 3/2 z
4πϵo 0 0 [ρ + h ]
ρs h ∞
Z
ρdρ
= (2.2.14)
2ϵo 0 [ρ + h2 ]3/2
2

du
Let u = ρ2 + h2 , then du = 2ρdρ ⇒ ρdρ = , with this
2
Z ∞  
ρs 1 du ρs h −1 ∞
E= az = √ |0
2ϵo 0 u3/2 2 2ϵo u
" #
−ρs 1 1
= lim p −√ az
2ϵo ρ→∞ ρ2 + h2 0 + h2
ρs
= az (2.2.15)
2ϵo
Generally for an infinite sheet of metal with uniform charge density ρs , electric
field intensity above or below the surface is given by;
ρs
E= an (2.2.16)
2ϵo
For infinite parallel plate capacitor, the electric field intensity anywhere be-
tween the two plates is:
ρs −ρs
E= an + (−az )
2ϵo 2ϵo
ρs
= an (2.2.17)
ϵo

C). Electric Field Intensity due to Volume charge:- Consider a sphere with radius
r located at origin with charge density ρν as shown in Figure 2.5, the electric
field intensity at any point P in the space at R distance from the sphere is
given by
Z
dQdν
dE = a
2 r
(2.2.18)
ν 4πϵo R

The total charge of the sphere is:

Z rZ πZ 2π
Q= ρv r2 sin θdϕdθdr (2.2.19)
0 0 0

Hence the electric field intensity at P is:

Q
E= aR (2.2.20)
4πϵo R2

Chapter 2 45
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

Figure 2.5: Electric field intensity due to volume charge distribution

2.3 Electric Flux Density

Electric field intensity is dependent on the medium permittivity, due to this it is
not considered as the most useful quantity in electrostatics. Suppose there exist a
quantity that is independent of the medium, called electric flux density D. Electric
flux density D is the electric flux passing through a unit surface.
∆ψ
D= (2.3.1)
I∆s
ψ= D · ds (2.3.2)

Electric flux intensity and electric flux density are related to each other by

D = ϵo E (2.3.3)

One line of electric flux line emanates from +1C and terminates at −1C charge,
[C]
thus electric flux density is measured by .
[m2 ]
Electric flux density for different charge distributions

• Uniform line charge distributions

ρL
D= aρ (2.3.4)
2πρ

• Uniformly distributed infinite surface charge

ρs
D= an (2.3.5)
2

• Uniformly charged sphere

Z
ρν dν
D= aR (2.3.6)
4πR2

Chapter 2 46
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

2.4 Gauss Law and Maxwell’s Equations

Gauss Law:- States that the total flux ψ through any closed surface is equal to the
total charge enclosed by the surface. Mathematically:

ψ = Qenclosed (2.4.1)

 Q2
 Q1

 Q3

 Q4

Figure 2.6: Gauss Law

The closed surface is an imaginary Gaussian surface1 that enclose the charges causing
electric flux at the intended point. Applying divergence law to equation 2.4.1,
I Z
D · ds = ρν dν
Z Z
∇ · Ddν = ρν dν (2.4.2)

∴ ∇ · D = ρν (2.4.3)

Equation 2.4.3 is one of the four Maxwell’s equation. This equation show that if
there is no electric charge in a region of space ρν = 0, the net electric flux entering
the region is equal to the flux leaving the region. ∇ · D = 0 implies that the vector
field has no volume source, the field is divergence-less (selonoidal field).

Gauss law is an alternative for coulombs law, applying divergence theorem prop-
erly to Coulombs law result in Gauss law. Gauss law enables us to determine electric
field intensity and electric flux density at a point easily for symmetrical charge dis-
tributions Even if the charge distribution is asymmetric Gauss law will hold.

1
The surface can be any kind, regular or irregular shaped.

Chapter 2 47
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

2.5 Application of Gauss Law

A). Point Charge: Consider a point charge located at origin in cartesian coordi-
nates system as shown in Figure 2.7, using Gauss law the electric field intensity
at any point P is:

Q

Figure 2.7: Gauss law application to point charge

Enclosing the charge with a spherical surface, the differential surface repre-
senting the Gaussian surface is ds = r2 sin θdθdϕar . Hence:
Z 2π Z π
Qenclosed = D · r2 sin θdθdϕar
Z0 2π Z0 π
= Dr r2 sin θdθdϕ
0 0
2
= Dr r 4π
Q
Dr =
4πr2
Q Q
D= 2
ar ⇒ E = ar (2.5.1)
4πr 4πϵo r2

B). Infinite line Charge: Consider an infinite line charge located along z axis in
cartesian coordinates system with charge density ρL as shown in Figure 2.8,
using Gauss law the electric field intensity at any point P is:

Chapter 2 48
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

az

ay
ax

Figure 2.8: Gauss law application to infinite line charge

Enclosing the charge with infinite cylindrical surface, the differential surface
representing the Gaussian surface is ds = ρdϕdzaρ . Hence:
Z zZ π
Qenclosed = D · ρdϕdzaρ
−z 0
Z z Z 2π Z π
ρL dz = Dρ sin θdθdϕ
−z 0 0
2ρL z = Dρ ρ2π(2z)
ρL
Dρ =
2πρ
ρL ρL
D= aρ ⇒ E = aρ (2.5.2)
2πρ 2πϵo ρ

C). Infinite surface Charge: Consider an infinite surface charge located along z = 0
plane in cartesian coordinates system with charge density ρs as shown in Figure
2.9.
Enclosing the charge with infinite top surface and bottom surface as shown in
Figure 2.9, the differential surface representing the Gaussian surface is ds =
dxdyaz and using Gauss law, the electric field intensity at any point P is:
Z Z
Qenclosed = D · dxdyaz + D · dxdyaz
top bottom
Z xZ y
ρs dxdy = Dz (A + A)
−x −y
ρs A = Dz (A + A)
ρs
Dz =
2
ρs ρs
D = az ⇒ E = az (2.5.3)
2 2πϵo

Chapter 2 49
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

Figure 2.9: Gauss law application to infinite surface charge

D). Volume Charge: Consider a uniformly charged sphere with radius a located
at origin in cartesian coordinates system with charge density ρν as shown in
Figure 2.10.

Figure 2.10: Gauss law application to volume charge

We have two cases to be considered, case I, when the point is inside the sphere
and case II, when the point is outside the sphere.

Chapter 2 50
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

(a) Case I: If the point P is inside a sphere 0 ≤ r ≤ a, the Gaussian

surface enclose a fraction of total charge of the sphere. Enclosing the
charge with a spherical surface, the differential surface representing the
Gaussian surface is ds = r2 sin θdθdϕar . The electric field intensity at P
is:
Z 2π Z π
Qenclosed = D · r2 sin θdθdϕar
Z 2π Z π Z r Z0 2π Z0 π
ρν r2 sin θdrdθdϕ = Dr r2 sin θdθdϕ
0 0 0 0 0
3
r 4π
ρν = Dr r2 4π
3
ρν r
Dr =
3
ρν r ρν r
D= ar ⇒ E = ar (2.5.4)
3 3ϵo

(b) Case II: If the point P is outside a sphere r ≥ a, the Gaussian surface
enclose a fraction of total charge of the sphere. Enclosing the charge
with a spherical surface, the differential surface representing the Gaussian
surface is ds = r2 sin θdθdϕar . The electric field intensity at P is:
Z 2π Z π
Qenclosed = D · r2 sin θdθdϕar
Z 2π Z π Z a Z0 2π Z0 π
ρν r2 sin θdrdθdϕ = Dr r2 sin θdθdϕ
0 0 0 0 0
3
a 4π
ρν = Dr r2 4π
3
a3 ρ ν
Dr =
3r2
a3 ρ ν a3 ρ ν
D= ar ⇒ E = ar (2.5.5)
3r2 3ϵo r2

Hence the electric flux density due to a uniformly charged sphere is:
rρν


 ar r≤a
 3


D= (2.5.6)
a3 ρ ν




 ar r≥a
3r2

Chapter 2 51
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

2.6 Electric Potential

Until now we determine electric field intensity at any point, using vectors or vector
forms from Gauss law and Coulomb’s law. But there is also another method, which
uses scalar quantity called electric potential.

Consider a charge placed in an electric field intensity E, the work done in mov-
ing the charge from point A to point B is:

dW = −F · dl = −QE · dl (2.6.1)

The negative sign indicates that the work is being done by an external agent. Thus
the total work done, or the potential energy required, in moving Q from A to B, is:
Z B
W = −Q E · dl
A
Z B
W
=− E · dl (2.6.2)
Q A

W
is called electric potential difference between point A and B. Electric potential
Q
difference between point A and B is denoted as VAB . Thus
Z B
VAB = − E · dl (2.6.3)
A

Note that

1. In determining VAB , A is the initial point while B is the final point.

2. If VAB is negative, there is a loss in potential energy in moving Q from A to

B; this implies that the work is being done by the field. However, if VAB is
positive, there is a gain in potential energy in the movement; an external agent
performs the work.

3. VAB is independent of the path taken (to be shown a little later).

4. VAB is measured in joules per coulomb, commonly referred to as volts (V ).

The electric potential between any point A and B due to a charge Q located at
origin is:
Z B
VAB = − E · dl
A
Z B
Q
=− a · drar
2 r
A 4πϵo r
 
Q 1 rB
= |
4ϵ0 π r rA
 
Q 1 1
= − = VB − VA (2.6.4)
4ϵ0 π rB rA

Chapter 2 52
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

VA and VB are absolute potential at point A and B. Absolute potential at a point is

the potential between the point and infinity, which is the work done in moving unit
charge from infinity to the point in an electric field per unit charge. If the potential
difference between two points is zero then the two points are in equipotential. We
assume electric potential at infinity is zero. Hence absolute potential at a point is:
Q
VA = (2.6.5)
4ϵ0 πrA
The electric potential difference at any point due to multiple number of charges is,
the super-position of the potential of each charges at the point.
Q1 Q2 Qn
V (r) = + + ··· +
4πϵo |r − r1 | 4πϵo |r − r2 | 4πϵo |r − rn |
n
X Qi
= (2.6.6)
i=1
4πϵo |r − ri |

Electric potential for uniform charge distributions

a). Line charge distribution with charge density ρL
Z ′ ′
1 ρL (r )dl
V (r) = (2.6.7)
4πϵo L |r − r′ |

b). Surface charge distribution with charge density ρs

Z ′ ′
1 ρs (r )ds
V (r) = (2.6.8)
4πϵo s |r − r′ |

c). Volume charge distribution with charge density ρν

Z ′ ′
1 ρν (r )dν
V (r) = (2.6.9)
4πϵo ν |r − r′ |

If any point B is chosen, having VB ̸= 0, then the electric potential at any point
with respect to point B is:
Q
V = +C (2.6.10)
4πϵo r
Electric potential is path independent, hence:
I
VAB = −VBA ⇒ E · dl = 0 (2.6.11)

Applying Stokes’s theorem to equation 2.6.11,

I Z
E · dl = (∇ × E) · ds = 0 ⇒ ∇ × E = 0 (2.6.12)

Equation 2.6.12 is the second of the four Maxwell’s equation. This equation tells us
that electric field intensity is irrotational field, hence it is conservative.

Chapter 2 53
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

In differential form
Z
V =− E · dl ⇔ dV = −E · dl (2.6.13)

the gradient operator applied to any scalar V result in

∂V ∂V ∂V
dV = dx + dy + dz
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
∂V ∂V ∂V
= ax + ay + az · (dxax + dyay + dzaz )
∂x ∂y ∂z
= ∇V · dl (2.6.14)

Comparing equation 2.6.13 and 2.6.14,

E = −∇V (2.6.15)

Hence the electric field intensity at any point has a magnitude of the gradient of
electric potential, but opposite to the direction of maximum increase in electric
potential.

∇ × ∇V = 0 (2.6.16)

Electric field intensity E is a vector potential of electric potential V and V is a scalar

potential of Electric field intensity E.

2.7 Electric Dipole and Electric Flux Lines

Electric flux lines are an imaginary path or lines drawn in such a way that its
direction points in the direction of electric field at that point.
Electric dipole occurs when two point charges with the same magnitude having
opposite sign are placed at distance d from each other. Consider a dipole place
along z axis as shown in Figure 2.11,
The electric field due to electric dipole at point P is:
 
Q 1 1
V = −
4ϵ0 π r1 r1
Q r2 − r1
= (2.7.1)
4ϵ0 π r1 r2
From Figure 2.11,
d
r1 = r − cos θ
2
d
r2 = r + cos θ
2
r2 − r1 = d cos θ
d d d2
r1 r2 = (r − cos θ)(r − cos θ) = (r2 − cos θ) ≈ r2
2 2 4

Chapter 2 54
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

P

r1

+Q r r2

d

s
- Q d co

Figure 2.11: Electric dipole

Hence:
Qd cos θ
V =
4ϵ0 πr2
Qd · ar
= (2.7.2)
4ϵ0 πr2
Qd is called electric dipole moment p,
p · ar
V = (2.7.3)
4ϵ0 πr2
The electric field intensity at P due to the dipole moment is:

E = −∇V
∂V 1 ∂V
=− ar − aθ
∂r  r ∂θ  
∂ Qd cos θ 1 ∂ Qd cos θ
=− ar − aθ
∂r 4ϵ0 πr2 r ∂θ 4ϵ0 πr2
Qd cos θ Qd sin θ
= 3
ar + aθ (2.7.4)
2πϵo r 2πϵo r3

Note: Electric potential varies inversely proportional with r2 and electric field in-
tensity varies inversely proportional with r3 for dipole and Electric potential varies
inversely proportional with r and electric field intensity varies inversely proportional
with r2 for mono pole charge. This relation will hold for multi-pole charge distribu-
tion.

Chapter 2 55
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

2.8 Energy Density in Electrostatic Field

To determine electrostatics energy stored in any material or device where electric
charges exist, we assume that the charges are brought to their current position from
infinity one by one.

 Q3
 Q1

 Q2

Figure 2.12: Electrostatic energy density

Consider the case for three charges Q1 ,Q2 , and Q3 as shown in Figure 2.12. The
work done in bringing the three charges to their current location is:

WE = W1 + W2 + W3 (2.8.1)

If we bring change Q1 first the work done is zero since there is no potential difference
at the point. After placing Q1 , if we bring Q2 , there is a potential at location of
charge Q2 due to charge Q1 , so the work done is, W1 = Q2 V12 where V12 is the
potential at location of charge Q2 due to charge Q1 , in same way for Q3 the work
done is, W3 = Q3 (V13 + V23 ). Hence the total work done is:

WE = 0 + Q2 V12 + Q3 (V13 + V23 ) (2.8.2)

Since order matter when bringing charges, If we bring in the reverse order

WE = Q1 (V31 + V21 ) + Q2 V31 + 0 (2.8.3)

Taking the average,

1
WE = (Q1 (V31 + V21 ) + Q2 (V11 + V21 ) + Q3 (V13 + V23 ))
2
1
= (Q1 V1 + Q2 V2 + Q3 V3 ) (2.8.4)
2
Vi is the potential at the location of the charges due to the whole charges in the
region.

Thus if we have N charges

N
1X
WE = Qi Vi (2.8.5)
2 i=1

Chapter 2 56
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

Energy Density for uniform charge distributions

• Uniform line charge distribution
Z
1
WE = ρL V dl (2.8.6)
2
• Uniform surface charge distribution
Z
1
WE = ρs V ds (2.8.7)
2
• Uniform volume charge distribution
Z
1
WE = ρν V dν (2.8.8)
2
Consider electrostatic energy stored in of uniformly distributed volume charge and
using Maxwell equation ρv = ∇ · D and substitute in equation 2.8.8,
Z
1
WE = (∇ · DV )dν (2.8.9)
2 ν
and ∇ · (f A) = f (∇ · A) + ∇f · A from property of divergence, hence:
(∇ · D)V = ∇ · (V D) − D · ∇V (2.8.10)
substituting equation 2.8.10 in equation 2.8.9
Z Z
1 1
WE = ∇ · (V D)dν − D · ∇V dν (2.8.11)
2 ν 2 ν
I Z
from divergence theorem ∇ · (V D)ds = ∇ · (V D)dν, hence:
ν
I Z
1 1
WE = ∇ · (V D)ds − D · ∇V dν (2.8.12)
2 2 ν
1 1 1
Since, V varies with 2 and D varies with 3 for dipole and V varies with and
r r r
1 1
D varies with 2 for mono-pole, so V D varies with 3 at minimum, while ds varies
rI r
2 1 1
with r . So, ∇ · (V D)ds varies with which imply that this term will vanish
2 r
as r → ∞. The electrostatic energy stored in a volume is then,
Z
1
WE = D · (−∇V )dν
2 ν
Z
1
= D · Edν
2 ν
Z
1
= ϵo E · Edν
2 ν
Z
ϵo
= |E|2 dν (2.8.13)
2 ν
Z
Let WE = we dν, where we is electrostatic energy density per unit volume,
ν
ϵo 2
we = |E| (2.8.14)
2

Chapter 2 57
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

2.9 Examples
1. A point charges Q1 and Q2 are placed at (3,2,1) and (-4,0,6) respectively. De-
termine a force exerted on Q1 .

Solution:-

r1 = (3, 2, 1) − (0, 0, 0) = 3ax + 2ay + 1az

r2 = (−4, 0, 6) − (0, 0, 0) = −4ax + 6ay
r21 = r1 − r2 = 3ax + 2ay + 1az − (−4ax + 6ay ) = 7ax + 2ay − 5az
7a + 2ay − 5az
|ar21 | = √x
49 + 4 + 25
Q1 Q2 (5 × 10−6 C)(−4 × 10−6 C(7ax + 2ay − 5az )m)
F21 = a =
2 r12
4πϵr12 4π × 8.85 × 10−12 C 2 /N m2 × 783
F21 = −0.02038ax − 0.0058ay + 0.0115az N

2. Determine the total charge

(a) On a line 0 < x < 5m if ρL = 12x2 mC/m

Solution:- The line is placed along x axis so dl = dx

Z Z 5
Q= ρl dl = 12x2 dx = 500mC
0

(b) On a cylinder ρ = 3, 0 < z < 3 if ρs = ρz 3 nC/m2 .

Solution:- The normal to the surface is aρ , hence ds = ρdϕdzaρ

Z Z 4 Z 2π Z 4 Z 2π
2 2 2
Q= ρs ds = z dϕdz = ρ z dz dϕ = 576πC
0 0 0 0

10
(c) Within a sphere r = 3m, if ρν = C/m3 .
r sin θ
Solution:- Since it is in spherical coordinates system dν = r2 sin θdrdθdϕ

Z Z 2π Z π Z 4
10 2
Q= ρν dν = r sin θdrdθdϕ
0 0 0 r sin θ
Z 2π Z π Z 4
= 10rdrdθdϕ = 160π 2 C
0 0 0

Chapter 2 58
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

3. A ring y 2 + z 2 = 4, on xy plane carries a uniform charge of 5µc/m,

(a) Find electric flux density D at P(3,0,0).

Solution:- The ring is placed on y-z plane and its normal is ax , for
a ring with radius a, electric field intensity at (h, 0, 0) is given by

ρl ah
E= ax
2ϵo [h2 + a2 ]3/2

hence:
ρl ah
D = ϵo E = ax
2[h2+ a2 ]3/2
5µC × 2 × 3
= 2 2 3/2
ax = 0.32µC/m2 ax
2[3 + 2 ]

(b) If two identical charges are placed at (0,-3,0) and (0,3,0) in addition to
the ring find the value of the charge, such that electric flux density at P
is zero.

Solution:-

r1 = (3, 0, 0) − (0, −3, 0) = 3ax + 3ay

r2 = (3, 0, 0) − (0, 3, 0) = 3ax − 3ay
D
Etot = 0 ⇒ (E1 + E2 + ) = 0 ⇒ D = −ϵo (E1 + E2 ) = 0.32µC/m2 ax
ϵo
 
Q Q Q  
ϵo a r + a r = (3a + 3 a ) + (3 a − 3a )
4πϵo r12 1 4πϵo r22 2 4π × 183 x y x y

= −0.32µC/m2 ax
2Q
= −0.32µC/m2 ax ⇒ Q = −51.1552µC
72π

4. A point charge 100pC is located at (4,1,-3) while the x-axis carries a charge
2nC/m. If plane z=3 also carries a charge 5nc/m2 , find E at (1,1,1).

Solution:-

Et = Epoint + Eline + Esurf ace

Q ρl ρs
= 2
ar + aρ + an
4πϵo r 2πϵo ρ 2ϵo

−3ax + 4az
r = (1, 1, 1) − (4, 1, −3) = −3ax + 4az ⇒ ar =
5
ay + az
ρ = (1, 1, 1) − (x, 0, 0) = (1, 1, 1) − (1, 0, 0) = ay + az ⇒ aρ =
2
(1, 1, 1) − (x, y, 3) (1, 1, 1) − (1, 1, 3) −2az
an = = = = −az
|(1, 1, 1) − (x, y, 3)| |(1, 1, 1) − (1, 1, 3)| 2

Chapter 2 59
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

100pC
Epoint = (−0.6ax + 0.8az ) = −0.022ax + 0.0288az N/C
4πϵo × 25
2nC/m(0.707ay + 0.707ay )
Esurf ace = √ = 17.99ay + 17.99az N/C
2πϵo 2
5nc/m2
Esurf ace = (−az ) = −282.486az N/C
2ϵ
Et = Epoint + Eline + Esurf ace = −0.022ax + 17.99ay − 264.4672az N/C

5. Determine the charge density due to each of the following electric flux density.

(a) D = (8xyax + 4x2ay )C/m2 .

Solution:-

ρν = ∇ · D
 
∂ ∂ ∂
ρν = ax + ay + az · (8xyax + 4x2ay )C/m2 = 8yC/m3
∂x ∂y ∂z

(b) D = (ρ sin ϕaρ + 2ρ cos ϕaϕ + 2za2z )C/m2 .

Solution:-

ρν = ∇ · D
 
∂ 1 ∂ ∂
ρν = aρ + aϕ + az · (ρ sin ϕaρ + 2ρ cos ϕaϕ + 2za2z )C/m2
∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z
= (2ρ sin ϕ − 2 sin ϕ + 4z)C/m3
 
2 cos θ sin θ
(c) D = 3
+ 3 C/m2 .
r ar r aθ
Solution:-

ρν = ∇ · D
   
∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂ 2 cos θ sin θ
ρν = ar + aθ + aϕ · 3
+ 3 C/m2
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ r ar r aθ
−4 cos θ
= C/m3
r4

Chapter 2 60
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

6. Given that

12ρ nC/m3 1 ≤ ρ ≤ 2
ρν =
 0 otherwise

Determine D, E and V everywhere.

Solution:- Using Gauss law

(a) Case-I:- ρ ≤ 1, dν = ρdρdϕdz and ds = ρdϕdzaρ

Electric flux density
Z Z Z I I
Qenclosed = ψtotal ⇒ ρν dν = D · ds
Z z Z 2π Z ρ Z z Z 2π
0ρdρdϕdz = Dρ ρdϕdz
−z 0 0 −z 0
0 = Dρ 4πρz ⇒ D = 0

Electric field intensity

D
E= =0
ϵ
Electric potential
Z
V =− E · dl = κ

(b) Case-II:- 1 ≤ ρ ≤ 2, dν = ρdρdϕdz and ds = ρdϕdzaρ

Electric flux density
Z Z Z I I
Qenclosed = ψtotal ⇒ ρν dν = D · ds
Z z Z 2π Z ρ Z z Z 2π
3
12ρnC/m ρdρdϕdz = Dρ ρdϕdz
−z 0 1 −z 0
4(ρ3 − 1)
16πz(ρ3 − 1) = Dρ 4πρz ⇒ D = nC/m2aρ
ρ
Electric field intensity

D 4(ρ3 − 1)
E= = nV /maρ
ϵo ϵo ρ
Electric potential

4(ρ3 − 1)
Z Z
1
V = − E · dl = − nC/m2aρ · (dρaρ + dϕaϕ + dzaz )
ϵρ ρ
3
 3 
4(ρ − 1)
Z
4ρ lnρ
=− dρ = − − nV
ϵo ρ 3ϵo ϵo

Chapter 2 61
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

(c) Case-III:- ρ ≥ 2, dν = ρdρdϕdz and ds = ρdϕdzaρ

Electric flux density
Z Z Z I I
Qenclosed = ψtotal ⇒ ρν dν = D · ds
Z z Z 2π Z 2 Z z Z 2π
3
12ρnC/m ρdρdϕdz = Dρ ρdϕdz
−z 0 1 −z 0
16πz(ρ3 − 1) = 16πz((8 − 1) − (1 − 1)) = 11216πz = Dρ 4πρz
28
⇒ D = nC/m2aρ
ρ
Electric field intensity
D 28
E= = nV /maρ
ϵo ϵo ρ
Electric potential
Z Z
28 1
V = − E · dl = − nV /maρ · (dρaρ + dϕaϕ + dzaz )
ϵo ρ ρ
Z
28 28lnρ
=− dρ = − nV
ϵo ρ ϵo

7. Given that

 10 nc/m3 1 ≤ r ≤ 4


ρν = r 2
 0 otherwise

(a) The net flux crossing surface r = 2m and r = 6m.

Solution:-
Qeclosed by radius r = 2m
Z Z 2π Z π Z 2
Qenclosed = ρν dν = ρν r2 sin θdrdθdϕ
Z 2π Z π Z 2 0 0 1
10
= 2
nc/m3 r2 sin θdrdθdϕ
0 0 1 r
= 10(2)(2π)(2 − 1)mC = 40πmC

Qeclosed by radius r = 6m
Z Z 2π Z π Z 4
Qenclosed = ρν dν = ρν r2 sin θdrdθdϕ
Z 2π Z π Z 4 0 0 1
10
= 2
nc/m3 r2 sin θdrdθdϕ
0 0 1 r
= 10(2)(2π)(4 − 1)mC = 40πmC

Chapter 2 62
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

(b) D at 1m and r = 5m.

D at r = 1m,
Z Z
Qenlcosed = ψ ⇒ ρν dν = D · ds
Z Z
0dν = D · ds ⇒ D = 0

D at r = 5m,
Z Z Z I I
Qenclosed = ψtotal ⇒ ρν dν = D · ds
Z 2π Z 2 Z 4 Z 2π Z π
10 3 2
2
nc/m r sin θdrdθdϕ = Dr r2 sin θdθdϕ
0 1 1 r 0 0
2 30mC
120πmC = Dr 4πr ⇒ D =
r2 ar
at r = 5m → D = 1.2mC/m2ar

8. Find a work done in carrying 5nC/m charge form P(1,2,-4) to R(3,-5,6) in

electric field intensity E = (ax + z 2 ay + 2yzaz )V /m.

Solution:-

dW = −QE · dl
= −Q (ax + z 2 ay + 2yzaz )V /m · (dxax + dyay + dzaz )


Z 3 Z −5 Z 6 
2
W = −Q dx + z dy + 2yzdz
1 2 −4
= −Q (3 − 1) + z 2 (−5 − 2)|@z=−4 + y(36 − 16)|@y=−5

= 210 × 5nCV = 1.05µJ

9. Let V = xy 2 z, calculate the energy expended in transferring a 2µC charge

from (1-1,2) to (2,1,-3).

Solution:-

W = QVAB = Q(VB − VA ) = Q (xy 2 z)|@(2,1,−3) − (xy 2 z)|@(1−1,2)

= Q(1(−12 )(2) − 2(12 )(−3)) = Q(−6 − 2)V = −8V × 2µC

= −16µJ

Chapter 2 63
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

10. Determine electric field intensity due to the following potentials,

(a) V = x2 + 2y 2 + 4z 2

Solution:-
 
∂ ∂ ∂
E = − ∇V = ax + ay + az (x2 + 2y 2 + 4z 2 )
∂x ∂y ∂z
= 2xax + 4yay + 8zaz

(b) V = ρ2 (z + 1) sin ϕ

Solution:-
 
∂ 1 ∂ ∂
E = − ∇V = aρ + aϕ + az (ρ2 (z + 1) sin ϕ)
∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z
= −2ρ(z + 1) sin ϕaρ + ρ(z + 1) cos ϕaϕ + ρ2 sin ϕaz

(c) V = e−r sin θ cos(2ϕ)

Solution:-
 
∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂
E = − ∇V = ar + aθ + aϕ (e−r sin θ cos(2ϕ))
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ
e−r sin θ cos 2ϕ 2e−r sin 2ϕ
= e−r sin θ cos 2ϕar − aθ + aϕ
r r
11. A spherical charge distribution is given by,

 ρo r nc/m3

r≤a
ρν = a
 0 otherwise

find V everywhere.

Solution:-

(a) Case I:- r ≤ a Electric flux density

Z I
Qenclosed = ψtotal ⇒ ρν dν = D · ds
Z 2π Z π Z r Z 2π Z π
ρo r 2
r sin θdrdθdϕ = D · r2 sin θdθdϕar
0 0 0 a 0 0
ρo πr4 ρ o r 2
= Dr 4πr2 ⇒ D = ar
a 4a
Electric field intensity

D ρo r 2
E= = ar
ϵo 4ϵo a

Chapter 2 64
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

Electric potential

ρo r 2
Z Z
1
V = − E · dl = − ar · (drar + dθaθ + dϕaϕ )
4ϵo a r
Z 2 3
ρo r ρo r
=− dr = − V
4ϵo a 12ϵo a

(b) Case II:- r ≥ a Electric flux density

Z I
Qenclosed = ψtotal ⇒ ρν dν = D · ds
Z 2π Z π Z a Z 2π Z π
ρo r 2
r sin θdrdθdϕ = D · r2 sin θdθdϕar
0 0 0 a 0 0
3
ρo a
ρo πa3 = Dr 4πr2 ⇒ D = ar
4r2
Electric field intensity

D ρ o a3
E= = ar
ϵo 4ϵo r2
Electric potential

ρ o a3
Z Z
1
V = − E · dl = − a r · (drar + dθa + dϕaϕ )
4ϵo r2 r θ
ρ o a3 ρ − oa3 1 1
Z  
=− dr = − − V
4ϵo r2 4ϵ r a

2.10 Exercises
1. Point charges of 3µC and 4.5µC are located at points M(1, -2, 3) and N(2,
3, 5), respectively, in free space. Determine the electric force exerted on the
second charge due to first charge and the electric field intensity at M and N.

2. Find electric field intensity at M(1, -2, 3) due to a line at x = −1, y = 2 and
infinite surface y = −2.

3. Given the electric flux densities, find total electric flux through the respective
surfaces

(a) D = 2xax + 3yay − 5zaz through x = 0, x = 2, y = 0, y = 1, z = 0, z = 4.

(b) D = 2x2ax − 4ya2y + 3zaz through x2 + y 2 = 4, z = 0, z = 1.

4. A electric field is given by E = 2yax + xay + yaz V /m. A charge of 4C is

transferred from point A(1, 2, 3) to point B(2, 3, 1) along the differential
length of the line. Consider the differential length in cartesian coordinates
and determine the work done.

5. The expression of a nonuniform electric field is given as E = 3xax + 2yay −

zaz V /m.A charge of 5C is transferred from point A(1, 2, 4) to point B(2, 4, 6)
along the straight line from point A to point B. Calculate the work done.

Chapter 2 65
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

6. A charge of 6C is transferred from point A(1, 3, 2) to point B(4, 2, 5) through

an electric field whose expression is given by E = 5yax + xaz V /m. The charge
is transferred along the path whose equations are y = 2x + 5 and x = z − 1.
Determine the work done.

7. A potential in Cartesian coordinates is given as V = 2xy 3 − 3z and the point

is P(3,2, 1). Determine the

(a) Numerical value of the voltage,

(b) Electric field,
(c) Direction of the electric field, and
(d) Volume charge density.

8. A potential in cylindrical coordinates is given as V = 2ρ sin ϕ + z 2 and the

point is P (ρ = 1m, ϕ = 500 , z = 2m). Calculate the

(a) Numerical value of the voltage,

(b) Electric field,
(c) Direction of the electric field, and
(d) Volume charge density.

9. A potential in spherical coordinates is given as V = 5r2 sin θ + cos ϕ and the

point is P (r = 2m, θ = 600 , ϕ = 1500 ). Determine the

(a) Numerical value of the voltage,

(b) Electric field,
(c) Direction of the electric field, and
(d) Volume charge density.

10. A point negative charge Q moves in a circular orbit of radius R around a

positive charge of equal magnitude, determine equilibrium speed of the nega-
tive charge. This problem describe Bohr’s one electron model and the nuclear
charge −Q and Q = ze (z is number of proton in the nucleus). According to
quantum mechanics the angular momentum L of an electron must be quantized
nh
L = mνR =
2π
where h = 6.63 × 10−34 J − s, what are the allowed values of R?

11. Two charges with mass m1 and m2 are in space they attract or repel by
coulumb force,

(a) Write a single differential equation for the distance between the charges
r = r2 − r1 . What is the effective mass of the two charges?
(b) If the two charges are at rest at time t0 when the distance between them
dr
is r0 what is their relative velocity dν as a function of r?
dt

Chapter 2 66
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

(c) What is their position as a function of time? Consider separately when

the charges have same or opposite charges.
(d) If they have opposite charges at what time will they collide?

12. A charge Q with mass m is released from rest a distance x0 above a sheet of
uniform charge with charge density σo .

(a) Determine the position of the charge as a function of time.

(b) Determine the value of σo that can make the charge stationary.
(c) Determine the velocity by which the charge collide with the surface if σo
is less than the value in (12b).

A moment of an electric field is located in free space whose expression is given

as P = 5ax + 4ay − 2az nCm. Determine the voltage at point (3,2,4).

Chapter 2 67
Chapter 3

Electric Field in Material Space

Materials are broadly classified into two: insulators and conductors. In this chapter
the property of materials, such as susceptibility, linearity, homogeneity and con-
ductivity are introduced. The concept of conduction, convection and displacement
current of electric charges along with polarization and conservation of charges are
introduced briefly.

3.1 Electrical Property of Materials

The following three questions are the major question we try to answer when dealing
with electrical property of materials.

• Why electrons don’t leave a surface of a conductor?

• Why a current carrying conductor remain neutral?

• Why electromagnetic wave moves with less speed in conductors?

Conductors
Conductors are materials that has abundance of electrons in their conduction band.
The conductivity of any conductor depend on temperature, as temperature increase
conductivity decreases.

Insulators
Insulators are materials which has no electrons in their conduction band.

Semiconductors
Semiconductors are materials that has conductivity level somewhere between the
extremes of an insulator and conductor. They either become conductor due to
increase in temperature or by doping (adding impurity to the material). In contrast
to conductor their conductivity increase with temperature.

68
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

3.2 Convection, Conduction and Displacement Current

When there is a potential difference between two points electrons start to move from
low potential to high potential, this cause electric current. The potential difference
may be caused due to heat difference or electric field in the region. A current I is a
flow of charge through a surface per-unit time. It’s unit of measurement is Ampere.
One Ampere of electric current is the flow of one coulomb charge through a surface
in one second. Mathematically:
dQ
I= (3.2.1)
dt
Consider a movement of electric charges through a volume of a material placed in
cartesian coordinates system. The material is oriented along x − axis as shown in
Figure 3.1,

ax

dl

Figure 3.1: Electric current

The electric current density J the amount of current per unit surface is:
∆I
J= (3.2.2)
∆s
Current density is always perpendicular to the surface, hence:

dI = J · ds
Z
I = J · ds (3.2.3)

There are three types of electric current density that can occur in a material.

a). Convection current density: This type of electric current density doesn’t in-
volve a conductor. The movement of charges occur due to mechanical or
thermal forces, hence the current flow does not obey ohm’s law.

b). Conduction current density: This type of current density occur in conductors
only. Electrons flow in the response to applied electric field to the conductor.
Conduction current density obeys ohm’s law.

Chapter 3 69
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

c). Displacement current density: This type of current density occurs when there
is change in applied electric field or if the applied electric field is time varying.
Best example is the way current flow between two plates of a capacitor.
∂D
Jd = (3.2.4)
∂t

In this chapter we only look at convection current density and conduction cur-
rent density, because displacement current density require time varying electric field
which will be introduced in chapter 7.

3.2.1 Convection Current Density

Consider a charge flowing through a volume as shown in Figure 3.1, if the velocity
of the flow is ux , the current through a cross sectional area s at any time t is:
dQ
dI =
dt
ρν dν
= (3.2.5)
dt
but the volume dν = dsdl, which means
dl
dI = ρν ds = ρν ux ds
dt
dI
= ρ ν ux
ds
J = ρ ν ux (3.2.6)

Generally for any electron flow with velocity u,

J = ρν u (3.2.7)

3.2.2 Conduction Current Density

Consider a conductor placed between to different electric potentials, electrons will
flow from low electric potential to high electric potential, if there are n electrons in
a volume ρν = −ne. Electrons does not accelerate in the field due to vacant space,
atomic nucleus and impurities in the conductor. The electrons collide with this
impurities on their way, the average time between two collisions is called relaxation
uf + ui
time τ . The average velocity between this two collision is u = . From
2
Newton’s second law the force on an electron in electric field intensity E is:

F = me a
u
= me (3.2.8)
τ
replacing for electrostatic force F = −eE,
u
−eE = me
τ
eτ
u=− E (3.2.9)
me

Chapter 3 70
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

Combining equation 3.2.7 and equation 3.2.9,

 
eτ
J = ρν − E
me
2
ne τ
= E
me
= σE (3.2.10)

σ is called conductivity of a material. Equation 3.2.10 is called point form of Ohm’s

law.
What if an isolated conductor is placed in an electric field? electrons will move
against the field while the nucleus moves along the field. The electrons and the
nucleus accumulate on opposite side of the conductor causing an other field intensity
inside a conductor. The field created in the conductor is equal and opposite to
the applied external electric field intensity, so they will cancel each other. This
implies that the electric field intensity inside a conductor is zero. From Maxwell
first equation ∇ · D = ρν , since E = 0, D = 0, so does ρν . Thus inside of a perfect
conductor is at equipotential and does not contain electric charge.
But if the conductor is connected between two potential differences, the field due to
the potential difference sustain electron flow, which means there is no equilibrium.
If there is electrons inside the conductor ρν ̸= 0, hence the electric field intensity in
the conductor is not zero.
As electrons move they encounter some dumping force called resistance. From ohms
law
H
V E · dl
R= =H (3.2.11)
I σE · ds
I
For a conductor with uniform cross sectional area, after replacing for V = − E·dl
I
and I = σE · ds. The negative sign sign is removed because the convectional
current flow direction is opposite to the flow of electrons.
l
R= (3.2.12)
σs
power P is the rate of change of energy and energy is the ability to do work, so
dE dl
P = =F =F·u (3.2.13)
dt dt
Z
but F = ρν Edν, which means power P is:
Z
P = ρν (E · u)dν (3.2.14)

replacing ρν u with J,
Z
P = J · Edν (3.2.15)

Chapter 3 71
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

Equation 3.2.15 is called Joules law. For a conductor with uniform cross sectional
area
Z Z Z
P = J · Edν = E · dl J · ds

=VI (3.2.16)

3.3 Polarization in Dielectrics

If non-polar dielectric material is placed in an electric field, electrons will drift in
opposite direction to the field while nucleus drift along the field. This will cause
temporary dipole moment inside the material. The electrons will never leave the
material (or the atom). When this happens the dielectric material is said to be
polarized. Since there are many atoms in the material,
N
X
P = Q1 d1 + Q2 d2 + · · · + QN dn = Qi di (3.3.1)
i=1

Polar materials adjust their self with the field. The polarization of non-polar mate-
rials is until the applied field exist. Consider a polarized dielectric material placed
at origin as shown in Figure 3.2. We can determine electric potential at some point
due to polarization of dielectric material as
P · ar
dV = (3.3.2)
4πϵo R2

p ( x, y , z )

p' ( x' , y ' , z ' )

Figure 3.2: Electric potential due to polarized dielectric material

Chapter 3 72
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

The volume of the dielectric material is integrated over the primed coordinates
′ ′ ′
(x , y , z ). The radius joining the dielectric to point P is:
′ ′ ′
R = (x − x )ax + (y − y )ay + (z − z )az (3.3.3)

The gradient of the magnitude of the radius over the primed coordinates is:
′ ′ ′
1′ (x − x )ax + (y − y )ay + (z − z )az
∇ = p
R (x − x′ )2 + (y − y ′ )2 + (z − z ′ )2
ar
= (3.3.4)
R
replacing equation 3.3.4 in equation 3.3.2,
1 ′ 1
dV = P·∇ (3.3.5)
4πϵo R
Using property of divergence ∇ · (f A) = f (∇ · A) + ∇f · A,
   
1 ′ P 1 ′
dV = ∇ · − (∇ · P) (3.3.6)
4πϵo R R
Integrating both sides
Z   Z 
1 ′P 1 ′
V = ∇ · dν − (∇ · P)dν (3.3.7)
4πϵo R R
Applying divergence theorem to first term,
′
P · ar ∇ ·P
I Z
V = ds + − dν (3.3.8)
4πϵo R 4πϵo R
The first term in equation 3.3.8 is potential difference at P due to the polarization
of the surface of the dielectric material. Let ρρs be bounded surface charge density
due to the polarization of the dielectric then,

ρρs = P · ar (3.3.9)

While the second term in equation 3.3.8 is potential difference at P due to the
polarization of inside of the dielectric material. Let ρρν be bounded volume charge
density due to the polarization of the dielectric then,
′
ρρν = −∇ · P (3.3.10)

The material stays neutral as

I Z Z Z
′
Qtotal = P · ar ds + −∇ · Pdν = ρρs ds + ρρν dν = 0 (3.3.11)

If there are free electrons in the dielectric material, charges that drift due to the
applied field, the total charge in the volume is:

ρt = ρν + ρρν
ρv = ρt − ρρν (3.3.12)

Chapter 3 73
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Using Maxwell first equation

∇ · ϵo E = ρt − ρρν
= ∇ · ϵo E + ∇ · P
= ∇(ϵo E + P) (3.3.13)

This shows that electric field applied to dielectric material increases the electric field
intensity inside the dielectric material by P amount. The polarization occurs due to
the applied electric field intensity, it is directly proportional to the applied electric
field. Hence

P = χe ϵo E (3.3.14)

Where χe is known as electric susceptibility of the dielectric material. It shows the

degree of sensitivity of the dielectric material to applied electric field. Finally

E = ∇(ϵo E + P)
= ∇ϵo (1 + χe )E
= ∇ϵo ϵr E (3.3.15)

ϵr is called relative permittivity of a dielectric material, or the ratio of permittivity

of the material to permittivity of free space.

For non-ideal dielectric material, when the applied electric field intensity increase,
electrons began to detach from the molecules and the material start conducting.
When this happens we say dielectric breakdown has occurred. The minimum elec-
tric field intensity at which dielectric material breakdown occur or the maximum
electric field intensity the material can handle before dielectric break down is called
the dielectric strength of the material.

3.4 Classification of Materials

Based on D = ϵE and J = σE materials are classified as

• Linear: if ϵ and σ are constant (ı.e if they does not vary with E).

• Homogeneous: If if ϵ and σ are the same throughout the material.

• Isotropic: if ϵ and σ does not depend on the direction of applied electric field.

Chapter 3 74
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

3.5 The Conservation of Electric Charge

In principle the rate of decrease in a charge from some volume is equal to the rate
of out flow of current from the volume through the surface enclosing the volume.
Mathematically:
I
dQin
− = Iout = J · ds (3.5.1)
dt
Applying divergence theorem
I Z
J · ds = ∇ · Jdν (3.5.2)

Combining equation 3.5.1 and equation 3.5.2 and using dQin = ρν dν,
Z Z
d
− ρν dν = ∇ · Jdν (3.5.3)
dt
since the volume does not shrink with time,
Z Z
∂ρν
− dν = ∇ · Jdν
∂t
∂ρν
∇·J=− (3.5.4)
∂t
Equation 3.5.4 is called current continuity equation. This equation shows that there
is no accumulation of charge at any point for steady current flow. Thus for steady
current flow
∂ρν
∇·J+ =0 (3.5.5)
∂t
This means a current entering the surface is equal to the current leaving the surface
(Kirchhoff current law is derived from this).
Assuming that the material is homogeneous and replacing J = σE and ρν = ∇ · ϵE
in equation 3.5.4,
∂ρν
∇ · σE = −
∂t
∂ρν
σ(∇ · E) = −
∂t
ρν ∂ρν
σ + =0 (3.5.6)
ϵ ∂t
Solving for ρν using separation of variable,
∂ρν σ
= − dt
ρν ϵ
σ
ln(ρν ) − ln(ρνo ) = − t
ϵ
− σϵ t
ρ ν = ρ νo e (3.5.7)
σ
Let τr = , τr is called relaxation time, the time required for a volume charge
ϵ
density to decrease by 36.8% (at t = τr ).

Chapter 3 75
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

3.6 Electrostatic Boundary Conditions

Until now we only discuss about the property of single material, dielectric, conductor
or free space. What if these materials are combined together like in parallel plate
capacitor? What happens to electric field intensity, electric potential, electric flux
density at the boundary between this materials? Can we determine electric field
intensity in one of the material if the field at the boundary is known? To analyze
the behavior ofI electric field intensity and electric field density
I at the boundary we
use Gauss law D·ds = Qenclosed and Maxwell equation E·dl = 0. We also need
to decompose the electric field intensity and electric field density at the boundary
to its normal component and tangential component to the boundary surface.

E = Et + En
D = Dt + Dn

3.6.1 Dielectric-Dielectric boundary condition

Consider the boundary condition between two dielectric material with relative per-
mittivity ϵ1 and ϵ2 as shown in Figure 3.3.

E2t r2
E2n E2
h S an 2
2

w D2
D1 h
S
E1 1
E1n
 r1
an1
E1t

Figure 3.3: Dielectric dielectric boundary condition

I
Applying E · dl = 0 at the boundary,

∆h ∆h ∆h ∆h
E1t ∆w + E1n + E2n + E2t (−∆w) + E2n (− ) + E1n (− )=0
2 2 2 2
∆h ∆h ∆h ∆h
E1t ∆w + E1n + E2n − E2t ∆w − E2n − E1n =0
2 2 2 2
E1t ∆w − E2t ∆w = 0
(E1t − E2t )∆w = 0
D1t D2t
E1t = E2t ⇒ = (3.6.1)
ϵ1 ϵ2

Chapter 3 76
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

This shows that the tangential components of electric field intensity is continuous
at the boundary, while tangential component of electric flux density is not.
In same way applying Gauss law at the boundary (∆h → 0 at the boundary for
the cylinder in Figure 3.3). The charge enclosed between the materials have surface
charge density, let it be ρs , so Qenclosed by the two material surface is ρs ∆s. Hence:

D1n (∆s) + D2n (∆s) = ρs ∆s

−D1n ∆s + D2n (∆s) = ρs ∆s
(D2n − D2n )∆s = ρs ∆s
D2n − D2n = ρs (3.6.2)

If there is no free charge density between the surface of the dielectric materials,

D2n = D2n ⇒ ϵ1 E1n = ϵ2 E2n (3.6.3)

In these case (if ρs = 0) the normal component of electric flux density is continuous
at the boundary while normal component of electric field intensity is not.
Suppose electric field intensity in the first dielectric material made an angle θ1 with
the normal vector to the boundary and electric field intensity in the second dielectric
material made an angle θ2 with the normal vector to the boundary then,

E1t = E1 sin θ1 E2t = E2 sin θ2

E1n = E1 cos θ1 E2n = E2 cos θ2

Using equation 3.6.1 and equation 3.6.3 (assuming that ρs = 0)

E1t E2t
=
E1n E2n
E1 sin θ1 E2 sin θ2
=
ϵ1 E1 cos θ1 ϵ2 E2 cos θ2
tan θ1 tan θ2
=
ϵ1 ϵ2
tan θ1 ϵ1
= (3.6.4)
tan θ2 ϵ2
Equation 3.6.4 is called law of refraction.

Chapter 3 77
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

3.6.2 Conductor-Dielectric/Free space boundary condition

Consider a dielectric and a conductor boundary condition as shown in Figure 3.4.
From property of pure conductor , inside a conductor electric field intensity is zero
and the charges are always on the surface of a conductor.

Et r
En
E h S an 2
2

w
D
h
S
1

an1

Figure 3.4: Conductor dielectric boundary condition

I
Applying E · dl = 0 at the boundary,

∆h ∆h
− Et ∆w + En − En =0
2 2
− Et ∆w = 0
Dt
Et = 0 ⇒ =0 (3.6.5)
ϵ1
This shows that the tangential components of electric field intensity is zero for a
perfect conductor.
In same way applying Gauss law at the boundary (∆h → 0 at the boundary for the
cylinder in Figure 3.4). The charge enclosed between the conductor and dielectric
material has surface charge density ρs , so Qenclosed by the two material surface is
ρs ∆s. Hence:

Dn (∆s) − 0(∆s) = ρs ∆s
−Dn ∆s = ρs ∆s
Dn = ρ s (3.6.6)

So, for a perfect conductor electric field intensity is always external to the conductor
and has only normal component (ı.e. electric field is always normal to the surface
of a conductor). This is applicable in electrostatic shielding.

Chapter 3 78
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

3.7 Examples
1. In a certain region J = (3r2 cos θar − r2 sin θaθ ). Find the current crossing a
surface defined by θ = 300 , 0 < ϕ < 2π, 0 < r < 2m.

Solution:-

dI = J · ds ⇒ dI = (3r2 cos θar − r2 sin θaθ ) · r sin θdrdθaθ

dI = −r3 sin2 θdrdθ
Z 2π Z 2
I=− −r3 sin2 θdrdθ = −2πA
0 0

2. A charge 10−4 e−3t is removed from a sphere through a wire, find the current
in the wire at t = 0 and t = 2.5sec.

Solution:-
dQ d
10−4 e−3t = −3 × 10−4 e3t


I= =
dt dt
at t = 0 I = −3 × 10−4 e3(0) = −3 × 10−4 A
at t = 2.5 I = −3 × 10−4 e3(2.5) = −3 × 10−4 e−7.5 A

3. A free charge density in a copper is 1.81 × 1010 C/m2 , for a current density of
8 × 106 A/m2 . Find the electric field intensity and drift velocity.

Solution:-

J = σE andJ = ρν u
J 8 × 106 A/m2
E= = = 1.38V /m
σ 5.8 × 106 Ω/m
J 8 × 106 A/m2
u= = = 4.42 × 10−4 m/s
ρν 1.81 × 1010 C/m3

4. A lead (5 × 106 S/m) bar having a hole in a middle filled with a copper(σ =
5.8 × 106 Ω/m). Find the resistance of the composite between the two ends of
the square.

Solution:-
l l 4m
R1 = = = = 974µΩ
σlead s σlead (d2
− πr2 )
σlead (32
− pi/4)cm2
l l 4m
R2 = = = = 8785.42µΩ
σcopper s σcopper × πr 2 σcopper × π/4 × 10−4 m2
1 1 1 R2 R1
= + ⇒ RT = = 876.79µΩ
RT R1 R2 R1 + R2

Chapter 3 79
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

3cm
1cm

4m

3 cm

Figure 3.5: Problem 4

5. A parallel plate capacitor with plate separation 2mm, has 1kV voltage applied
to its plate. If the space between its plate is filled with polystyrene (ϵr = 2.55),
find electric field intensity, polarization and bounded surface charge density.

Solution:- Electric field intensity

V 1kV
E= = kV /max
l 2 × 10−3
Polarization intensity

P = χe ϵo E = (ϵr − 1)ϵo E
10− 9
P = (2.55 − 1) × 500kV /max = 6.856 × 10−6 kV /max
36π
Electric flux intensity

D = ϵo E
10− 9
D = 2.55 × 500kV /max = 11.279 × 10−6 C/m2 ax
36π
Free surface charge density

ρs = D · an
ρs = 11.279 × 10−6 C/m2 ax · ax = 11.279 × 10−6 C/m2

Bounded surface charge density

ρρs = P · an
ρρs = 6.856 × 10−6 kV /max · ax = 6.856 × 10−6 kV /m

Chapter 3 80
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

1
6. In a dielectric material Ex = 5V /m and P = (3a +a +4az )nC/m2 . Cal-
10π x y
culate electric susceptibility, electric field intensity and electric flux density.

Solution:-
Polarization intensity

P = χe ϵo E
1 10− 9
(3ax +ay +4az )nC/m2 = χ (Ex ax + Ey ay + Ez az )
10π 36π
3ax χe × 10−9
nC/m2 = Ex ⇒ χe = 2.16
10π 36π
P (3ax +ay +4az )nC/m2
E= = − = 5ax − 1.667ay + 6.667az V /m
χe ϵo 2.16 × 1036π9 × 10π

Electric flux intensity

D = ϵo E
10− 9
D = (1 + χe ) × (5ax − 1.667ay + 6.667az V /m)
36π
D = 139.77ax − 46.6ay + 186.37az pC/m

4
7. Given J = 5e10 t ar , at t = 0.1ms find the amount of current passing through
surface r = 2m and ρν on this surface.

Solution:-
Current through the surface r = 2m at t = 0.1ms
4 (0.1×10−3 )
dI = J · ds and J@t=0.1ms = 5e10 ar = 5ear
Z 2π Z π
I= 5ear · r2 sin θdθdπar
0 0
I = 40πeA

∂
From continuity equation ∇ · J = − ρν ,
∂t
4
∂ 1 ∂  2 104 t  10e10 t
ρν = − 2 r 5e =−
∂t r ∂r r
Z 104 t −3 104 t
10e 10 e
ρν = − dt = − C/m3
r r
at t = 0.1ms ρν = 0.5e × 10−3 C/m3

Chapter 3 81
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

8. For static field (time invariant) which of the following current density is pos-
sible
∂
From current continuity equation ∇ · J = − ρν and ρν is constant which
∂t
means ∇ · J = 0,

(a) J = 2x3 yax + 4x2 za2y − 6x2 yzaz .

Solution:-
  
∂ ∂ ∂ 
∇·J=0⇒ ax + ay + az · 2x3 yax + 4x2 za2y − 6x2 yzaz
∂x ∂y ∂z
2 2
= 6x y − 6x y = 0

hence it is possible.
(b) J = xyax + y(z + 1)ay + 2yaz .

Solution:-
 
∂ ∂ ∂

∇·J=0⇒ ax + ay + az · xyax + y(z + 1)ay + 2yaz
∂x ∂y ∂z
= y + (z + 1) ̸= 0

hence it is not possible.

z2
(c) J = aρ + z cos ϕaz .
ρ
Solution:-
   2 
∂ 1 ∂ ∂ z
∇·J=0⇒ aρ + aϕ + az · aρ + z cos ϕaz
∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z ρ
= cosϕ ̸= 0

hence it is not possible.

sin θ
(d) J = 2 ar
r
Solution:-
   
∂ 1 ∂ ∂ sin θ
∇·J=0⇒ aρ + aϕ + az · ar = 0
∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z r2

hence it is possible.

Chapter 3 82
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

9. Given region one z < 0 contain dielectric for ϵr = 2.5, region two z > 0 with
ϵ2 = 4. Let E1 = −30ax + 50ay + 70az V /m find D2 , P and the angle E1 with
the surface normal.

Solution:-
The tangential and normal components of E1 are,

E1n = (E · an )an = ((−30ax + 50ay + 70az ) · az )az = 70az V /m

E1t = E − E1n = (−30ax + 50ay + 70az ) − 70az = −30ax + 50ay V /m

From E2t = E1t ,

E2t = −30ax + 50ay V /m

The electric flux density in region 2 D2 is:

2.5 × 10−9
D1 = ϵo ϵr1 = (−30ax + 50ay + 70az )
36π
2.5 × 10−9
D1t = (−30ax + 50ay )
36π
2.5 × 10−9
D1n = (70az )
36π
If there is no free charge density between the surfaces D1n = D2n , hence:

D2t = ϵo ϵr2 E2t

4 × 10−9
D2t = (−30ax + 50ay )
36π
4 × 10−9 2.5 × 10−9
D2 = D2t + D2n = (−30ax + 50ay ) + (70az )
36π 36π
−120ax + 200ay + 175az
D2 = nC/m2
36π
Polarization intensity in region two is:

P2 = χe ϵo E2
D2n
P2 = E2t + E2n , but E2n = = 43.75az
ϵr2 ϵo
E2 = −30ax + 50ay + 43.75az , χe2 = ϵr2 − 1 = 4 − 1 = 3
3 × 10−9
P2 = (−30ax + 50ay + 43.75az )
36π
−90ax + 150ay + 131.25az
=
36π
The angle E1 makes with the normal is:
√
E1t 3400
tan θ1 = = √
E1n 70
o
θ1 = 6.921

Chapter 3 83
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

10. Given E = 15ax − 8az V /m at a point on a conductor, what is surface charge

density at the point? Assume ϵ = ϵo .

Solution:-
Electric field intensity is external and normal to the surface of the conductor.
So, E = En ⇒ Dn = ϵo En .

Dn = ϵo En
10−9
= (15ax − 8ay )
36π
Similarly since electric field is zero in the conductor. The electric field density
must be equal to the total surface charge density on the conductor ρs = Dn .
Hence:
15ax − 8ax
ρs = nC/m2
36π
If y ≥ 2 is occupied by a conductor having ρs = −20nC/m2 find D just outside
a conductor.

Dn = ρs = −20nC/m2

3.8 Exercises
1. Given the vector current density J = 10ρ2aρ + 4ρ cos2 ϕaϕ A/m2 .

(a) Find the current density at P(ρ = 3, ϕ = 300 , z = 2).

(b) Determine the total current density outward flow through a circular band
ρ = 3, 0 < ϕ < 2π, 2 < z < 2.8

2. Current density is given in cylindrical coordinates system J = −106 za1.5

z
A/m2
in the region 0 ≤ ρ ≤ 20µm for ρ > 20µm J = 0,

(a) Find the total current density crossing the surface z = 0.1m in az direc-
tion.
(b) If the velocity of the charge is 2 × 106 m/s at z = 0.1m find ρν there.
(c) If the volume charge density at z = 0.1m is −200C/m3 find the charge
velocity.

3. Find the magnitude of the current density in a sample of silver for which
σ = 6.17 × 107 S/m and µe = 0.0056m2 /V s, if

(a) the drift velocity is 15µm/s.

(b) electric field intensity is 1mV /m.
(c) the sample is a cube 2.5 mm outside having a voltage 0.4mv between the
opposite faces.
(d) the sample is a cube 2.5mm on a side carrying a total current of 0.5A.

Chapter 3 84
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

4. A copper conductor has a diameter of 6cm and 1200m length. Assume that it
carries a total DC current of 50A.

(a) find the total resistance of the conductor.

(b) what current density exist in it?
(c) what is the dc voltage between the conductor end?
(d) how much power is dissipated in the wire?

5. The continuity equation for mass equates the divergence of the mass rate of
flow (mass per second per square meter) to the negative of the density (mass
per cubic meter). After setting up a cartesian coordinates system inside a
star, Captain Hirk and his intrepid crew make measurements over the faces
of a cube centered at the origin with edges 40 km long and parallel to the
coordinates axes. They find the mass rate of flow of mate- rial outward across
the six faces to −1112, 1183, 201, −196, 1989 and 1920kg/km2 .

(a) Estimate the divergence of the mass rate of flow at the origin.
(b) Estimate the rate of change of the density at the origin.

6. Two perfectly conducting cylindrical surfaces are located at ρ = 3cm and

ρ = 5cm. The total current passing radially outward through the medium
between the cylinders is 3 A dc. Find the voltage and resistance between the
cylinders, and E in the region between the cylinders, if

(a) A conducting material having σ = 0.05S/m is present for 3 < ρ < 5cm.
(b) Show that integrating the power dissipated per unit volume over the
volume gives the total dissipated power.

7. Let the region z < 0 be composed of a uniform dielectric material for which
ϵr = 3.2 while the region z > 0 is characterized by ϵr = 2. Let D1 = −30ax +
50ay + 70az nC/m2 . Then find D2 , P1 , P2 , θ1 and θ2 .

8. Let ϵ = ϵo and V = 90z 3/4 V i the region z=0.

(a) Obtain the expression of E and D as a function of z.

(b) If the velocity of the charge id given as ux = 5 × 106 z 2/3 m/s find Jz at
z=0 and z=0.1m.

9. Assuming that there is no transformation of mass to energy or vice versa, it

is possible to write a continuity equation for mass.

(a) a) If we use the continuity equation for charge as our model, what quan-
tities correspond to J and ρν ?
(b) Given a cube 1 cm on a side, experimental data show that the rates at
which mass is leaving each of the six faces are 10.25, −9.85, 1.75, −2.00, −4.05, and4.45mg/s

If we assume that the cube is an incremental volume element, determine an

approximate value for the time rate of change of density at its center.

Chapter 3 85
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

10. Two conducting concentric, cylindrical shells are separated by a dielectric of

permittivity ϵ [F/m]. This is the common form of coaxial cables where the
dielectric is the insulating material between the two conductors. A total charge
+ Q [C] is distributed uniformly per unit length of the inner shell. Calculate:

(a) The magnitude and direction of the polarization vector inside the dielec-
tric.
(b) The polarization volume charge density in the dielectric.
(c) The polarization surface charge densities on the surfaces of the dielectric.

11. Integrated circuits owe much of their success to miniaturization. This allows
increased device density by closer spacings of conducting films and other cir-
cuit elements on the semiconductor layer. Conducting layers are separated
from each other by dielectric layers, normally in the form of oxides of the
semiconductors. One limit to miniaturization is the possibility of breakdown
of the insulating oxide layer due to application of operating voltages or accu-
mulation of electrostatic charges while the device is not operating. Consider
the following example. Two conducting strips in an integrated circuit are sep-
arated a distance d. The layer between the strips is silicon oxide SiO2 , which
has dielectric strength of 30,000 V/mm:

(a) Assuming the electric field is uniform between the two strips, calculate the
smallest separation possible between the strips at an operating voltage of
5 V.
(b) Suppose in a commercially available device, the smallest separation is 0.2
µm (the micrometer is also known as a micron). What is the maximum
potential that the device can withstand without damage?

12. An electric field intensity with magnitude Eo =1,000 V/m is perpendicular to

the surface of a perfect conductor.

(a) Calculate the surface charge density at the conductor-air interface.

(b) Suppose the conductor is coated with a dielectric with relative permittiv-
ity of 2.5. The electric field intensity at the air-dielectric interface is the
same as in (a). Does this coating change the conductor’s surface charge
density?

13. A slab of dielectric material has a relative dielectric constant of 3.8 and con-
tains a uniform electric flux density of 8nC/m2 . If the material is loss-less
find E, P and average number of dipole per cubic meter if the average dipole
moment is 10−23 C.m.

Chapter 3 86
Chapter 4

Electrostatic Boundary-Value
Problems

We have been calculating E (electric field intensity) based on

• Gauss law or Coulombs law if charge distribution Q is given or

• Using Electric potential if V is given using E = −∇V

In-practical case we may not have both of this quantities so, if electrostatic condi-
tions E and V or change distribution at some boundary is given, can we find E and
V throughout the region? We will address such kind of problems is this chapter.

4.1 Laplace and Poisson’s Equation

Using Maxwell first equation and E = −∇V for homogeneous material,

∇ · D = ρν
ρν
∇ · ϵE = ρν ⇒ ∇ · E =
ϵ
ρν ρν
−∇ · ∇V = ⇒ ∇ · ∇V = −
ϵ ϵ
2 ρν
∇ V =− (4.1.1)
ϵ
Equation 4.1.1 is called Poisson equation. If ρν = 0 the equation reduce to Laplace
equation

∇2 V = 0 (4.1.2)

Thus Laplace’s equation in cartesian, cylindrical, or spherical coordinates, respec-

tively, is given by:

∂ 2V ∂ 2V ∂ 2V
∇2 V = + + (4.1.3)
∂x2  ∂xy  ∂z 2
1 ∂ ∂V 1 ∂ 2V ∂ 2V
∇2 V = ρ + 2 2 + (4.1.4)
ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z 2
∂ 2V
   
2 1 ∂ 2 ∂V 1 ∂ ∂V 1
∇V = 2 r + 2 sin θ + 2 2 (4.1.5)
r ∂r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ2

87
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

4.2 The Uniqueness Theorem

If there is a solution to Laplace or Poisson equation, then the solution is unique.
There is no two solutions for Laplace or Poisson equation.

4.2.1 Proof of uniqueness theorem

Suppose there exist two solutions for Poisson equation V1 and V2 . At the boundary,
since they have to meet the boundary condition V1 − V2 = 0. Let Vd = V1 − V2 away
from the boundary, and Vd = 0 ⇒ ∇Vd = 0 at boundary. Let us consider a vector
A = Vd ∇Vd , taking divergence of this vector
∇ · A = ∇ · (Vd ∇Vd )
= ∇Vd · ∇Vd + Vd ∇2 Vd (4.2.1)
Since ∇2 Vd = ∇2 V1 − ∇2 V2 = 0 at the boundary,
∇ · A = ∇Vd · ∇Vd (4.2.2)
Applying divergence theorem to equation 4.2.2,
I Z Z
∇ · Ads = ∇ · (Vd ∇Vd )dν = |∇Vd |2 dν (4.2.3)

The integral of |∇Vd |2 is always greater than or equal zero, so ∇Vd can only be zero.
Hence V1 = V2 .

Which means the integral of the gradient of a potential difference at a boundary

is equal to the integral of the divergence of the gradient of the potential difference
in the volume enclosed by the boundary. Hence if the integral of the gradient of the
potential difference Vd is zero at the boundary, then it must be zero everywhere in
the boundary. This implies that V1 is equal to V2 everywhere in the boundary.

4.3 General Procedures to Solve Laplace or Poisson Equa-

tion
• Identify if ρν is zero at the boundary.
• Integrate the equation either by separation of variable or directly.
• Apply boundary conditions.
• Solve for the required electrostatic parameter.
We always use boundary value problems in determining capacitance of a capacitor
and resistance of a material. The capacitance of any capacitor is:
H
Q D · ds
C= = R (4.3.1)
V E · dl
While resistance of any material is:
R
V E · dl
R= = H (4.3.2)
I σ E · ds

Chapter 4 88
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

4.4 Examples
ρo x
1. In a one dimension device the charge density is given by ρν = , if E = 0
a
at x = 0 and V = 0 at x = a find V and E.

Solution
Since the charge distribution is only along x-axis,

∇ · Dx = ρν
ρo x2
Z
ρo x
Dx = dx = + C1
a 2a
ρ o x2
Ex = + C1
2ϵo a
Replacing for E at x = 0, we get C1 = 0, to get an expression for electric-field
potential
∂V
Ex = −∇V = −
∂x
ρ o x3
V =− + C2
6aϵo

ρo a2
Replacing for V at x = a, C2 = , so the expression for V is:
6ϵo

ρo (a3 − x3 )
V =
6aϵo

2. In cylindrical coordinates, V=50V on plane ϕ = π/25 and V=0V on plane

ϕ = 0. Assuming that the planes are insulated along the z-axis, determine E
between the planes.

Solution
Since the potential difference varies only along ϕ plane, and there is no infor-
mation about charge distribution the problem result in laplacian equation,

1 ∂ 2V
 
2
∇V = 2 =0
ρ ∂ϕ2
V = C1 ϕ + C2

1250
replacing for the values result in C2 = 0, and C1 = ,
π
1250
V = ϕ
π

Chapter 4 89
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

3. (a) Show that V = Vo (1 − a2 /ρ2 )ρ sin ϕ (where Vo is constant) satisfies

Laplace’s equation.
(b) Determine E for ρ2 >> a2 .
Solution

(a)

1 ∂ 2V ∂ 2V
 
2 1 ∂ ∂V
∇V = ρ + 2 2 +
ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z 2
 2
(ρ − a2 )

1
sin ϕ − 2 Vo (1 − a2 /ρ2 )ρ sin ϕ


= Vo 3
ρ ρ
2 2
(ρ − a ) (ρ2 − a2 )
= Vo ( ) sin ϕ − Vo ( ) sin ϕ
ρ3 ρ3
=0

(b) For ρ2 >> a2 ,

V = Vo (1 − a2 /ρ2 )ρ sin ϕ ≈ Vo ρ sin ϕ

hence:

E = −∇V
∂V 1 ∂V ∂V
=− − −
∂ρ aρ ρ ∂ϕ aϕ ∂z az
= −Vo sin ϕaρ − Vo cos ϕaϕ

4. Two conducting planes are located at x=0 and x=50 mm. The zero voltage
reference is at x =20 mm. Given that E= 110ax V/m, calculate the conductor
voltages.

Solution
Z
E = −∇V ⇔ V = − Ex dx

V = (−110x + C1 )V

replacing the values,

V = −110x + C1 ⇔ 0 = −110 × 20 × 10− 3V + C1 ⇔ C1 = 2.2V

V = (−110x + 2.2)V

the voltages of each plates is:

Vx=0mm = 0 + 2.2V = 2.2V

Vx=50mm = −110 × 50 × 10−3 V + 2.2V = −5.5V + 2.2V = −3.3V

Chapter 4 90
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

5. The region between concentric spherical conducting shells r=0.5 m and r=1 m
is charge free. If (V(r=0.5) = −50V ) and (V(r=1) = 50V ), determine the poten-
tial distribution and the electric field strength in the region between the shells.

Solution
The voltage variation is radial, which leads to Laplace equation,
 
2 1 ∂ 2 ∂V
∇V = 2 r =0
r ∂r ∂r
C1
V =− + C2
r
replacing the values

−50V = −2C1 + C2
50V = −C1 + C2 ⇔ C1 = 100, C2 = 150
100
V =− + 150 V
r

6. The inner and outer electrodes of a diode are coaxial cylinders of radii a=
0.6 mm and b =30 mm, respectively. The inner electrode is maintained at
70 V, while the outer electrode is grounded. (a) Assuming that the length of
the electrodes l >> a, b and ignoring the effects of space charge, calculate the
potential at ρ=15 mm. (b) If an electron is injected radially through a small
hole in the inner electrode with velocity 107 m/s, find its velocity at ρ=15 mm.

Solution
 
2 1 ∂ ∂V
∇V = ρ =o
ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ
V = C1 ln|ρ| + C2

replacing the boundary conditions

70V = C1 ln|0.6 × 10− 3| + C2

0V = C1 ln|30 × 10− 3| + C2
70 70
C1 = 0.6 = = 17.894V /m, C2 = −0.53682V
ln 30 −3.912
V = 17.894V /mln|ρ| − 0.53682V

The potential at ρ = 15mm is:

V = 17.894V /mln(15 × 10−3 m) − 0.53682V = −75.1495V − 0.53682V

= −75.68632V

Chapter 4 91
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

The velocity of the electron is:

vf2 = vo2 + 2ar S

F Ee
ar = =
me me
V −75.68632V
E= = −3
= 5.046 × 103 V /m
d 15 × 10
5.046 × 103 V /m × 1.6 × 10−19 C
ar = = 8.86 × 1014 m/s2
9.11 × 10−31 Kg
vf2 = (107 m/s)2 + 2 × 8.86 × 1014 m/s2 × 15 × 10−3 m
vf = 1.125 × 107 m/s

7. Find a capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with area A and plate separa-
tion distance d.

Solution
H
Q ϵo E · ds
C= = R
V E · dl
H
ϵo E ds
C= R
E dl
ϵo A
=
d

8. Find a capacitance of a Coaxial capacitor with inner radius a and outer radius
b.

Solution
I
Q = ϵo E · ds = 2πϵo Eρ ρL
Q
E= aρ
2πϵo ρL
Z b Z b 
Q
V =− E · dl = − dρ
a a 2πϵo ρL
Q b
= ln
2πϵo L a
Finally,
Q 2πϵo L
C= =
V ln ab

Chapter 4 92
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

9. Find a capacitance of a Spherical capacitor with inner radius a and outer ra-
dius b.

Solution
I
Q = ϵo E · ds = 4πϵo Er r2
Q
E= ar
4πϵo r2
Z b Z b 
Q
V =− E · dl = − dr
a a 4πϵo r2
 
Q 1 1
= −
4πϵo a b
Finally,
Q 4πϵo
C= = 1 1
V a
−b

10. In free space V = 6xy 2 z + 8 find E and ρν at P(1,2,-5).

Solution
∂V ∂V ∂V
E = −∇V = − ax − ay − az
∂x ∂y ∂z
= −6y 2 zax − 12xyzay − 6xya2z
E@P = 120ax − 235ay − 24az V /m

ρν
∇2 V = ⇔ ρν = ϵo ∇2 V
ϵo
ρν = −12xyϵo
ρν @P = −60C/m2

11. A certain material occupies a space between two conducting slabs located at
y = ±2. When heated the material emits electrons such that ρν = 50(1 −
y 2 )µC/m3 . If the slabs are both held at 30Kv, find potential distribution
within the slabs. (Take ϵ = 2ϵo )

Solution
∂ 2V
∇2 V = = 50(1 − y 2 )µC/m3
∂ 2y
y2 y4
V = 50( − )µC/m3 + C1 y + C2
2 12

replacing the boundary values

30Kv = 50(0.677)µC/m3 + 2C1 + C2
30Kv = 50(0.677)µC/m3 − 2C1 + C2 ⇔ C1 = 0, C2 = 90 × 107 V m2 /C

Chapter 4 93
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

So, the potential distribution between the plates is:

y2 y4
V = 50( − )µC/m3 + 90 × 107 V m2 /C
2 12

12. A parallel-plate capacitor has plate area 200cm2 and plate separation of 3 mm.
The charge density is 1µC/m2 and air is the dielectric. Find

(a) The capacitance of the capacitor

(b) The voltage between the plates
(c) The force with which the plates attract each other

Solution

(a) Capacitance

ϵA 0.02m2 ϵ
C= = = 6.66mϵ = 69 × 10−12 F
d 0.003m

(b) Voltage between the plates

Q ρs A 1µC/m2 × 0.02m2
V = = = = 0.289Kv
C C 69 × 10−12 F

(c) Force of attraction between the plates is:

V
F = EQ = Q = 96.33 × 103 N/C × 2 × 10−8 C = 192.667 × 105 N
d
13. The capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor is 56µF when the dielectric ma-
terial is in place. The capacitance drops to 32µF when the dielectric material
is removed. Calculate the dielectric constant ϵr of the material.

Solution
ϵo ϵr A
C1 = = 56µF
d
ϵo A
C0 = = 32µF
d
the ratio of the two capacitance values gives us the dielectric constant,
C1
= ϵr = 1.75
C0

Chapter 4 94
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

14. A parallel-plate capacitor has a 4 mm plate separation, 0.5m2 surface area

per plate, and a dielectric with ϵr = 6.8. If the plates are maintained at 9 V
potential difference, calculate (a) the capacitance, (b) the charge density on
each plate.

Solution
The capacitance of the plates is:

ϵo ϵr A ϵo × 6.8 × 0.5m2
C= = = 7.522 × 10−9 C
d 0.004m
The charge density on the plates is:

Q CV 7.522 × 10−9 C × 9V
ρs = = = 2
= 135.405 × 10−9 C/m2
A A 0.5m

15. A parallel-plate capacitor remains connected to a voltage source while the sep-
aration between the plates changes from d to 3d. Express new values of C, Q,
E, and W in terms of the old values Co Qo , Eo , and Wo .

Solution
ϵo ϵr A
Co = , Vo = constant ⇔ Qo = Vo Co
d
Vo
Eo =
dZ Z
ϵ ϵ|Eo |2 Ad
Wo = |Eo |2 dsdl =
2 2
The values of C, Q, E and W after the distance changes from d to 3d
ϵo ϵr A Co
C= =
3d 3
Co Qo
Q = Vo C = Vo =
3 3
V Vo Eo
E= = =
3d 3d 3
2
ϵ|Eo | A(3d)
W = = 3Wo
2

Chapter 4 95
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

16. A parallel-plate capacitor has plate area 40cm2 . The dielectric has two layers
with permittivity ϵ1 = 4ϵo and ϵ2 = 6ϵo , and each layer is 2 mm thick. If the
capacitor is connected to a voltage 12 V, calculate:
(a) the capacitance of the capacitor,
(b) the total charge on each plate,
(c) the values of E, D, and P.
Solution
(a) Due to the two layers, we will consider the capacitor as a composite
capacitor (two capacitors connected in series). Hence the capacitance of
the capacitor is:
1 1 1 C1 C2
= + ⇔C=
C C1 C2 C1 + C2
ϵo A 4ϵo × 4 × 10−3 m2
C1 = = = 8ϵo m
d 2 × 10−3 m
ϵo A 6ϵo × 4 × 10−3 m2
C2 = = = 12ϵo m
d 2 × 10−3 m
8ϵo m × 12ϵo m
C= = 4.8ϵo m = 42.48 × 10−12 F
20ϵo m
(b) Total charge of the plate
Q = CV = 42.48 × 10−12 F × 12V = 509.76 × 10−12 C

(c) The value of E, D, and P is:

V 12V
E= = = 6Kv/m
d 2 × 10−3 m
D = ϵE = 53.1 × 10−9 C/m2
Q 509.76 × 10−12 C
P= = = 1.2744 × 10−7 C/m2 an
A 0.004m2
17. The space between spherical conducting shells r=5 cm and r=10 cm is filled
with a dielectric material for which ϵ = 2.25ϵo . The two shells are maintained
at a potential difference of 80 V.
(a) Find the capacitance of the system.
(b) Calculate the charge density on shell r=5cm.
Solution
(a) Capacitance
4πϵ 4πϵ
C= 1 1 = = 25.0101 × 10−12 F
a
−b 10/m

(b) Charge density on surface of a sphere with radius r = 5cm is:

Q CV
ρs = = = 6.372 × 10−8 c/m2
A 4πr2

Chapter 4 96
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

4.5 Exercises
1. Let V = 10(ρ + 1)z 2 cos ϕV in free space.
(a) Let the equipotential surface V = 20V define a conductor surface. Find
the equation of the conductor surface.
(b) Find ρ and E at that point on the conductor surface where ϕ = 2π and
z = 1.5.
(c) Find |ρs | at that point.
2. Let us assume a field E = 3y 2 za3x + 6xyza3y + 9xy 2 z 2 V /m in free space, and also
assume that point P(2,1,0) lies on a conducting surface.
(a) Find ρn u just adjacent to the surface at P.
(b) Find ρS at P.
(c) Show that V = 3xy 2 z 3 V .
(d) Determine VP Q , given Q (1, 1, 1).
3. Let V = 20x2 yz − 10z 2 V in free space.
(a) Determine the equations of the equipotential surfaces on which V =0 and
60 V.
(b) Assume these are conducting surfaces and find the surface charge density
at that point on the V=60-V surface where x=2 and z=1. It is known
that 0 ≤ V ≤ 60V is the field-containing region.
(c) Give the unit vector at this point that is normal to the conducting surface
and directed toward the V=0 surface.
4. Calculate the capacitance of the Earth assuming it is a conducting sphere of
radius Re =6,400 km.
5. A long coaxial cable is made with an internal conductor of radius a = 2mm
and an external conductor of radius b = 6mm. The design calls for three layers
of insulation between the two conductors. The inner layer is 1 mm thick and
is made of rubber (ϵr =4.0), the next layer is a plastic (ϵr = 9), 1 mm thick,
and the third layer is a foam (ϵr = 1.5), 2 mm thick. Calculate the capacitance
per unit length of the cable.
6. A little donor impurity, such as arsenic, is added to pure silicon so that the
electron concentration is 2 × 1017 conduction electrons per cubic meter while
the number of holes per cubic meter is only 1.1 × 1015 . If µe = 0.15m2 /V s for
this sample, and µh = 0.045m2 /V s, determine the conductivity and resistivity.
7. A 2-cm-diameter conductor is suspended in air with its axis 5 cm from a
conducting plane. Let the potential of the cylinder be 100 V and that of the
plane be 0 V. Find the surface charge density on the:
(a) cylinder at a point nearest the plane;
(b) plane at a point nearest the cylinder.

Chapter 4 97
Chapter 5

Magnetostatic Field

In electrostatic field studied the behavior and the effect of electric charges at rest.
What if there charges start moving in certain direction with constant velocity? Thus
in this chapter we deal with charges moving with constant velocity. Charges moving
with constant velocity will cause static magnetic field in their surroundings. The
steady motion of charges is called direct electric current. So, we study the static
magnetic field caused by direct current. Static magnetic field may be caused due to
the existence of permanent magnet in the region or electron beam in vacuum tube
or current carrying conductor. In this chapter we only focus on the magnetic field
caused due to current carrying element.

As in electrostatic field there are two governing laws in magnetostatic field called
Biot-Savart law and Amperes circuit law. As Gauss law is a special case for
Coulombs law, Amperes circuit law is a special case for Biot-Savart law.

Magnetostatic field has application in areas

• Direct current Motors and generators

• Transformers

• Magnetic levitated trains

• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and etc.

98
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

5.1 Biot-Savarts Law

Biot-Savart law:- States that the magnitude of magnetic field intensity H at a
point P due to a differential current carrying element Idl is proportional to the
product of the magnitude of the current carrying element and the sine of the angle
joining the element to the point and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between the point and the current carrying element. Mathematically:
Idl sin α
dH ∝ (5.1.1)
R2
1
The proportionality constant is .
4π
from vector product of two vectors Idl × ar = Idl sin α. Hence:
Idl × ar
dH = 2
Z 4πR
Idl × ar
H= (5.1.2)
4πR2

P

R
Idl 

Figure 5.1: Biot-Savart’s law

If the current distribution is:

• Surface current with current density K
Kds × ar
Z
H= (5.1.3)
s 4πR2

• Volume current with current density J

Jdν × ar
Z
H= (5.1.4)
ν 4πR2

Since the magnetic field is perpendicular to both current carrying element and the
radius joining the element to point P, we need some notation to represent magnetic
field intensity. To represent the third vector let ⊙ denote a vector pointing out of
the page and ⊗ denote a vector pointing into the page.

Chapter 5 99
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

5.1.1 Magnetic field intensity due to current carrying segment

Consider a current carrying element (straight filament conductor) segment along
z-axis as shown in Figure 5.2.


(0,0, z ) P

A
2
' R
(0,0, z )
Idl 

B
1

Figure 5.2: Magnetic field intensity due to current carrying element

The magnetic field intensity at point P due to the current carrying filament is:
Idl × ar
dH =
4πR2
Idl × R
= (5.1.5)
4πR3
′
but R = ρaρ + (z − z )az , so
′ ′
Idl × R = Idz az × (ρaρ + (z − z )az )
′ ′
= Iρdz (az × aρ ) = Iρdz aϕ (5.1.6)

Hence the magnetic field intensity is:

′
Iρdz
dH = aϕ (5.1.7)
4π[ρ + (z − z ′ )2 ]3/2
2

Using trigonometric substitution,

ρ ρ ′
tan(180 − α) = ′ ⇒ − tan α = ′ ⇒ z − z = −ρ cot α
z−z z−z
d ′ d
(z − z ) = − ′ (ρ cot α)
dz ′ dz
′ 2
dz = −ρ csc αdα

Chapter 5 100
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

′ ′
As z → A, α → α1 and as z → B, α → α2 , using this concept and replacing for
′ ′
dz and z − z , in equation 5.1.7 will be

Iρ(− csc2 α)
dH = dα aϕ
4π[ρ2 + (−ρ cot α)2 ]3/2
I
=− dα aϕ
4πρ csc α
I
=− sin αdα aϕ (5.1.8)
4πρ

From basic trigonometry, 1 + cot2 α = csc2 α. Integrating both sides,

Z α2
I
H=− sin αdα aϕ
4πρ α1
I
= [cos α2 − cos α1 ] aϕ (5.1.9)
4πρ
For semi-finite current carrying element oriented from origin to +∞ z axis, α1 → α1
and α2 = α2 → 0, with this the magnetic field intensity due to semi-infinite current
carrying element at point P is:
I
H= (1 − cos α1 )aϕ (5.1.10)
4π
For infinite line with current carrying element α1 → π and α2 → 0, with this
magnetic field intensity due to infinite current carrying filament at point P is:
I
H= aϕ (5.1.11)
2πρ

5.1.2 Magnetic field intensity due to current carrying loop

Consider a current carrying loop placed on z plane, as shown in Figure 5.3.

dH1
P

R1


y
dl1

Figure 5.3: Magnetic field Intensity due to current carrying loop

Chapter 5 101
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

The magnetic field net magnetic field intensity due to Idl1 at a point P on z axis
above the loop is:

dH = dHaρ + dHaz (5.1.12)

From Figure 5.3,

R = (0, 0, h) − (x, y, 0) = −ρaρ + haz

Idl = ρdϕaϕ
Idl × R = ρhdϕaρ + ρ2 dϕaz

Writing aρ in cartesian coordinates system as aρ = cos ϕax + sin ϕay ,

Z 2π Z 2π  Z 2π
Iρh Iρ2
H= cos ϕdϕax + sin ϕdϕay + dϕaz
4π [ρ2 + h2 ]3/2 0 0 0 4π [ρ2 + h2 ]3/2
Iρh 2π 2π Iρ2
(ϕ)|2π
 
= 3/2
(sin ϕ)|0 xa − (cos ϕ)|0 ya + 3/2 0 az
2
4π [ρ + h ] 2 2 2
4π [ρ + h ]
Iρ2
= az (5.1.13)
2 [ρ2 + h2 ]3/2

5.1.3 Magnetic field intensity inside current carrying solenoid

Consider a current carrying solenoid placed along z axis as shown in Figure 5.4.

dz
a 
1
2

z

                        

Figure 5.4: Magnetic field intensity due to current solenoid

If we consider each coil around a solenoid as a current carrying loop and there are
N
N turns around the solenoid, the number of turn per unit length is n = . The
l
magnetic field intensity at point P inside a solenoid is the sum of the magnetic field
intensity due to each current carrying loop. The magnetic field intensity due to the
current carrying loops in differential length dl = ndz at P is:
Ina2
dH = dzaz (5.1.14)
2 [a2 + z 2 ]3/2

Chapter 5 102
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

Using trigonometric substitution z = a cot θ ⇒ dz = −a csc2 θdθ replacing the terms

for z and dz in equation 5.1.14,

Ina3 csc2 θ
dH = − dθaz (5.1.15)
2 [a2 + (cot θ)2 ]3/2
In sin θ
=− dθaz (5.1.16)
2
Integrating both side
Z θ2
In
H=− sin θdθaz
θ1 2
In
= [cos θ2 − cos θ1 ] az (5.1.17)
2
At the center of the solenoid cos θ2 = − cos θ1 , hence:
IN Inl
H= cos θ2 az = az (5.1.18)
l 2 [a + l2 /4]1/2
2

l
At the beginning of the solenoid cos θ2 = √ , θ1 = 90, hence the magnetic
l 2 + a2
field intensity at the beginning of the solenoid is:
IN Inl
H= cos θ2 az = az (5.1.19)
l 2 [a2 + l2 ]1/2

For infinite length solenoid θ1 ⇒ π and θ2 ⇒ 0, which imply

IN
H = In = az (5.1.20)
l

5.2 Ampere’s Circuit Law and Maxwell’s Equation

Ampere’s Circuit law:- states that the line integral of the tangential component
of magnetic field intensity H around a closed path is the same as the current enclosed
by the path. Mathematically:
I
H · dl = Ienclosed (5.2.1)
L

Ampere’s circuit law simplifies the way of determining magnetic field intensity due
to symmetrical current distributions. Applying Stokes’s theorem to Ampere’s circuit
law
I Z Z
H · dl = Ienclosed ⇒ ∇ × H · ds = J · ds

∴ ∇×H=J (5.2.2)

Equation 5.2.2 is the third Maxwell equation. It shows that magnetic field intensity
is non-conservative field.

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5.3 Application of Amperes Circuit Law

A). Infinite line Current Carrying conductor:- Consider an infinite current
carrying conductor placed along z-axis as shown in Figure 5.5. The magnetic
field intensity due to the current carrying conductor as any point P can be de-
termined by using Ampere’s circuit law. Creating an amperian path following
the location of P, the current enclosed by the amperian path is the current
carried by the conductor.

az

P

ay
ax

Figure 5.5: Magnetic field Intensity due to infinite current carrying conductor

I
Ienclosed = H · dl (5.3.1)

The path has differential length dl = ρdϕaϕ ,

I
I = H · ρdϕaϕ
I
= Hϕ ρdϕ
Z 2π
= Hϕ ρ dϕ
0
I I
Hϕ = ⇒H= aϕ (5.3.2)
2πρ 2πρ

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B). Magnetic field intensity due to current carrying torus:- Consider the
toroidal coil with inner radius a and outer radius b as shown in Figure 5.6.

b
b
I H a a
r H
N

Figure 5.6: Magnetic field intensity due to current carrying torus

The magnetic field intensity

(a) Case I- Inside the torus: r < a, in this case since there is no current
enclosed by the amperian path inside the current carrying torus, magnetic
field intensity is zero.
(b) Case II- In the core of the torus: a < r < b, in this case the amperian
path enclose all the incoming current (the current flowing into the page),
so the magnetic field intensity anywhere inside the core of the current
carrying torus is:
I
H · dl = Ienclosed
I
Hϕ · rdϕ = N I
NI
H= aϕ (5.3.3)
2πr

(c) Case III- Outside the torus: r > b, in this case the amperian path
include all the inflow current and out flow current hence Ienclosed = I −I =
0 implying that the magnetic field intensity outside the current carrying
torus is zero.

The magnetic field intensity varies within the torus. It is higher toward the
inner surface and lower toward the outer surface. Sometimes, it is convenient
to approximate the magnetic field intensity in the torus as an average between
the outer and inner field and assume that this average field intensity exists
everywhere within the torus. Let the effective length of the toroidal coil core be
a+b
ro = , then the average magnetic field intensity throughout the toroidal
2
coil core is:
NI NI
Hav = = (5.3.4)
2πro lo

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Where lo is the effective circumference of the toroidal coil core.

Note:- The formula for average magnetic field intensity inside the toroidal
coil core is the same as the formula for infinite length solenoid. Hence infinite
length solenoid can be regarded as a torus with infinite effective radius.

C). Infinite Current Carrying metal sheet:- Consider an infinite sheet current
carrying conductor placed along z=0 plane, if the current is flowing in y-
axis direction as shown in Figure 5.7. The magnetic field intensity due to
the current carrying conductor at any point P can be determined by using
Ampere’s circuit law. Creating an rectangular Amperian path following the
location of P, the current enclosed by the amperian path is the current carried
by the conductor. If we consider the current on sheet as upstream (for current
flow on the top surface of the sheet) and the current on sheet as downstream
(for current flow on the bottom surface of the sheet).

4 2
b
a

Figure 5.7: Magnetic field intensity due to infinite current carrying metal sheet

The component of magnetic field intensity H above the surface is

ay × (±ax ± ay + az ) ⇒ ax (5.3.5)

and the component of magnetic field intensity H below the surface is

ay × (±ax ± ay − az ) ⇒ −ax (5.3.6)

The magnetic field intensity created by the current flowing on the right of
x = 0 of plane cancels out with the magnetic field intensity caused by the
current flowing on the left of the plane. Thus the overall effect of is zero for
any point above or below the surface.

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The magnitude of the field is the same every where since the current enclosed
by the amperian path is the same. Let the magnitude of magnetic field inten-
sity be Ho , So, the magnetic field due to the infinite current carrying metal
sheet is:

H a if z > 0
o x
H= (5.3.7)
−H a if z < 0
o x

The current enclosed by the rectangular Amperian path with sides a and b is:

Ienclosed = Ky b (5.3.8)

Finally applying Ampere’s circuit law to infinite current carrying sheet of metal
I
Ienclosed = H · dl
Z 1 Z 2 Z 3 Z 4
=− H · dzaz − H · dxax + H · dzaz + H · dxax
4 1 2 3
= 0(a) + Ho b + 0(a) + Ho b
= 2Ho b (5.3.9)

Hence
Ky
Ky b = 2Ho b ⇒ Ho = (5.3.10)
2
So, the magnetic field intensity due to infinite current carrying metal sheet is:

1
Ky ax if z > 0


 2


H= (5.3.11)
1



− Ky ax if z < 0

2
or generally magnetic field intensity any where for any infinite current carrying
sheet of metal with surface current density K is:
1
H = K × an (5.3.12)
2

D). Infinite Coaxial transmission line:-Consider a long co-axial transmission

line with two concentric conducting wires separated by insulator shown in Fig-
ure 5.8.

The inner wire carries a current I and the outer conductor carries return
current −I. The conductor is oriented along x axis with the inner conductor
having radius a and the outer conductor having thickness t is placed at b from
origin. Assuming that the current is distributed uniformly which means we
have constant current density anywhere in the conductor. The magnetic field
intensity due to coaxial transmission line everywhere is determined as

Chapter 5 107
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

b
a
t

Figure 5.8: Coaxial transmission line

• Case I:- Inside the inner conductor 0 ≤ ρ ≤ a,

An amperian path inside the inner conductor with differential length dl =
ρdϕaϕ only enclose part of the current carried by the inner conductor.
Since current density is constant everywhere which is equal to
I
J= (5.3.13)
πa2
So, the current enclosed by the amperian path is:
Z Z
Ienclosed = J · ds = Jρdρdϕ
s
Iρ2
= 2 (5.3.14)
πa
hence:
I
Ienclosed = H · dl
Iρ2
I
= H · ρdϕaϕ
πa2
= 2πρHϕ
Iρ Iρ
Hϕ = 2
⇒H= aϕ (5.3.15)
2πa 2πa2

Chapter 5 108
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• Case II:- Inside the insulator between the two conductor a ≤ ρ ≤ b

The amperian path in the inner insulator enclose all the current flowing
through the inner conductor, so the magnetic field intensity inside the
inner insulator is:
I
Ienclosed = H · dl
I
I = H · dl

= 2πρHϕ
I I
Hϕ = ⇒H= aϕ (5.3.16)
2πρ 2πρ

• Case III:- Inside the outer conductor b ≤ ρ ≤ b + t

The amperian path in the outer conductor enclose all the current flowing
through the inner conductor and part of the return current flowing inside
the outer conductor. The current density inside the outer conductor is:
−I −I
Jr = =
s2 π(b + t)2 − πb2
I
=− (5.3.17)
2πbt + πt2
The current enclosed by the amperian path is:
Z
Ienclosed = I + J · ds
Z 2π Z ρ
I
=I− ρdρdπ
2πbt + πt2 0 0
ρ2 − b2
 
=I 1− (5.3.18)
2πbt + πt2

The magnetic field intensity inside the outer conductor is:

I
Ienclosed = H · dl
ρ 2 − b2
  I
I 1− = H · dl
2πbt + πt2
= 2πρHϕ
ρ 2 − b2 ρ2 − b2
   
I I
Hϕ = 1− ⇒H= 1− aϕ
2πρ 2bt + t2 2πρ 2bt + t2
(5.3.19)

• Case IV:- Inside the outer conductor ρ ≥ b + t

The amperian path outside conductor enclose all the current flowing
through the inner conductor and the return current flowing inside the
outer conductor. The total current enclosed by the amperian path is:

Ienclosed = I + (−I) = 0 (5.3.20)

Chapter 5 109
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So, the Magnetic field intensity outside the coaxial conductor is:
I
Ienclosed = H · dl

0 = 2πρHϕ
H=0 (5.3.21)

Hence magnetic field intensity due to long coaxial transmission line is:
Iρ


 aϕ 0≤ρ≤a



 sπa2




I


aϕ a≤ρ≤b





 2πρ
H= (5.3.22)

ρ 2 − b2
 
I


1 − aϕ b≤ρ≤b+t


2bt + t2



 2πρ








 0 ρ≥b+t

5.4 Magnetic Flux Density and Maxwell’s Equation

Magnetic flux density is related to magnetic field intensity the way electric flux
density is related to electric flux intensity.

B = µo H (5.4.1)

Where µo is permeability of free space, it value is µo = 4π × 10−7 Henry/m.

The total magnetic field intensity through a closed surface is:

I
ψm = B · ds (5.4.2)

Since there is no isolated magnetic pole, the magnetic flux entering the surface will
leave the surface, which means the net magnetic flux through any closed surface is
zero.
I
B · ds = 0 (5.4.3)

Equation 5.4.3 is called law of conservation of magnetic flux or Gauss law for mag-
netostatic field. Applying divergence theorem to equation 5.4.3,
I Z
B · ds = ∇ · Bdν = 0

∴ ∇·B=0 (5.4.4)

Equation 5.4.4 is the last Maxwell equation for static electromagnetic field. It shows
that there is no isolated magnetic pole (charge).

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5.5 Magnetic Scalar and Vector Potentials

We can relate magnetic field intensity to some potential, the same way we relate
electric field intensity to electric field potential. But in the case of magnetostatic
magnetic field intensity has vector potential and scalar potential. From the two null
identities

∇ × ∇Vm = 0
∇ · (∇ × A) = 0

Suppose J = 0 in a region, In this case

∇ × H = 0 = ∇ × ∇Vm
⇒ H = ∇Vm (5.5.1)

Vm is called magnetic scalar potential of magnetostatic field.

From Gauss law for magnetostatic field ∇ · B = 0, we can deduce that magnetic
flux density is a curl of some vector.

∇ · B = 0 = ∇ · (∇ × A)
⇒B=∇×A (5.5.2)

A is called magnetic vector potential of magnetostatic field.

From Biot-Savarts law,

′
Idl × R
Z
µo
B= (5.5.3)
4π R3
and
 
1 ar
∇ =− 2 (5.5.4)
R R

and from property of curl

∇ × (f A) = f ∇ × A + (∇f ) × A (5.5.5)

which means
′
!  
Idl 1 ′ 1 ′
∇× = ∇ × Idl + ∇ × Idl (5.5.6)
R R R
′
Since ∇ operate over the un-primed coordinates and Idl operate over primed coor-
′
dinates ∇ × Idl = 0, hence:
  ′
!
′ 1 Idl
Idl × ∇ = −∇ × (5.5.7)
R R

Chapter 5 111
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

Combining these equations,

Z
µo ′ ar
B= Idl × 2
4π R
Z   
µo ′ 1
= Idl × −∇
4π R
Z  
µo ′ 1
=− Idl × ∇
4π R
Z ′
!
µo Idl
= ∇×
4π R
Z ′
µo Idl
=∇× ⇔∇×A (5.5.8)
4πR
Thus a vector potential for magnetostatic field due to

• Current carrying element with current I is:

Z ′
µo Idl
A= (5.5.9)
4πR

• Current carrying sheet of metal with current density K is:

Z ′
µo K ds
A= (5.5.10)
4πR

• Volume current with current density J is:

Z ′
µo Jdν
A= (5.5.11)
4πR

The total magnetic flux through a surface s is:

Z Z
ψm = B · ds = (∇ × A) · ds (5.5.12)

Using Stokes’s theorem

Z I
ψm = (∇ × A) · ds = A · dl (5.5.13)

Also, the magnetic field can be determined using either Vm or A; the choice is
dictated by the nature of the given problem except that Vm can only be used in a
source-free region. The use of the magnetic vector potential provides a powerful,
elegant approach for solving EM problems, particularly those related to antennas.

Chapter 5 112
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5.6 Vector Poisson’s Equation

From property of curl of a vector field A,

∇ × ∇ × A = ∇(∇ · A) − ∇2 A (5.6.1)

Which imply

∇ × B = ∇(∇ · A) − ∇2 A
µ (∇ × H) = ∇(∇ · A) − ∇2 A
µJ = ∇(∇ · A) − ∇2 A (5.6.2)

For magnetostatic field ∇ · A = 0, since magnetostatic field is solenoidal field.

Additionally as long as we do not violate the field equations (i.e., as long as we
do not modify the properties of the magnetic field), the choice of the divergence of
A is arbitrary. Hence we can choose ∇ · A = 01 since divergence has no physical
meaning. Hence:

∇2 A = −µJ (5.6.3)

Equation 5.6.3 is called vector Poisson’s equation.

5.7 Maxwell’s Equation for Static EM Fields

The four Maxwell equation for static electromagnetic field are summarized in Table
5.1. As we can see the two Maxwell equations for electrostatic field are independent
form the two Maxwell equations for magnetosatic field, which is not the case for
time varying electromagnetic field (to be seen in chapter 7).

Table 5.1: Maxwell’s Equations for Static EM Fields

Differential Integral Remarks

Z Z
∇ · D = ρν D · ds = ρν dν Gauss Law
s ν
Z
∇·B=0 B · ds = 0 Nonexistence of isolated magnetic
s charge
Z
∇×E=0 E · dl = 0 Conservation of Electric field
l
Z Z
∇×H = J H · dl = J · ds Ampere’s Circuit Law
l s

It is evident from Table 5.1 that a vector field is defined completely by specifying
its curl and divergence. A field can only be electric or magnetic if it satisfies the
corresponding Maxwell’s equations.
1
Choosing ∇ · A = 0 is called coulomb’s gauge, gauge condition and coulomb’s gauge will be
discussed later in chapter 7.

Chapter 5 113
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

5.8 Examples
1. Find H at (0,2,5) due to side 3 of triangle loop given in Figure 5.9. The current

3 2

1
0 1 2 x

Figure 5.9: Problem 1

in a conductor is 10A.

Solution

P
R2

1 2
3 R1
2
x 1 y

Figure 5.10: 3D visualization of problem 5.1

−ax − ay
Idl3 = (0, 0, 0) − (1, 1, 0) = −ax − ay ⇒ UIdl3 = √
2
√
R1 = (0, 2, 5) − (1, 1, 0) = −ax + ay + 5az ⇒ |R1 | = 27
√
R2 = (0, 2, 5) − (0, 0, 0) = 2ay + 5az ⇒ |R2 | = 29

Chapter 5 114
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To determine the angles we use dot product of the vectors R1 , R2 and Idl3 ,
Idl3 · R1 = |Idl3 ||R1 | cos(180 − θ1 ) ⇒ cos θ1 = 0
√
− 2
Idl3 · R2 = |Idl3 ||R2 | cos(θ2 ) ⇒ cos θ2 = √
29
To determine ρ, ρ is the shortest distance between the line and a point, hence:
p
d = (0, 2, 5) − (x, y, z) = −xax + (2 − y)ay + 5az ⇒ d = x2 + (2 − y)2 + 25

The equation of the line Idl3 is y = x, hence every point on the line satisfy
the equation of line hence:
p ∂d x−1
d = x2 + (2 − x)2 + 25 ⇒ =0⇔ p ⇒x=1⇒y=1
∂x x2 + (2 − y)2 + 25
√
∴ ρ = 27
The unit vector aϕ = al × ar , which is:
  !
−ax −ay −xax + (2 − y)ay + 5az
aϕ = √ − √ × p = −az
2 2 x2 + (2 − y)2 + 25
Finally magnetic field intensity at point P is:
I 10A
H= (cos θ2 − cos θ1 )aϕ = − √ az
4πρ 4π 29
2. A rectangular loop carries a current I [A] as shown in Figure 5.11. Calculate
the magnetic field intensity at the center of the loop.

4 3

b
1 2

Figure 5.11: Problem 2

Solution :- detail solution on [2]

The total magnetic field intensity at the center of the rectangular loop is:
I √ 2
 
I a b
Ht = 2H1 + 2H2 = √ + = a + b2
π a2 + b 2 b b πab
The total magnetic field intensity at the top corner of the rectangular loop is:
I √ 2
Ht = a + b2
8πab

Chapter 5 115
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3. A plane y = 1 carries current k = 50az mA/m. Find magnetic field intensity

H at P (0, 0, 0) and Q(1, 5, −3).

Solution

The magnetic field intensity at P is:

an = (0, 0, 0) − (x, y, z) ⇒ (0, 0, 0) − (0, 1, 0) = −ay (5.8.1)

1
H = (50mA/m)(az × (−ay)) = 25mA/max (5.8.2)
2
The magnetic field intensity at Q is:

an = (1, 5, −3) − (x, y, z) ⇒ (1, 5, −3) − (1, 1, −3) = 4ay ⇒ an = ay (5.8.3)

1
H = (50mA/m)(az × ay) = −25mA/may (5.8.4)
2

4. A toroid of circular cross section whose center is at origin and axis the same
as z-axis has 1000 turns with ρo = 10cm and a = 1cm. If the toroid carries a
current of 100mA find H at (3cm, 4cm, 0) and (6cm, 9cm, 0).

Solution

The torus has core ranging from ρo − a ≤ ρo ≤ ρo + a ⇒ 9cmρo ≤ 10cm, mag-

netic field intensity outside this range is zero. Hence for point (3cm, 4cm, 0) ⇒
ρ = 5cm which means √ the point is inside the torus, so H=0. For point
(6cm, 9cm, 0) ⇒ ρ = 117cm = 10.82cm, the point in the core of the torus,
hence:
NI 100
H= = √ A/m
2πρ 2π 117 × 10−2

5. A current density is gives rise to the vector magnetic potential A = x2 yax +

y 2 xay − 4xyaz W b/m. Calculate B at (-1,2,5) and flux through z = 1, 0 ≤ x ≤
1, −1 ≤ y ≤ 4.

Solution

B = ∇ × A = −4xax + 4yay + (y 2 − x2 )az

B@P = −4ax + 8ay + 3az

The magnetic flux through the surface is:

Z 4Z 1 Z 4Z 1
17
ψmt = B · dxdyaz = (y 2 − x2 )dxdy = W b
−1 0 −1 0 3

Chapter 5 116
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6. A 3cm long solenoid carries a current of 400mA. If the solenoid is to produce

a magnetic flux density of B = 5mW b/m2 , how many turns of wire is needed?

Solution
µo N I
B = µo H =
L
BL 5mW b/m2 × 3 × 10−2
N= = ≈ 30turns
µo I 4π × 10−7 H/m × 10−3 A

7. A solenoid of radius 4mm and length 2cm has 150 turns/m and carries a cur-
rent 500mA. Find H at a center of the solenoid and at the end of the solenoid.

Solution

At the center of the solenoid

IN Inl
H= cos θ2 az =
l 2 [a + l2 /4]1/2
2

500mA × 150turn/m × 2 × 10−2 m

= q
2
2 (4 × 10−3 m)2 + (0.02m)
4

= 69.6357A/m

At the end of the solenoid

Inl
H=
2 [a2 + l2 ]1/2
500mA × 150turn/m × 2 × 10−3 m
= p
2 (4 × 10−3 m)2 + (0.02m)2
= 36.772A/m

8. A plane x = 10 carries current 100mA/m along z axis, while a line x=1,y=-2

carries a filamentary current 20πmA along z-axis. Determine H at (4cm, 3cm, 2cm).

Solution

H = Hp + Hl
1 I
H = K × an + aϕ
2 2πρ
ρ = (4 − 1)ax + (3 − (−2))ay = (3ax + 5ay )cm ⇒ ρ = 5.83cm
(3ax + 5ay )cm
aϕ = al × aρ = az × = (0.5146ay − 0.8576ax )
5.83cm
1 20πmA
H = (100mA/m(az × ax ) + (0.5146ay − 0.8576ax )
2 2π × 5.83cm
= 500mA/may + 117.53Am/m(0.5146ay − 0.8576ax )
= 500mA/may + 60.112mA/may − 100.794mA/max
= −100.794mA/max + 560.112mA/may

Chapter 5 117
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9. In a certain region of conductor H = yz(x2 + y 2 )ax − y 2 xzay + 4x2 ya2z A/m,

determine J at (5,2,-3) and current through x = −1, 0 < y, z < 2.

Solution

J = ∇ × H = (8x2 y + y 2 x)ax + (y(x2 + y 2 ) − 8xy 2 )ay

+ (−y 2 z − x2 z − y 3 )az
J@P = 380ax − 102ay + 60az A/m2

The normal to the surface is ax , hence the current through x = −1, 0 < y, z < 2
is,
Z 2Z 2
y3
Z
I = J · ds = (8y − y 2 )dydz = 2(4y 2 − ) |20 = 53.33A
0 0 3

10. For a current distribution in free space A = (2x2 y + yz)ax + (xy 2 − xz 2 )ay −
(6xyz − 2x2 y 2 )az W b/m calculate B and magnetic flux through loop described
by x = 1, 0 < y, z < 1.

Solution

The magnetic flux density B,

B =∇ × A = (−6xz + 4z 2 y + 2xz 2 )ax + (y + 4yz)ay

+ (y 2 − z 2 − 2x2 − z)W b/m2

The normal to the loop is ax , thus the magnetic flux through loop described
by x = 1, 0 < y, z < 1,
Z Z 2Z 2
ψm = B · ds = (−6xz + 4z 2 y + 2xz 2 )dydz |x=1
0 0
Z 2Z 2 Z 2
2 2 4 2
= (−6z + 4z y + 2z )dzdy = (−3z 2 + z 3 y + z 3 )dy |2z=0
3 3
Z0 2 0  0
−20 32 20 32
= + y dy = (− y + y 2 ) |2y=0
0 3 3 3 6
= −10.67W b

Chapter 5 118
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11. The positive y-axis (semi-infinite with respect to the origin) carries a filamen-
tary current 2A in the −ay direction. Assume it is a part of large circuit find
H at (2,3,0) and (3,12,-4).

Solution

The magnetic field intensity at (2, 3, 0),

I
H= (1 − cos α1 )aϕ
4π
y 3
cos α1 = p = = 0.9487
x2 + y 2 3.1623
2ax + 3ay 2az
aϕ = −ay × = = 0.632az
3.1623 3.1623
2A
H= (1 − 0.9487) × (0.632az )
4π
= 5.163az × 10−3 A/m

The magnetic field intensity at (3, 12, −4),

I
H= (1 − cos α1 )aϕ
4π
y 3
cos α1 = p = = 0.23077
2
x +y +z2 2 13
3ax + 12ay − 4az 3az + 4ax
aϕ = −ay × = = 0.2308az + 0.3077ax
13 13
2A
H= (1 − 0.23077) × (0.2308az + 0.3077ax )
4π
= (37.67ax + 28.256az ) × 10−3 A/m

12. A thin ring of radius 5cm is placed on plane z = 10cm, so that its center is at
(0,0,10cm). If the ring carries 50mA along aϕ direction find H at (0,0,-1cm)
and (0,0,10cm).

Solution

The magnetic field intensity at H at (0,0,-1cm) is:

Iρ2
H= az
2 [ρ2 + h2 ]3/2
50mA × (5cm)2
= (−az )
2 [(5cm)2 + ((−1 − 10)cm)2 ]3/2
0.125mAm2
= (−az ) = −35.4283A/maz
0.0035285m3

Chapter 5 119
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The magnetic field intensity at H at (0,0,10cm) is:

Iρ2
H= az
2 [ρ2 + h2 ]3/2
50mA × (5cm)2
= (az )
2 [(5cm)2 + ((10 − 10)cm)2 ]3/2
0.125mAm2
= (az ) = 500A/maz
0.00025m3

13. A selonoid with radius 5cm and length 75cm with 2000 turns carry a 50mA
current long aϕ find H at (0,0,0), (0,0,75cm) and (0,0,50cm).

Solution

The magnetic field intensity at (0,0,0) (the beginning of the selonoid is):

IN Inl
H= cos θ2 az = az
l 2 [a2 + l2 ]1/2
50mA × 2000
= az
2 [(5cm)2 + (75cm)2 ]1/2
= 66.519A/maz

The magnetic field intensity at (0,0,75cm) (the end of the selonoid is):

IN Inl
H= cos θ1 az = − az
l 2 [a2 + l2 ]1/2
50mA × 2000
=− az
2 [(5cm)2 + (75cm)2 ]1/2
= −66.519A/maz

The magnetic field intensity at (0,0,50cm) (the center of the selonoid is):

IN Inl
H= cos θ2 az = az
l 2 [a2 + l2 /4]1/2
50mA × 2000
= h i1/2 az
2 (75cm)2
2 (5cm) + 4
= 264.327A/maz

Chapter 5 120
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

14. The y-axes and z-axes respectively carry filamentary current 10A along ay and
20A along −az find H at (-3,4,5)m.

Solution

H = Hly + Hlz
Iy Iz
= aphiy + aphiz
2ρy π 2ρz π
ρy = (−3, 4, 5) − (x, y, z) = (−3, 4, 5) − (0, 4, 0) = −3ax + 5az ⇒ ρy = 5.831m
−3ax + 5az
aphiy = al × aρ = ay × = 0.5145az + 0.8575ax
5.831
ρz = (−3, 4, 5) − (x, y, z) = (−3, 4, 5) − (0, 0, 5) = −3ax + 4ay ⇒ ρy = 5m
−3ax + 4ay
aphiz = al × aρ = −az × = 0.6ay + 0.8ax
5
10A 20A
H= (0.5145az + 0.8575ax ) + (0.6ay + 0.8ax )
2 × 5.831π 2 × 5π
= 0.14067A/maz + 0.23405A/max + 0.382A/may + 0.5093A/max
= (0.7433ax + 0.382ay + 0.14067az )A/m

15. Consider the following arbitrary fields, find out which of them can possibly
represent electrostatic or magnetostatic field in free space.

a). A = ycos(ax)ax + (y + e−x )ay

20
b). B = aρ
ρ
c). C = r2 sin θaϕ

Solution

Checking the divergence ad curl of the vectors will tell us whether they are
electromagnetic field or not (remember for a field to be electric field or mag-
netic field it should satisfy Maxwell equations).

(a) For vector field A,

∇ · A = −ya sin(ax ) + 1 ̸= 0
∇ × A = −(e−x + cos(ax))az ̸= 0

This shows that the vector field A is neither electrostatic field nor mag-
netic field (it is not an electromagnetic field).
(b) For vector field B,
40
∇·B=− ̸= 0
ρ2
∇×B=0

This shows that the vector field B is electrostatic field (it is an electro-
magnetic field).

Chapter 5 121
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

(c) For vector field C,

∇·C=0
∇ × C = 2 sin θaϕ ̸= 0

This shows that the vector field C is magnetostatic field (it is an electro-
magnetic field).

5.9 Exercises
1. Given the following values for P1 , P2 and Idl, calculate dH:

(a) P1 (0, 0, 2), P2 (4, 2, 0), 2πaz µAm

(b) P1 (0, 2, 0), P2 (4, 2, 0), 2πaz µAm
(c) P1 (1, 2, 3), P2 (−3, −1, 2), 2π(−ax + ay + 2az )µAm.

2. Express the value of H in cartesian components at P(0,0.2,0) in the field of:

(a) a current filament, 2.5 A in the az direction at x = 0.2, y = 0.3.

(b) a coax center on the z axis with a = 0.3, b = 0.5, c = 0.6, I = 2.5A in az
direction in the center conductor.
(c) three current sheets 2.5ax A/m at y = 0.1, −1.4ax A/m at y = 0.15, and
−1.3ax A/m at y = 0.25.

3. (a) Evaluate the closed loop line integral of H about the rectangle path
P1 (2, 3, 4) to P2 (4, 3, 4) to P3 (4, 3, 1) to P1 (2, 3, 1) to P1 given H = 3zax −
2x3 az A/m.
(b) Determine the quotient of the closed line integral and the area enclosed
by the path as an approximation to (∇ × H)y .
(c) Determine (∇ × H)y at the center of the area.

4. Evaluate both sides of stokes theorem for the field H = 6xyax − 3y 2 ay A/m
and the rectangular path around the region 2 ≤ x ≤ 5, −1 ≤ y ≤ 1, z = 0.
Let the positive direction of dS be az .

5. A solid conductor of circular cross section is made of a homogeneous nonmag-

netic material. If the radius a=1mm, the conductor axis lies on the z axis, and
the total current in the az direction is 20A, find:

(a) Hϕ at ρ = 0.5mm;
(b) Bϕ at ρ = 0.8mm;
(c) the total magnetic flux per unit length inside the conductor;
(d) the total flux for ρ < 0.5mm;
(e) the total magnetic flux outside the conductor.

6. A current filament of 3ax A lies along the x axis. Find H in cartesian compo-
nents at P(-1, 3, 2).

Chapter 5 122
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

7. A hollow cylindrical shell of radius a is centered on the z axis and carries a

uniform surface current density of Ka aϕ .

(a) Show that H is not a function of ϕ or z.

(b) Show that Hϕ and Hρ are everywhere zero.
(c) Show that Hz = 0 for ρ > a.
(d) Show that Hz Ka for ρ < a.
(e) A second shell, ρ = b, carries a current Kb aϕ . Find H everywhere.

8. Calculate ∇ × [∇(∇ · G)] if G = 2x2 yzax − 20yay + (x2 − z 2 )az .

9. A long straight nonmagnetic conductor of 0.2 mm radius carries a uniformly

distributed current of 2 A dc.

(a) Find J within the conductor.

(b) Use Ampere‘s circuital law to find H and B within the conductor.
(c) Show that ∇ × H = J within the conductor.
(d) Find H and B within the conductor.
(e) Show that ∇ × H = J outside the conductor.

10. A solid nonmagnetic conductor of circular cross section has a radius of 2 mm.
The conductor is in-homogeneous, with σ = 106 (1 + 106 ρ2 )S/m. If the con-
ductor is 1 m in length and has a voltage of 1 mV between its ends, find:

(a) H
(b) the total magnetic flux inside the conductor.

11. Let A = (3y − z)ax + 2xzay W b/m in a certain region of free space.

(a) Show that∇ · A.

(b) At P(2, 1, 3), find A, B, H, and J.

12. Let A = (3xy 2 −2z)ax −2x2 zay +(x+2y)az W b/m in free space. Find ∇×∇×A
at P (-2,3,-1).

Chapter 5 123
Chapter 6

Magnetic Forces and Materials

6.1 Magnetic Forces

Any field has energy hence every field has an ability to exert force on particles
when they are placed in the field. So, when particle are placed in magnetic field
they experience a force even though the effect is very small and undetectable in
some cases. But the effect on charged particles and current carrying elements are
detectable. In similar way current carrying loops will exert magnetic force on each
other. The discussion on magnetic force is very important because it has application
in areas like

• Ammeter, Voltmeter and Galvanometers

• Motors and Generators

Basically there are at least three ways in which forces due to magnetic field can be
experienced.

• Force experienced by charged particle moving in magnetic field,

• Force experienced by current carrying element placed in magnetic field and

• Force experienced between to current carrying elements.

A). Force experienced by charged particle placed in magnetic field

From experimental result it is known that a charged particle moving in a
magnetic field experience a force proportional to the magnetic flux density
and the velocity of the charged particle

Fm = Qu × B (6.1.1)

Fm is perpendicular to both u and E. Electrostatic force is independent of

the velocity of the charge, while magnetic force depends on velocity of the
charged particle if the charged particle is at rest there is no magnetic force
it will experience. Since Fm is perpendicular to the direction of motion it
has no capability to do work in contrast to electric field. Magnetic force Fm
is very small compared to electrostatic force Fe . The force experienced by a

124
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

charged particle moving in a region where there is both electric field intensity
and magnetic field intensity is:

F = Fe + Fm
= Q(E + u × B) (6.1.2)

Equation 6.1.2 is called Lorentz equation.

Note:- Electrical energy is transferred only by electric field.

B). Force experienced by current carrying element placed in magnetic

field
The effect of an external magnetic field on a current carrying element placed
in a magnetic field is determined from the relation Idl = Kds = Jdν and
J = ρν u as follows

Idl = Jdv
Idl = ρν dνu ⇒ Idl = dQu (6.1.3)

From this equation we understand that elemental charge dQ moving with ve-
locity u is the same as current carrying element Idl. Thus the force experienced
by current element is:

dF = dQu × B
I
F = Idl × B (6.1.4)

If the current carrying element is:

Z
• Surface F = Kds × B
Z
• Volume F = Jdν × B

The magnitude of the force is F = IdlB sin α where α is the angle between
u and B. Thus magnetic field density B at a point is equal to the magnetic
force per-unit current carrying element at the point.
C). Force experienced between to current carrying elements
Consider two current carrying elements I1 dl1 and I2 dl2 in same region as
shown o Figure 6.1.

The magnetic force on current carrying element I1 dl1 due to the near by
current carrying element I2 dl2 magnetic field is:

d(dF12 ) = I1 dl1 × dB2 (6.1.5)

but the differential magnetic flux due to current carrying element I2 dl2 , dB2
is:
µo I2 dl2 × ar12
dB2 = (6.1.6)
4πR2

Chapter 6 125
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

ar12
I2dl2
I1dl1

Figure 6.1: Two current carrying elements in same region

Combining the two equations

µo I1 dl1 × I2 dl2 × ar12
d(dF12 ) =
4πR2
µo I1 dl1 × I2 dl2 × ar12
I I
F12 =
4πR2
I I
µo
= I1 dl1 × I2 dl2 × ar12 (6.1.7)
4πR2

6.2 Magnetic Torque and Moment

Consider a rectangular current carrying loop placed in a magnetic field B as shown
in Figure 6.2.

Fo B

Idl
Fo l

Figure 6.2: A rectangular current carrying loop placed in a magnetic field

Chapter 6 126
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

The magnetic force experienced by the loop is:

Z 2 Z 3 Z 4 Z 1
F= Idl1 × B + Idl2 × B + Idl3 × B + Idl4 × B
1 2 3 4
Z 3 Z 1
= Idl2 × B + Idl4 × B
2 4
= Fo − Fo (6.2.1)

Since the side have the same length and carries the same current the force they
experience is the same, but has opposite direction due to the current direction. Even
though the two forces cancel out in vector summation, since they are at distance w
from each other they will generate torque. The torque generated by the two forces
is:

T = r × F ⇒ |T| = F r sin α (6.2.2)

Where α is the angle between F and r. Hence the torque experienced by the loop
is:

T = |Fo |w sin α
= IBlw sin α
= IBs sin α (6.2.3)

Where s = lw the area of the loop. Let m = Isan , which called magnetic dipole
moment. Then

T=m×B (6.2.4)

Magnetic dipole moment is the product of the area of the loop and the current
carried by the loop and its direction is normal to the area of the loop. The torque
T tend to reduce the angle between the magnetic dipole moment and the magnetic
field density. This phenomenon is the driving mechanism behind electric generators
and electric motors along with Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction which
will be discussed in chapter 7.

Chapter 6 127
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

6.3 Magnetic Dipole

Consider a current carrying circular loop placed at origin as shown in Figure 6.3,
the magnetic vector potential due to the loop at point P is:

P
z-axis
 r

a
Idl y-axis
x-axis

Figure 6.3: Magnetic field vector potential due to circular loop

I
µo I dl
A= (6.3.1)
4π r

If the point is far from the origin (r >> a) then the loop can be seen as a small
circular sheet carrying a current I, so the magnetic vector potential becomes
µ o m × ar
A=
4πr2
µo Iπa2 sin θ
= aϕ (6.3.2)
4πr2
The magnetic flux density at P is:

B=∇×A
∂ µo πa2 Ir sin2 θ ∂ µo πa2 Ir sin2 θ
     
1 1
= 2 ar + 2 − raθ
r sin θ ∂θ 4πr2 r sin θ ∂r 4πr2
µo Iπa2
= (2 cos θar + sin θaθ )
4πr3
µo m
= (2 cos θar + sin θaθ ) (6.3.3)
4πr3
So, we can understand that B at far distance from the current carrying loop is
similar with E due to electric dipole at point P. Hence it is reasonable to consider
current carrying loop as a magnetic dipole.

Chapter 6 128
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

6.4 Magnetization in Materials

Atoms are comprised of an electron rotating around a nucleus and a nucleus itself.
While the electrons rotate around the nucleus they also spin on their own axis. The
rotation and spinning of the electron create a magnetic field in the atom. If there
is no external magnetic field around the atom the internal magnetic field is almost
zero for some materials and zero for others since the direction of the internal field is
random. If external field is applied then the internal field start orienting itself in the
direction of the external field. When this happens we say the material is magnetized.
The strength of the magnetization of the material M is magnetic dipole moment
per unit volume, and measured in amperes/meter. If We have N atoms per-unit
volume the magnetization M is:
PN
k=1 mk
M = lim (6.4.1)
∆ν→0 ∆ν
Consider a magnetized material at origin as shown in Figure 6.4, a magnetic vector
potential at point P due to a magnetized material is given as:
µ o M × ar ′
Z
A= dν (6.4.2)
4πR2

p ( x, y , z )

p' ( x' , y ' , z ' )

Figure 6.4: Magnetic vector potential due to magnetized material

′ 1 ar
But, ∇ = , Hence:
R R
Z  
µo 1 ′ ′
A= M×∇ dν (6.4.3)
4π R

Using vector identity

′ ′ ′
∇ × (f A) = ∇ f × A + f (∇ × A) (6.4.4)

Chapter 6 129
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

and A × B = −B × A,
   
1 1 ′
′ ′ M
M×∇ = (∇ × M) − ∇ × (6.4.5)
R R R
hence:
Z   
µo 1 ′ ′ M ′
A= (∇ × M) − ∇ × dν
4π R R
Z Z  
µo 1 ′ ′ µo ′ M ′
= (∇ × M)dν − ∇ × dν (6.4.6)
4π R 4π R
I Z
from divergence theorem G · ds = ∇ · Gdν, if we let G = a × F, then:
I Z
(a × F) · ds = ∇ · (a × F)dν (6.4.7)

From scalar triple product,

a · (b × c) = b · (c × a) = c · (a × b)
Applying the property of triple product to equation 6.4.7,
I Z Z
a · (F × ds) = a · (F × ∇)dν = − a · (∇ × F)dν
I Z
a · F × ds = −a · ∇ × Fdν
I Z
⇒ F × ds = − ∇ × Fdν (6.4.8)
Z I
Applying the vector identity ∇ × Fdν = − F × ds to the second term of
v
equation 6.4.6,
M × ar
Z I
µo 1 ′ ′ µo
A= (∇ × M)dν + ds
4π R 4π R
Z I
µo Jb ′ µ o Kb
= dν + ds (6.4.9)
4π R 4π R
′
Where Jb = ∇ × M is called bounded volume current density or magnetization
volume current density and Kb = M × ar is called bounded surface current density.
Hence magnetization vector potential at a point is due to the vector potential due to
magnetized body’s volume current density throughout the body and surface current
on the body. In free space there is no magnetization so
 
B
∇ × H = Jf ⇒ ∇ × = Jf (6.4.10)
µo
Jf is free volume current density. If magnetization is non zero M ̸= 0 then
 
B
∇× = Jf + Jb
µo
=∇×H+∇×M
= ∇ × (H + M)
∴ B = µo (H + M) (6.4.11)

Chapter 6 130
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

If the material is linear the magnetization is proportional to the applied magnetic

field intensity

M = χm H (6.4.12)

Where χm is called magnetic susceptibility. The degree of sensitivity of a material

to applied magnetic field. Hence for liner material

B = µo (1 + χm )H
= µo µr H (6.4.13)

Where µr is called relative permeability of a material, a ratio pf permeability of a

material to permeability of free space.

6.5 Classification of Magnetic Material

As we have said earlier the spinning and rotation of electron will generate an inter-
nal magnetic field, this magnetic field is zero for many materials since the magnetic
field caused by the spinning cancel out with the magnetic field caused by rotation of
the electron. Thus kind of materials ares called dia-magnetic material. They have
almost zero response to applied magnetic field with µr ≲ 1. For some materials
the internal magnetic field will not cancel out totally. Depending on the strength
of the internal magnetic field these materials are classified as Para-magnetic µr ≳ 1
and ferromagnetic µr >> 1. The magnetic property of both para-magnetic and
ferromagnetic material depend on temperature. They loss their magnetic property
at curie temperature. Curie temperature is different for different material. Ferro-
magnetic materials have great importance in electromagnetic circuits. They can
retain magnetism after they are removed from external magnetic field and they are
non-linear the relation B = µo µr H doesn’t work for ferromagnetic materials but
B = µo (H + M) will work.

Consider a ferromagnetic material placed in a magnetic field, the internal mag-

netic field takes some time to arrange itself with the external magnetic field. When
all the magnetos inside the material align them self with the field, the material satu-
rates. Suppose we reduce the external magnetic field intensity to zero, the magnetic
intensity inside the material reduce to zero, but the magnetic flux density inside
the material lags behind. When H becomes zero B has some value called residual
magnetism, further reducing H will eventually bring B to zero, the value of H at
which B is zero is called coercive magnetic field intensity Hc . Coercive magnetic
field intensity of a material depend on Hm and how hard the material is (material
with large µr are called hard magnetic materials). The B − H curve shown in Figure
6.5 made by magnetization of a material is called hysteresis curve (to-lag in Greek).
The curve is different for different materials. It is most often undesirable since its
the main cause of loss (as heat) in electromagnetic circuits. The hysteresis loss is
proportional to the area of the curve.

Chapter 6 131
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

B
A

Br

Bm

−Hc
O Hc Hm H

Br
E

Figure 6.5: Schematic of hysteresis curve

6.6 Magnetic Boundary Conditions

At the boundary of two media, the magnetic field intensity and magnetic flux den-
sity must satisfy some conditions. This conditions are called magnetic boundary
conditions. To derive magnetic boundary conditions,
I
• Gauss law for magnetic field B · ds = 0 and
I
• Amperes Circuit law H · dl = Ienclosed

Consider a boundary between two mediums as shown in Figure 6.6, applying Gauss
law for electromagnetic field at the boundary,
I
B · ds = 0

− B1n ∆s + B2n ∆s = 0
∴ B1n = B2n ⇒ µr1 H1n = µr2 H2n (6.6.1)
Thus the normal component of magnetic flux density is continuous at the boundary.

If we apply Amperes circuit law at the boundary,

I
H · dl = Ienclosed
∆h ∆h ∆h ∆h
H1t ∆w + H1n + H2n − H2t ∆w − H2n − H1n = K∆w
2 2 2 2
(H1t − H2t )∆w = K∆w
∴ H1t − H2t = Kan12 (6.6.2)
In general, if an12 is a unit vector pointing from medium 1 to medium 2,
H1 − H2 = Kan12 (6.6.3)
If the current density is zero between the mediums
B1t B2t
H1t = H2t ⇒ = (6.6.4)
µ1 µ1

Chapter 6 132
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

H 2t r 2
H 2n
H2
h S an 2
2

w B2
B1 h
S
H1 1
H1n
r1
an1
H1t

Figure 6.6: Magnetic boundary condition

Thus the tangential component of magnetic flux intensity is continuous at the bound-
ary for current free boundary.
We can determine refraction law for magnetic field the same way we have deter-
mined refraction law for electric field. If the magnetic field intensity in medium one
made an angle θ1 and that of medium two made an angle θ2 with the boundary, the
refraction law for magnetic field is:
H1t H2t H1 sin θ1 H2 sin θ2
= ⇔ =
H1n H2n µ1 H1 cos θ1 µ2 H2 cos θ2
tan θ1 tan θ2 tan θ1 µ1
= ⇔ = (6.6.5)
µ1 µ2 tan θ2 µ2

6.7 Magnetic Energy

Consider N number of turn coil wrapped on a closed rectangular magnetic bar as
shown in Figure 6.7 which is called magnetic circuit. The magnetic field ϕ created
by the current flowing through the loop create a magnetic flux that circulate through
the magnetic bar.
If the current flowing through a coil changes, the coil will generate a magnetic field
that oppose the change in current in the coil. The property of a coil that opposes
any change of current flowing through the coil is known as inductance. A current
will flow in a coil when it is connected across the source. The flux will be associated
due to this current. Therefore, the inductance is defined as the flux linkage per unit
current. Mathematically, it can be expressed as:
Nϕ
L= (6.7.1)
I
The SI unit of inductance is Henry (H) and the symbol of inductors is L. The
magnetic energy stored in an inductor is given by:
1
Wm = LI 2 (6.7.2)
2

Chapter 6 133
 Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

Fig. 6.28 A simple magnetic

circuit

l φ
I A

The value of the magnetic flux density will decrease if the value of the magnetic
Figure 6.7: Magnetic boundary condition
field intensity is reduced. The complete hysteresis curve will be obtained if this
process is continued. The hysteresis curve normally varies in shape from one material
The magnetic flux created by a current element circulate around the surface that
the current passes through. If we have a current flowing in a volume along y − axis
the flux created by the current circulate on x − z plane as shown in Figure 6.8.

az

ax

Ky dz
dx dy
ay

Figure 6.8: Energy stored in magnetic field

The differential magnetic flux through the face of the cube perpendicular to the
current direction is:

∆φ = B∆x∆z (6.7.3)

the change in current I through the same face is:

∆I = H∆y (6.7.4)

The change in inductance of the cube due to the change in current ∆I is given as
µH∆x∆z
∆L = (6.7.5)
∆I

Chapter 6 134
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

Combining these equations the change in magnetic energy stored of the cube is give
as:
1
∆Wm = (∆L)(∆I)2
2
1 µH∆x∆z
= (I∆y)2
2 I∆y
1
= µH2 ∆x∆y∆z (6.7.6)
2
The magnetic field energy density per unit volume wm is:
∆Wm
wm = lim
∆ν→0 ∆ν
1 1
wm = µH2 = B · H (6.7.7)
2 2

6.8 Examples
1. A charged particle of mass m=1kg and charge Q=2C start at the origin with
zero initial velocity in a region E = 3az V /m. Find

(a) The force on the particle.

(b) The time it takes to reach point (0,0,12m).
(c) Its velocity and acceleration at P.
(d) Its kinetic energy at P.

Solution

(a) Force on the particle

F = EQ = 3V /m × 2Caz = 6N az

(b) Acceleration of the particle

F
a= = 6m/s2 az
m
(c) Time required to reach (0,0,12m)
1
S = vo t + at2
2
1
12m = (6m/s2 )t2 ⇒ t = 2sec
2
(d) Velocity at P

vf = vo + at = 12m/s

(e) Kinetic energy at P

1
Ke = mv2f = 72J
2

Chapter 6 135
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

2. Uniform E and B fields are oriented at the right angles to each other. An
electron moves with a speed of 8 × 106 m/s at right angle to both field and
passes undeflected through the field. If the magnitude of B=0.5mW b/m2 find
the value of E. Will this filter work for both positive and negative charges
having any value of mass?

Solution

The term ”electron is undeflected” shows that the net force on the electron is
zero, hence:

Fe = −Fm ⇒ EQ = −Q(u × B)
E = −|u||B| sin α = −(0.5mW b/m2 ) × (8 × 106 m/s) = −4Kv/m

3. A rectangular coil of area 10cm2 is carrying a current of 50A lines on a plane

2x + 6y − 3z = 7, such that the magnetic moment of the coil is directed away
from the origin. Calculate its magnetic moment.

Solution

m = ISan
∇f (x, y, z) 2ax + 6ay − 3az
an = =
|∇f (x, y, z)| 49
2ax + 6ay − 3az
m = (50A) × 0.001m2 ×
49
0.1ax + 0.3ay − 0.15az 2
= Am
49

4. In a certain region with µ = 4µo , B = 10e−y 2

az mW b/m , find χm , H and M.

Solution

χm = µr − 1 = 4 − 1 = 3
B 10e−y mW b/m2
H= = az = 1.989e−y × 103 A/maz
µ 4µo
30e−y mW b/m2
M = χm H = az = 5.968e−y × 103 A/maz
4µ

5. An electron with velocity u = (3ax + 12ay − 4az ) × 105 m/s experience no net
force at a point in a magnetic field B = 10ax + 20ay + 30az mW b/m2 . Find E
at that point.

Solution

E = −u × B = −(44ax − 13ay − 60az )KV /m

Chapter 6 136
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

6. Region 1 described by 3x + 4y ≥ 10 is free space where as region 2 described

by 3x + 4y ≤ 10 is a magnetic material with µ = 10µo . Assuming that
the boundary between the material and free space is current free, find B2 if
B1 = 0.1ax + 0.4ay + 0.2az W b/m2 .

Solution

The normal to the surface is:

3ax + 4ay
an = = 0.6ax + 0.8ay
5
hence the normal component and tangential component of B1 are

B1n = (B1 · an )an = 0.38W b/m2 (0.6ax + 0.8ay ) = (0.228ax + 0.304ay )W b/m2
B1t = B1 − B1n = (−0.128ax + 0.096ay + 0.2az )W b/m2

From this , the normal component of magnetic field density is continuous

hence:

B2n = B1n = (0.228ax + 0.304ay )W b/m2

The tangential component of magnetic field intensity is continuous if the

boundary is current free, since we have no information about the current in
the region we assume that is is current free, hence:
µ2
H2t = H1t ⇒ B2t = B1t
µ1
B2t = 10(−0.128ax + 0.096ay + 0.2az )W b/m2 = −1.28ax + 0.96ay + 2az W b/m3

Which implies that

B2 = B2n + B2t = −1.052ax + 1.264ay + 2az W b/m2

7. In a ferromagnetic material (µ = 4.5µo ) B = 4yaz mW b/m2 , calculate χm , H,

M and Jb .

Solution

χm = µr − 1 = 4.5 − 1 = 3.5
B 4ymW b/m2
H= = az = 0.88944y × 103 A/maz
µ 4.5µo
14ymW b/m2
M = χm H = az = 3.11y × 103 A/maz
4.5µ
Jb = ∇ × M = 3.11 × 103 A/max

Chapter 6 137
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

8. Give B = 6xax + 9yay + 3zaz W b/m2 , find the force experienced by rectangular
loop carrying I = 10A current on z=0 plane as shown in Figure 6.9.

2
3
4 2
1
1

0 1 2 3 x

Figure 6.9: Problem 8

Solution

The net force on the loop is the sum of the the force experienced by the
each segment of the loop. Hence:
Z 3 Z 3
F1 = Idl × B = 10A dxax × (6xax + 9yay + 3zaz W b/m2 )
1 1
Z 3
= 10A (9yaz − 3zaz W b/m2 )dx = 90y(3 − 1) = 180N az
Z 2 1 Z 2
F2 = Idl × B = 10A dyay × (6xax + 9yay + 3zaz W b/m2 )
1 1
Z 2
= 10A (−6xaz + 3zaz W b/m2 )dy = −60x(2 − 1) = −180N az
Z 1 1 Z 1
F3 = Idl × B = 10A dxax × (6xax + 9yay + 3zaz W b/m2 )
3 3
Z 3
= 10A (9yaz − 3zaz W b/m2 )dx = 90y(1 − 3) = −360N az
Z 1 1 Z 1
F2 = Idl × B = 10A dyay × (6xax + 9yay + 3zaz W b/m2 )
2 2
Z 1
= 10A (−6xaz + 3zaz W b/m2 )dy = −60x(1 − 2) = 60N az
2
F = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4
= 180N az − 180N az − 360N az + 60N az = −300N az

Chapter 6 138
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

9. If µ = 2µo for a region 1, 0 < ϕ < π and µ = 5µo for region 2, π < ϕ < 2π and
B2 = 10aρ +15aϕ −20az mW b/m2 calculate B1 and energy density in the media.

Solution

The normal to the surface is:

an = aϕ

hence the normal component and tangential component of B2 are,

B2n = (B2 · an )an = 15aϕ mW b/m2

B2t = B2 − B2n = 10aρ − 20az mW b/m2

From this , the normal component of magnetic field density is continuous

hence:

B1n = B2n = 15aϕ mW b/m2

The tangential component of magnetic field intensity is continuous if the

boundary is current free, since we have no information about the current in
the region we assume that is is current free, hence:
µ1
H1t = H2t ⇒ B1t = B2t
µ2
B1t = 0.4(10aρ − 20az )mW b/m2 = (4aρ − 8az )mW b/m2

Which implies that

B1 = B1n + B1t = (4aρ + 15aϕ − 8az )mW b/m2

The energy density in the region is:

1 1
we = |B2 | = |B1 | = 2.143KJ/m3
2µ2 2µ1

10. The interface between two media 4x − 5z = 0 between two media carries a
current 35ay A/m if H1 = 25ax − 30ay + 45az A/m in the region 1 4x − 5z ≤ 0
where µr = 5 calculate H2 in region 2 4x − 5z ≥ 0 with µr = 10.

Solution

The normal to the surface is:

an = 0.625ax − 0.781az

hence the normal component and tangential component of H1 are:

H1n = (H1 · an )an = 31.73ax − 39.65az A/m

H1t = H1 − H1n = −6.73ax − 30ay + 84.65A/m

Chapter 6 139
 Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

From this , the tangential component of magnetic field intensity in the presence
of current density K at the boundary of the two region is:
H1t − H2t = K ⇒ H2t = −41.73ax − 30ay + 84.65az A/m
The normal component of magnetic field density is continuous,
µ1
B1n = B2n ⇒ H2n = H1n
µ2
H2n = 15.865ax − 19.825az A/m

502
Which implies that 9 Magnetic Materials and Properties

H =H
2
9.7 Interface Conditions for Ferromagnetic1n + H = −25.865a − 30a + 64.825a A/m
1t
Media. The relativex permeability
y of a large,z flat piece of ferromagnetic

material is 100. If the magnetic field intensity in the iron must be at 60 to the surface, what must be the direction of the
11. A
magnetic two-layer
field intensity at magnetic
the surface ofsheet ispiece
the iron made as Assume
in air? shownthere
in Figure 9.62.onEach
are no currents sheet is
the interfaces.
9.8 Interfaced[m] thick.andPermeabilities
Conditions are µ1 =
Flux Density. A two-layer µo , µ2sheet
magnetic = 200µ o , as
is made µ3shown
= 50µ o , and9.62.
in Figure µ4 Each
= µosheet
. is
o
A Permeabilities
d [m] thick. magnetic flux are μ1density
¼ μ0, μ2 in material
¼ 200μ (1) is given at 30 to the normal and of
0, μ3 ¼ 50μ0, and μ4 ¼ μ0. A magnetic flux density in material (1) is

magnitude
given at 30 to the normalB=0.01
and of magnitude B ¼ 0.01 T.
T. Calculate the magnetic
Calculate flux density
the magnetic flux density(magnitude
(magnitude andand
direction)
in materials (2), (3) and (4).
direction) in materials (2), (3) and (4).

(1) (2) (3) (4)

30
B μ2 μ3 μ4
μ1
d d

Figure 9.62
Figure 6.10: Problem 11

Inductance
Solution
9.9 Application: Self- and Mutual Inductances of Coils. A coil is wound uniformly in the form of a torus (see
Figure 9.63). A long solenoid, of radius a < b [m] and n turns per unit length, is inserted in the central hole of the
The components of magnetic field density are,
torus. Calculate:
(a) The self-inductance of the toroidal coil.B = B cos 30 = 0.00866T
1t
(b) The self-inductance per unit length of the solenoid.
B1n coil
(c) The mutual inductance between the toroidal = Bandsinthe30solenoid.
= 0.005T
Since the normal component of magnetic field density is continuous at bound-
ary, μ1
d d
B2n = B3n = B4n = B1n = B sin 30 =
μ
0.005T
a
b b 0

The tangential N
component in each region is:
μ1 µ2
B2t = B1t = 1.732T c
µ1
Figure 9.63 µ3
B3t = B2t = 0.433T
µ2
µ4 Three coils are wound on a toroidal core with properties and
9.10 Application: Self- and Mutual Inductances of Coils.
B4tb =
dimensions as shown in Figure 9.64. Assume –a B > a and calculate:
and=b 0.00866T
a 3t
µ3
(a) The self-inductance of coils (1), (2), and (3).
(b) TheThe
mutual magnetic
inductancesfield density
between inand
coils (1) each
(2), region
between is:
coils (2) and (3), and between coils (1) and (3).

B2 = 0.005an + 1.732at T, B3 = 0.005an + 0.433cat T, B4 = 0.005an + 0.00866at T

b I3
N3 b
Chapter 6 I1 a 140
N1
a
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

6.9 Exercises
1. The field B = −2ax +3ay +4az mT is present in free space. Find the vector force
exerted on a straight wire carrying 12A in the aAB direction given A(1,1,1)
and, B(2,1,1) and, B(3,5,6).

2. Two differential current elements I1 dl1 = 23 × 10−6 ay A.m at P1 (1, 0, 0) and

I2 dl2 = 23 × 10−6 (−0.5ax + 0.4ay + 0.3az )A.m are located in free space, Find
the vector exerted on:

(a) I2 dl2 by I1 dl1

(b) I1 dl1 by I2 dl2 .

3. A conducting filamentary triangle joints A(3,1,1) B(5,4,2) and C(1,2,4). The

segment AB caries a current of 0.2A in aAB direction. There is a present a
magnetic field B = 0.2ax − 0.1ay + 0.3az T . Find:

(a) the force on segment BC;

(b) the force on the triangular loop;
(c) the torque on the loop about an origin at A;
(d) the torque on the loop about an origin at C.

4. Find the magnetization in a material where:

(a) µ = 1.8 × 10−5 H/m and H =120 A/m,

(b) µr = 22 there are 8.3×1022 atoms/m3 , and each atom has a dipole moment
of 45 × 10−27 A.m2 , and
(c) B = 300µT and χm = 15.

5. The magnetization in a material for which χm = 8 is given in a certain region

as 150z 2 ax A/m. At z=4cm find the magnitude of: JT , J, and Jb .

6. A point charge, Q = 0.3µC and m = 3 × 10−16 kg, is moving through the field
E = 30az V /m. Develop the appropriate differential equations and solve them,
subject to the initial conditions at t=0: ui = 3 × 105 ax m/s at the origin. At
t = 3µs, find:

(a) the position P(x, y, z) of the charge,

(b) the velocity u,
(c) the kinetic energy of the charge.

7. 9.3 A point charge for which Q = 2 × 10−16 C and m = 5 × 10−26kg is moving

in the combined fields E = 100ax − 200ay + 300az V /m and B = −3ax + 2ay −
az mT . If the charge velocity at t = 0 is u(0) = (2ax − 3ay − 4az )105 m/s:

(a) give the unit vector showing the direction in which the charge is acceler-
ating at t=0.
(b) find the kinetic energy of the charge at t=0.

Chapter 6 141
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

8. A rectangular loop of wire in free space joins points A (1, 0, 1) to B(3, 0, 1)

to C(3, 0, 4) to D(1,0,4) to A. The wire carries a current of 6 mA, flowing in
the az direction from B to C. A filamentary current of 15 A flows along the
entire z axis in the az direction.

(a) Find F on side BC.

(b) Find F on side AB.
(c) Find Ftotal on the loop.

9. Two infinitely long parallel filaments each carry 50 A in the az direction. If

the filaments lie in the plane y=0 and x=5 mm, find the vector force per meter
length on the filament passing through the origin.

10. Assume that an electron is describing a circular orbit of radius a about a

positively charged nucleus.

(a) By selecting an appropriate current and area, show that the equivalent
orbital dipole moment is ea2 ω/2, where ω is the electron‘s angular veloc-
ity.
(b) Show that the torque produced by a magnetic field parallel to the plane
of the orbit is ea2 ωB/2.
(c) By equating the Coulomb and centrifugal forces, show that ω is (4πϵo me a3 /e2 )−1/2 ,
where me is the electron mass.
(d) Find values for the angular velocity, torque, and the orbital magnetic
moment for a hydrogen atom, where a is about 6 × 10−11 m; let B = 0.5T .

11. The hydrogen atom described in Prob. 10 is now subjected to a magnetic field
having the same direction as that of the atom. Show that the forces caused
by B result in a decrease of the angular velocity byeB/(2me ) and a decrease
in the orbital moment by e2 a2 B/(4me ) . What are these decreases for the
hydrogen atom in parts per million for an external magnetic flux density of
0.5 T

12. Given a material for which χm = 3.1 and within which B = 0.4yaz T , find: H,
µ, µr , M, J, Jb and JT .

13. Find the magnitude of the magnetization in a material for which: (a) the
magnetic flux density is 0.02W b/m2 ; (b) the magnetic field intensity is 1200
A/m and the relative permeability is 1.005; (c) there are 7.2 × 1028 atoms
per cubic meter, each having a dipole moment of 4 × 10−30 Am2 in the same
direction, and the magnetic susceptibility is 0.0003.

14. Point P(2,3,1) lies on the planar boundary separating region 1 from region 2.
The unit vector aN 12 = 0.6ax + 0.48ay + 0.64az is directed from region 1 to
region 2. Let µr1 = 2, µr2 = 8, and H1 = 100ax − 300ay + 200az A/m. Find
H2 .

Chapter 6 142
Chapter 7

Introduction to Time Varying EM

Field and Maxwell Equations

7.1 Time Varying Electric field

d
Consider a positive charge +Q located at on z-axis and negative charge −Q located
2
−d
at on z-axis. If the charges are moving on y − z plane in a sinusoidal path along
2
x-axis. The electric field intensity between the two charges changes from maximum
value to zero and then flip its direction and repeat the same sequence over again as
shown in Figure 7.1. The field created by the motion of the two charges varies with
time hence it is time varying.

+Q

-Q

Figure 7.1: Time varying electric field intensity

As we can understand from the Figure the field has wave like property and it is
always perpendicular to the axis of propagation. The wave moves on y − z plane
the same plane on which the charges move on.

143
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

7.2 Time Varying Magnetic field

Consider a current carrying segment placed on z axis. If we apply alternating current
to the line segment, the magnetic field intensity created by the line segment changes
is direction and magnitude. Based on Biot-Savart law
Idl × ar
Z
1
H= (7.2.1)
4π R

Time varying electric field

Time varying magnetic field
z-axis

AC

y-axis
x-axis

Figure 7.2: Magnetic field due to alternating current

This shows that alternating current will create alternating magnetic field intensity
and alternating electric field intensity which are both perpendicular to the axis of
propagation.

The time varying magnetic field intensity has wave like property and it is always
perpendicular to the axis of propagation like time varying electric field intensity.
But the magnetic field intensity created by the current carrying segment is per-
pendicular the plane on which the alternating current is propagating on. Hence if
the alternating current is propagating on y-z plane along y axis the magnetic field
intensity will propagate on x-y plane along y axis as shown in figure 7.2.

7.3 Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction

If a time varying magnetic field link with a conductor (Assume a conductor is placed
in a time varying magnetic field) a current will be induced in the conductor. The
current induced has a direction that oppose the change in the field linking with the
conductor. The induced electromotive force in the conductor is equal to the rate of
change of the flux linkage φ.
dφ
Vemf = − (7.3.1)
dt
This is called Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. The negative sign shows
that the electromotive force induced in the conductor oppose the change in flux
linkage which is Lenz’s law.

Chapter 7 144
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

7.4 Maxwell equations for Time varying EM field

Using Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
I
dφ
Vemf = − = E · dl (7.4.1)
dt
I
but φ = B · ds (the total flux linking the conductor is equal to the net flux
through the closed surface around the conductor). Hence:
I
dφ
− = E · dl
dt
I I
∂B
E · dl = − · ds (7.4.2)
∂t
Applying Stokes’s theorem
Z I
∂B
∇ × E · ds = − · ds
∂t
∂B
⇒∇×E=− (7.4.3)
∂t
This shows that time varying electrostatic field intensity is non conservative, hence
it cannot be expressed as gradient of scalar field. But the important thing we can
conclude from this equation is that a time varying magnetic field will induce electric
field and vise verse. The two field travel perpendicular to the axis of propagation
and perpendicular to each other as shown in Figure 7.3.

Time varying electric field

Time varying magnetic field
z-axis

y-axis

x-axis

Figure 7.3: Time varying electromagnetic field

from amperes circuit law that ∇ × H = J and from current continuity equation
∂ρν
∇·J = − . But if we take the divergence of curl of magnetic field intensity H
∂t
must be zero because a divergence of a curl of any vector field is zero. Which leads
to a controversy between amperes circuit law and current continuity equation.
∂ρν
∇ · (∇ × H) = 0 ⇒ ∇ · J = 0 ⇎ ∇ · J = − (7.4.4)
∂t

Chapter 7 145
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

Looking at the two equations it is clear that:

∂ρv
∇ · (∇ × H) = ∇ · J + =0 (7.4.5)
∂t
otherwise it is impossible to solve the controversy. Using Gauss law for electrostatic
field ρν = ∇ · D,
∂ρv
∇·J+ = ∇ · (∇ × H)
∂t
∂(∇ · D)
∇·J+ = ∇ · (∇ × H)
∂t
∂D
∇·J+∇· = ∇ · (∇ × H)
 ∂t

∂D
∇· J+ = ∇ · (∇ × H)
∂t
∂D
⇒J+ =∇×H (7.4.6)
∂t
This shows that even though there is no current flow in the volume (J = 0), a
time varying electric field density D will give raise to magnetic field intensity. As
∂D
we define in chapter 3, is called displacement current density. Generally, even
∂t
though for time in-variant case electric field and magnetic field are independent for
time variant case they are interdependent. The existence of one will ensure that the
other will exist. Finally Maxwell equation in their general form

Table 7.1: General Forms of Maxwell’s Equations

Differential Integral Remarks

I Z
∇ · D = ρν D · ds = ρν dν Gauss Law
s ν
I
∇·B=0 B · ds = 0 Nonexistence of isolated
s magnetic charge
I Z
∂B ∂
∇×E=− E · dl = − B · ds Faraday’s Law
∂t l ∂t s
I Z  
∂D ∂D
∇×H = J+ H·dl = J+ ·ds Ampere’s Circuit Law
∂t l s ∂t

Hence we can generalize that:

• Stationary Charges create Electric Field.

• Steady current creates Magnetostatic Field.

• Time varying current create Electromagnetic Field.

Chapter 7 146
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

The four Maxwell equations combined with

• Lorentz Equation, F = Q(E + u × B)

∂ρν
• Current Continuity Equation, ∇ · J = −
∂t
will predict and explain all macroscopic electromagnetic phenomenon.
The four Maxwell equations are not all independent, the two divergence equations
can be derived from the two curl equations using current continuity equation.
 
−∂B
∇ · (∇ × E) = ∇ ·
∂t
∂
0 = − (∇ · B)
∂t
∴ ∇·B=0 (7.4.7)

In similar manner
 
∂D
∇ · (∇ × H) = ∇ · J +
∂t
 
∂D
0=∇· J+
∂t
∂ρν ∂∇ · D
0=− +
∂t ∂t
∴ ∇ · D = ρν (7.4.8)

7.5 Gauge Condition and Coulomb’s Gauge

From vector identity

∇ × B = µ(∇ × H) = µJ
∇ × B = ∇ × ∇ × A = ∇(∇ · A) − ∇2 A = µJ (7.5.1)

Since divergence has no significant physical meaning, let ∇ · A = 0. In this case the
component of vector potential satisfies Poisson’s equation. This freedom of choosing
the divergence of vector potential is called gauge condition. Specifically selecting
∇ · A = 0 is known as Coulomb’s gauge. The notion behind gauge condition is if we
select an arbitrary vector potential, we can reach a new vector potential that satisfy
the Coulomb’s gauge condition by suitable transformation.

Let us select a vector potential with non zero divergence, we can add a gradient
of scalar field to this vector without affecting it. Hence:
′
A = A + ∇f
′
∇ · A = ∇ · A + ∇ · ∇f (7.5.2)
′
by gauge condition ∇ · A = 0 hence selecting ∇2 f such that −∇2 f = ∇ · A the
arbitrary vector potential will satisfy Coulomb’s gauge.

Chapter 7 147
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

7.6 Wave Equations for Electromagnetic field

From the discussions in previous sections , time varying electric field will induce
magnetic field and vise verse and this field will have some wave form. In this section
we will derive the wave equation for electromagnetic field.

7.6.1 Wave equation for EM field vector potential

For time varying electric field
∂B ∂
∇×E=− = − (∇ × A)
  ∂t ∂t
∂A
∇× E+ = 0 = −∇ × ∇V
∂t
∂A
E+ = − ∇V
∂t  
∂A
∴ E = − ∇V + (7.6.1)
∂t
Electric field intensity at any point is the sum of electric field intensity due to charge
∂A
distribution −∇V and electric field intensity due to time varying current .
∂t
Combining relation between magnetic field density and magnetic vector potential
B=∇×A (7.6.2)
electric field intensity and electric flux density
 
∂A
D = ϵE = −ϵ ∇V + (7.6.3)
∂t
and
∂D
∇×H=J+ (7.6.4)
∂t
leading to,
∂D
∇ × ∇ × A = µJ + µ
∂t  
2 ∂ ∂A
∇(∇ · A) − ∇ A = µJ − µϵ ∇V +
∂t ∂t
∂V ∂ 2A
∇(∇ · A) − ∇2 A = µJ − µϵ∇ − µϵ 2 (7.6.5)
∂t ∂t
rearranging the equation:
∂ 2A
 
∂V
∇ ∇ · A + µϵ = µJ + ∇2 A − µϵ (7.6.6)
∂t ∂t
∂V
Selecting gauge condition ∇ · A + µϵ = 0,
∂t
∂ 2A
∇2 A − µϵ = −µJ (7.6.7)
∂t

Chapter 7 148
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

Equation 7.6.7 is called non-homogeneous wave equation for EM field vector poten-
1
tial A. The wave is traveling with velocity √ . The speed of electromagnetic wave
µϵ
1
in free space is exactly equal to the speed of light, √ = c.
µo ϵo

7.6.2 Wave equation for EM field scalar potential

In similar way
 
∂A
E = − ∇V +
∂t
 
∂A
∇ · E = − ∇ · ∇V + (7.6.8)
∂t
∂V
Using the relation ∇ · D = ρν and gauge condition ∇ · A + µϵ = 0,
∂t
 
ρν ∂A
= − ∇ · ∇V +
ϵ ∂t
 
ρν 2 ∂ ∂V
− =∇ V + µϵ
ϵ ∂t ∂t
V
∂ ρν
∇2 V + µϵ 2 = − (7.6.9)
∂t ϵ
Equation 7.6.9 is called non-homogeneous wave equation for EM field scalar potential
V . The wave equations reduce to Poisson’s equations in static cases. The wave is
1
traveling with velocity √ .
µϵ

7.7 Energy Carried by Electromagnetic Waves

The energy density carried by electromagnetic waves in free space is the sum of the
energy density carried by field and the energy density carried by the magnetic field.
Hence:

wem = we + wm
1 1 2
= ϵo E2 + B (7.7.1)
2 2µo
Since both energy propagate at same frequency their contribution is equal (ı.e we =
wm ), hence:
1 1 2
ϵo E2 = B
2 2µo
1
E= √ B ⇒ B = cE (7.7.2)
ϵo µo
Hence the energy density carried by electromagnetic field is:
1 2
wem = ϵo E2 ⇔ B (7.7.3)
µo

Chapter 7 149
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

7.8 Gauge Freedom

For time varying magnetic field, the relation between magnetic field density and
magnetic vector potential is:

∇×A=B (7.8.1)

with gauge transformation if A changes to A + ∇f magnetic flux density B will not

change. Because,

∇ × (A + ∇f ) = B
∇ × A + ∇ × ∇f = B
∇×A=B (7.8.2)

For time varying electric field if A changes to A + ∇f ,

∂A
E = − ∇V −
∂t
∂A ∂f
E = − ∇V − +∇
 ∂t  ∂t
∂f ∂A
E=−∇ V + − (7.8.3)
∂t ∂t

∂f
So, if V further changes to V − then E will also unchanged. Thus E and B fields
∂t
are unchanged if we take any function f simultaneously on vector potential A and
scalar potential V via
∂f
A=A+ (7.8.4)
∂t
∂f
V =V − (7.8.5)
∂t
This is called Gauge in-variance. The with gauge in-variance gauge condition can
be converted to a wave equation.
∂V
∇ · A + µϵ =0
   ∂t
∂f ∂ ∂f
∇· A+ + µϵ V − =0
∂t ∂t ∂t
∂ 2f
 
∂V
∇ · A + µϵ + ∇2 f − µϵ =0
∂t ∂t
∂ 2f
∴ ∇2 f − µϵ =0 (7.8.6)
∂t
1
Equation 7.8.6 is a wave equation traveling at velocity √ .
µϵ

Chapter 7 150
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

7.9 Examples
1. If electric field intensity has a frequency of 93kHz what is the frequency of its
corresponding magnetic field.

Solution
Both electric field and magnetic field travel with same frequency since they
entangled, so the frequency of magnetic field is 93kHz.

2. If the rms value of magnetic field density in some region is 7 × 10−9 T what is
the rms value of the electric field intensity in the region?

Solution

Erms = cBrms
Erms = (3 × 108 m/s) × (7 × 10−9 T )
Erms = 0.21V /m

3. If we vibrate a water molecule at 2.4GHz frequency the water will boil. What
amount of energy density is required?

Solution
1 1 2
wt = ϵo E2 + B
2 2µo
1
wt = ϵo E2 = B2
µo

4. Derive an expression for electromagnetic field intensity.

Solution

Let the electromagnetic field intensity be S, which is defined as total elec-

tromagnetic field power per unit area. Hence:

Wt /t wt ν
S= =
A At
Where t is time in seconds, A area and ν is volume. Since, ν = Al and the
distance the light wave moves in time t seconds is l = ct. Hence:
wt Act
S= = wt c
At 
1 2 1 2
=c ϵo E + B
2 2µo
c
= cϵo E2 = B2
µo

Chapter 7 151
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

5. Given an electric field in EM field has 21.7 × 10−3 V /m, what is the average
rate at which this wave carries energy across unit area per unit time.

Solution

The intensity of the field is S = cϵo E2 , and rate of change of energy is power
P . Hence:
P
S=
A
= (3 × 103 m/s)ϵo × (21.7 × 10−3 V /m)2 = 1.25 × 10−6 W/m2
Sav = 0.5Smax = 6.25 × 10−7 W/m2

6. What is the total output power of a sun?

Solution

The electromagnetic field intensity at earth surface due to our Sun is 1390W/m2 .
The total power of or is:
P
S= = 1390W/m2
A
P = SA

The area A is the surface of the sphere enclosing the Sun at distance equal to
the distance from earth to the sun Re = 1.5 × 1011 m. Hence:

P = 1390W/m2 × (4πRe2 ) = 3.93 × 1026 W

7.10 Exercises
1. Given the time-varying magnetic field B = (0.5ax + 0.6ay − 0.3az ) cos 5000tT
and a square filamentary loop with its corners at (2,3,0), (2,-3,0), (-2,3,0), and
(-2,-3,0), find the time-varying current flowing in the general aϕ direction if
the total loop resistance is 400kΩ.

2. Given H = 300az cos(3 × 108 t − y)A/m in free space, find the emf developed
in the general aϕ direction about the closed path having corners at:

(a) (0,0,0), (1,0,0), (1,1,0), and (0,1,0),

(b) (0,0,0) (2π, 0, 0), (2π, 2π, 0), (0, 2π, 0).

3. A square filamentary loop of wire is 25 cm on a side and has a resistance of

125Ω per meter length. The loop lies in the z=0 plane with its corners at
(0,0,0), (0.25,0,0), (0.25,0.25,0), and (0,0.25,0) at t=0. The loop is moving
with a velocity uy = 50m/s in the field Bz = 8 cos(1.5 × 108 t − 0.5x)µT .
Develop a function of time which expresses the ohmic power being delivered
to the loop.

Chapter 7 152
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

4. (a) Show that the ratio of the amplitudes of the conduction current density
and the displacement current density is σ/ωϵ for the applied field E =
Em cos ωt. Assume µ = µo .
(b) What is the amplitude ratio if the applied field is E = Em et/τ , where τ
is real?

5. Let the internal dimensions of a coaxial capacitor be a=1.2 cm, b =4 cm, and
l=40 cm. The homogeneous material inside the capacitor has the parameters
ϵ10−11 F/m, µ = 10−5 H/m, and σ = 10−5 S/m. If the electric field intensity is
E106 /ρ cos 105 aρ V /m, find:

(a) J;
(b) the total conduction current Ic through the capacitor;
(c) the total displacement current Id through the capacitor;
(d) the ratio of the amplitude of Id to that of Ic , the quality factor of the
capacitor.

6. Let µ = 3 × 10−5 H/m,1.2 × 10−10 F/m, and σ = 0 everywhere. If H =

2 cos(1010 t − βx)az A/m, use equations to obtain expressions for B, D, E, and
β.
1
7. Faraday‘s law was used to show that the field E = − kBo ekt aϕ results from
2
the changing magnetic field B = Bo ekt az .

(a) Show that these fields do not satisfy Maxwell‘s other curl equation.
(b) If we let Bo = 1T and k = 106 S −1 , we are establishing a fairly large
magnetic flux density in 1µs. Use the ∇ × H equation to show that
the rate at which Bz should (but does not) change with ρ is only about
5 × 10−6 T per meter in free space at t=0.

8. Point C(0.1, 0.2, 0.3) lies on the surface of a perfect conductor. The electric
field intensity at C is (500ax − 300ay + 600az ) cos 107 tV /m, and the medium
surrounding the conductor is characterized by µr = 5, ϵ4 = 10, and σ = 0.

(a) Find a unit vector normal to the conductor surface at C, if the origin lies
within the conductor.
(b) Find the surface charge density at C.

9. Given the fields V = 80z cos x cos(3 × 108 tkV and A = 26.7z sin x sin 3 ×
108 tax mW b/m in free space, find E and H.

10. In a region where µr = ϵr = 1 and σ = 0, the time varying potentials given by

z ϵo
V = x(z|ct)V and A = x( − t)az W b/m, where c =
x µo
∂V
(a) Show that ∇ × A = −µϵ
∂t
(b) Find B, H, E, and D.
(c) Show that these results satisfy Maxwell‘s equations if J and ρν are zero.

Chapter 7 153
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

11. The electric field amplitude of a uniform plane wave propagate in the az di-
rection is 250 V/m. If E = Ex ax and ω = 1M rad/s, find the frequency, the
amplitude, the wave length and the period of H.

Chapter 7 154
Daniel Abebe Electromagnetic Field Lecture Note

7.11 Why you should know about EMF

You will answer the following question in your future courses related to electromag-
netic field,

1. Determine electromagnetic field intensity due to 15kV transmission line on the

ground.

2. Determine electromagnetic field intensity below telecommunication tower.

3. Determine electromagnetic field intensity due to your phone in 1m radius.

4. Determine electromagnetic field intensity required to lift a commercial train.

Chapter 7 155
Appendices

i
Previous Exams

A Quiz-1
Read carefully and Answer all Questions.
1
1. In a dielectric material Ex = 5V /m and P = (3a +a +4az )nC/m2 . Cal-
10π x y
culate electric susceptibility, electric field intensity and electric flux density.
(2 marks)

2. For vector field

B = (x2 + y 2 )ax + yz 2 xay + x3 zaz
find total flux through a 2 unit cube placed at origin. What does your result
imply about vector B? (2 marks)

3. Find a maximum circulation of vector field

C = ρ sin(ϕ)aρ + ρ2 az

around 2 unit radius circle placed at origin in x − y plane. What does your
result imply about vector field C? (2 marks)

4. Consider vector field A = 4βax + αay + 2γ 2 az , where α, β and γ are constants.

(a) Show that ∇ × A = 0 and explain briefly what this imply about vector
field A. (0.75 mark)
(b) Show that ∇ · A is always zero and explain briefly what this imply about
vector field A. (0.75 mark)
(c) What would you conclude about vector field A from 4a and 4b ? (0.5
mark)

5. Assume you are an astronaut in space moving to Mars. Suppose the solar glare
has distribution f (x, y, z) = 2x2 y 2 z between our home (Earth) and Mars. In
which direction you have to move in order to avoid the solar glare at (−1, 1, 2)
in direction of vector field B on question 2. (2 marks)

ii
B Quiz-2
Read carefully and Answer all Questions.

1. Explain briefly why electric field inside conductor placed in an external electric
field is zero and state the application area of this phenomenon. (1 marks)

2. List the possible current densities that can occur in a material and explain
briefly how they occur.(1.5 marks)
1
3. In a dielectric material Ey = 0.5V /m and P = (3a +ay +4az )nC/m2 .
36π x
Calculate electric susceptibility, electric field intensity and electric flux density.
(3 marks)

4. Given region one x < 1 contain dielectric for ϵr1 = 2, region two x > 1 with
ϵr2 = 4. Let E1 = −50ax + 40ay + 30az V /m find D2 , P2 , the angle E1 and
E2 makes with the surface normal. From the calculated angles what do you
conclude about the two mediums? (4.5 marks)

C Quiz-3
Read carefully and Answer all Questions.

1. Explain what electric field shielding means and the underlying principle for
electric field shielding. (1 marks)

2. Define the three electrical properties of a material? (1.5 marks)

3. An electric field intensity in certain region is E = 3ax + 4ay V /m if the region

is filled with polystyrene (ϵr = 2.55), find electric field intensity, polarization
and bounded surface charge density. (3 marks)

4. Given region one z < −3x + 4y contain dielectric for ϵr = 2.5, region two
z > −3x + 4y with ϵ2 = 4. Let E1 = −30ax + 50ay + 70az V /m find D2 , P
and the angle E1 and E2 makes with the surface normal. From the calculated
angles what do you conclude about the two mediums? (4.5 marks)

iii
D Mid-Exam-1
1. Point charge Q1 = −2µC and Q2 = −4µC are placed at (3, 1, −2) and
(−1, 2, 6) respectively. Determine force on Q2 .

2. Determine charge density due to the following electric flux densities at the
given point.

a) D = (8xyax + 4x2 yay )c/m2 at (2, 5, 7).

π
b) D = (ρ sin ϕaρ + 2ρ cos ϕ2aϕ + 2zaz
2
)c/m2 at (1, , 2).
2
s cos θ sin θ π π
c) D = ( 3 ar + 3 aθ )c/m2 at (1, , ).
r r 2 4
3. Determine the work done in moving a 5nC from P (1, 2, −4) to R(3, −5, 6) in
2
an Electric field intensity E = yax + zay + 2yzaz V /m and the potential at P
and R.
1
4. In a dielectric material Ex = 5V /m and P = (3ax − yay + 4az )nC/m2 .
12π
Calculate xe , E and D.

5. x axis carries a current of I = 10A. Find a magnetic field intensity ans

magnetic density at P (3, 4, 5).

6. Derive and physical meaning of the four Maxwell equations for electrostatic
fields and magneto static fields.

iv
E Mid-Exam-2
Part I:-Read carefully and Answer all Questions. (6 marks)

1. Explain what vector fields is, what a scalar field is and give an example for
each. (2pts)

2. Does changing coordinates change the curl and divergence of a vector field?
why? (1pts)

3. In electrostatic field, Coulomb’s law is valid, if the point charges are at rest.
Explain why it is invalid when the charges are in arbitrary shape. (2 pts)

4. Comments on work done is negative in electrostatic fields. (1 pts)

Nm
Part II:-Read carefully and Answer all Questions. Use ϵo = 8.85 × 10−12
C2
(9 marks)

1. Find Electric field intensity E at (1, −1, 1), due to a point charge 200µC
located at (4, −1, −3), a line x = 1, z = 4 with charge density 4µC/m and a
plane Z = −3 having charge density 3µc/m2 . (3 pts)

2. Given a volume charge density ρv = 12ρ cos2 ϕ for 0 ≤ ρ ≤ 1 and 0 other-

wise, determine electric flux density D, Electric flux intensity E and Electric
potential V everywhere. (3 pts)

3. Determine the work done in moving a 5µC from P (−1, 2, 1) to R(3, 0, 2) in an

2
Electric field intensity E = yax + zay + 2yzaz V /m and the potential at P and
R. What does the result of the work done imply about the nature of the work
done. (2 pts)

4. Derive and state the physical meaning of the two Maxwell equations for elec-
trostatic fields. (1pts)

v
F Final Exam-1
Read carefully and Answer all Questions.

PART I-Conceptual Questions (15 mark )

1. State the ways in which force due to magnetic field can be experienced. (3
mark )

2. Explain why magnetic field intensity outside the core of the torus is zero. (2
mark )

3. Explain why a rectangular current carrying loop placed in external magnetic

field experience torque. (2 mark )

4. Derive the generalized Maxwell equations for electromagnetic field and state
their physical meaning. (8 mark )

PART II Workout Questions (35 mark )

1. A charged particle of mass m=0.5kg and charge Q=2C start at the origin with
initial velocity 2ax m/s in a region E = 3ax V /m. Find

(a) The force on the particle. (1.5 mark )

(b) The time it takes to reach point (20,0,0)m. (1.5 mark )
(c) Its velocity and acceleration at P. (1.5 mark )
(d) Its kinetic energy at P. (1.5 mark )

2. Find magnetic field intensity due to infinite line x = 1, y = 2 carries a current

I = 10πA in az direction and infinite surface z = 0 carrying 10A/m ax at
point p(2, −1, −6). (6 mark )

3. A 3cm long solenoid of radius 4mm carries a current of 400mA. If the solenoid
is to produce a magnetic flux density of B = 5πmW b/m2 at the center of the
solenoid, how many turns of wire is needed? (5 mark )

4. In a ferromagnetic material (µ = 4.5µo ) A = 3xyax + 4ya2z mW b/m, calculate

χm , H, M and Jb at (0,2,5). (7 mark )

5. An electron with velocity u = (3ax + 12ay ) × 105 m/s experience no net force at
a point in a magnetic field B = 10ax + 30az mW b/m2 . Find E at that point.
(4 mark )

6. Region 1 described by 3x + 4z ≥ 10 is free space where as region 2 described

by 3x + 4z ≤ 10 is a magnetic material with µ = 10µo . Assuming that
the boundary between the material and free space is current free, find B2 if
B1 = 5ax + 4ay + 3az W b/m2 . (7 mark )

vi
G Final Exam-2
Read carefully and Answer all Questions.

PART I-Conceptual Questions (14 mark )

1. Explain why magnetic field intensity outside the coaxial current carrying con-
ductor is zero. (2 mark )

2. Explain the difference between electrostatic force and magneto-static force

briefly. (2 mark )

3. Explain why the relation B = µr µo H doesn’t work for many magnetic mate-
rials. (2 mark )

4. Derive the four Maxwell equations for static electromagnetic fields and state
their physical meaning. (8 mark )

PART II Workout Questions (36 mark )

1. Find magnetic field intensity at point (2,-1,-1) due to a current carrying seg-
ment placed on x-axes form (1,0,0) to (4,0,0), carrying 40πA current. (Assume
the segment is a part of a circuit). (7 mark )

2. Find magnetic field intensity due to an infinite line place along z axis carrying
10πA current and current carrying with radius 1m carrying 5A current placed
at origin on x-z plane at point p(5, 0, 0). (6 mark )

3. Find a number of turn required to generate B = 50mW b/m2 at a center of a

torus with mean path ρo = 10cm, If the toroid carries a current of 100mA. (5
mark )

4. In a magnetic material, with χm = 6.5, the magnetization is M = 24ya2z A/m.

Find µr , H, and J at y =2 cm. (7 mark )

5. A 1mC charge with velocity u = 10ax + 2ay + 6az m/s enters a region where
the magnetic flux density is 25az W b/m2 . (5 mark )

(a) Calculate the force on the charge.

(b) Determine the electric field intensity necessary to make the velocity of
the charge constant.

6. Region 1 is defined by x + y + 2z > 5 with µ1 = 2µo , while region 2 is defined

by x + y + 2z < 5 with µ1 = 5µo . If H1 = 40ax + 20ay − 30az A/m, find B2 . (6
mark )

vii
H Final Exam-3
Read carefully and Answer all Questions.

PART I-Conceptual Questions (15 mark )

1. Explain how hysteresis occur in magnetic material and its effect. (3 mark )

2. Explain why magnetic field intensity between to parallel conductor carrying

current in the same direction is zero. (2 mark )

3. Explain why magnetic field cannot transfer energy. (2 mark )

4. Derive an expression for magnetic field intensity inside and outside coaxial
transmission line.(8 mark )

PART II Workout Questions (35 mark )

1. A charged particle of mass m=0.5kg and charge Q=2C start at the origin with
initial velocity 2ax m/s in a region E = 3ax + 4ay V /m. Find

(a) The force on the particle. (1.5 mark )

(b) The position of the particle at time t = 2sec. (1.5 mark )
(c) Its velocity and acceleration at time t = 2sec (1.5 mark )
(d) Its kinetic energy at time t = 2sec. (1.5 mark )

2. A selonoid with radius 1cm and length 10cm with 2000 turns carry a 50mA
current long aϕ find H at (0,0,0), (0,0,75cm) and (0,0,50cm). (5 mark )

3. The magnetic field intensity at point p(2, −1, −6) is 1.5ax + 4.5ay . If the field
intensity is caused due to infinite line at x = 1, y = 2 carries a current I =
10πA in az direction and infinite surface z = 0. Determine the current carried
by the surface. (6 mark )

4. In a ferromagnetic material (µ = 4.5µo ) B = 8yax + 3x2az mW b/m, calculate

χm , H, M and Jb at (0,2,5). (5 mark )

5. A 2nC charge with velocity u = (3ax + 12ay ) × 105 m/s experience net force
F = (0.5ax + 2ay + 4az ) × 10−3 N at a point in a magnetic field B = 10ax +
30az mW b/m2 . Find E at that point. (6 mark )

6. Region 1 described by 3x+y+4z ≥ 10 with µ = 2µo where as region 2 described

by 3x + y + 4z ≤ 10 is a magnetic material with µ = 10µo . Assuming that
the boundary between the material and free space is current free, find B2 if
H1 = 5ax + 4ay + 3az W b/m2 . (7 mark )

viii
I Final Exam-4
U seConstants :

−12 10−9
ε0 = 8.854 × 10 ≃ F/m µ0 = 4π × 10−7 H/m
36π
Part I. Answer the following questions briefly

1. Briefly describe the three types of current density depending on how they
are produced, respective equations and kind of medium. [3%]

2. Briefly discuss the effect of an applied external electric field to a dielectric

material? What happens if the electric field is increased indefinitely? [3%]

3. Write the generalized differential & integral forms of Maxwell’s equations

for electromagnetic fields. Show that electrostatic and magnetostatic fields
can be considered as special cases of these equations. [6%]

4. Explain why the magnetic force can’t perform work. [3%]

Part II. Workout Problems. Show all your work clearly.

1. A circular disk of radius a carries a uniform charge density ρS C/m2 . The disk
lies on the z = 0 plane with its axis along the z-axis.
⃗ at (0, 0, z) and (0, 0, −z).
(a) Find E
⃗ field due to an infinite sheet of charge
(b) Using the result in (a), derive the E
on the z = 0 plane.

2. A long coaxial cable shown on Figure 4 carries a uniform charge density

ρ0 C/m2 on the surface of inner conductor (radius a), and a uniform surface
a
charge density − ρ0 C/m2 on the outer cylindrical shell (radius b). [12%]
b
⃗ and electric field intensity E
(a) Find the electric flux density D ⃗ for the
following regions:
i. inside the inner conductor,
ii. between the two conductors,
iii. outside the cable.
(b) Determine V for the three regions on question (a).
(c) Determine the energy density in the inner conductor (radius ≤ a).

ix
 Figure 4: Q2

3. A rectangular loop carrying current I2 = 4 A is placed parallel to an infinitely

long filamentary wire carrying current I1 = 2 A along the z-axis as shown in
Figure 5.

(a) Determine H⃗ at point P (2, 0◦ , 0) due to the infinitely long filamentary

wire using Ampère’s circuital law.
(b) Find the force experienced by the rectangular loop? Is the net force on
the loop attractive or repulsive?

I1 I2 5m

2 4 

Figure 5: Q3

4. A 1C charge with mass m = 1 kg entered a region containing an infinite line

at x = 1, z = 1 with uniform charge density 4 nC/m and infinite line at
x = 1, z = −1 carrying a current I = 10 A with velocity u = 5ax × 105 m/s.

(a) Determine the force on the charge at any point (x, y, z).
(b) Determine the acceleration of the charge at origin.

5. Determine the capacitance of the coaxial cable in Question (2), assuming

V (ρ = a) = V0 in the inner conductor and, V (ρ = b) = 0 at the outer
conductor. Hint: Solve Laplace’s equation for the region between the two
Q
conductors and find capacitance as C = .
V0

x
 "Strive for perfection in everything you do. Take the best that
exists and make it better. When it does not exist, design it."
-Sir Henry Royce, English engineer and car designer.

Remember always! We are yesterday and you are tomorrow, work hard before you
ended up being yesterday!
Good Luck and be happy for being an Engineer!

I am very happy to address or correct any confusing concepts or something that

feels wrong. If you feel so contact me using email abebe.daniel7@gmail.com
Daniel Abebe Beyene (Science Ambassador, Lecturer at AASTU,
Electro-mechanical engineering department)
Thank you very much!!!

xi
 References

[1] M. N. Sadiku and S. Nelatury, Elements of electromagnetics. Oxford university

press New York, 2001, vol. 428.
[2] N. Ida et al., Engineering electromagnetics. Springer, 2015.
[3] M. Zahn, Electromagnetic Field Theory: a problem solving approach. Wiley,
1979.
[4] G. Mrozynski and M. Stallein, Electromagnetic field theory: A collection of
problems. Springer Science & Business Media, 2012.
[5] M. A. Salam, Electromagnetic field theories for engineering. Springer Science
& Business Media, 2014.
[6] W. H. Hayt Jr, J. A. Buck, and M. J. Akhtar, Engineering Electromagnetics—
(SIE). McGraw-Hill Education, 2020.

xii

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